View source for Akkadian language

{{Short description|Extinct Semitic language of Mesopotamia}}
{{distinguish|Acadian French}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Akkadian
| nativename       = {{lang|akk|𒀝𒅗𒁺𒌑(𒌝)}}<br />{{Transliteration|akk|Akkadû(m)}}
| altname          = Babylonian or Assyrian
| image            = P1050578 Louvre Obélisque de Manishtusu détail rwk.JPG
| imagecaption     = Akkadian language inscription on the [[Manishtushu#Manishtushu Obelisk|obelisk of Manishtushu]]
| states           = 
| region           = [[Mesopotamia]]
| era              = {{circa|2600}}–500 BC; academic or liturgical use until AD 100<ref>{{cite web|url=http://multitree.org/codes/akk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811092710/http://multitree.org/codes/akk |archive-date=11 August 2011 |title=Neo-Assyrian |access-date=2024-03-05 }}</ref>
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2             = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
| fam3             = [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]]
| dia1             = Old Akkadian<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mnamon.sns.it/index.php?page=Lingua&id=7&lang=en|title=Akkadian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/mad2.pdf|title=Old Akkadian writing and grammar|website=uchicago.edu
|author=I.J. Gelb|access-date=25 June 2023}}</ref>
| dia2             = Assyrian
| dia3             = Babylonian<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Babylonian-dialect|title=Babylonian dialect &#124; Akkadian dialect &#124; Britannica}}</ref>
| dia4             = [[Canaano-Akkadian language|Canaano-Akkadian]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tau.ac.il/~izreel/publications/CanAkkMethRequisites_2007.pdf|title=Canaano-Akkadian|website=tau.ac.il|year=2007|author=Shlomo Izre'el|access-date=25 June 2023}}</ref><ref>von Dassow, Eva, "Canaanite in Cuneiform", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 124, no. 4, pp. 641–74, 2004</ref>
| iso2             = akk
| iso3             = akk
| linglist         = akk
| glotto           = akka1240
| glottorefname    = Akkadian
| script           = [[Cuneiform|Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform]]
| nation           = Initially [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]] (central [[Mesopotamia]]); [[lingua franca]] of the [[Middle East]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] in the late [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and early [[Iron Age]]s.
| notice           = IPA
}}

'''Akkadian''' ({{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|k|eɪ|d|i|ən}} {{respell|ə|KAY|dee|ən}}; {{langx|akk|𒀝𒅗𒁺𒌑(𒌝)|translit=Akkadû(m)|links=no}})<ref>{{Cite book|title = A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&q=akkadu&pg=PA10|publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|date = 2000-01-01|isbn = 978-3-447-04264-2|first1 = Jeremy A.|last1 = Black|first2 = Andrew|last2 = George|first3 = J. N.|last3 = Postgate|page = 10|access-date = 2020-10-15|archive-date = 2021-05-11|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210511014731/https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&q=akkadu&pg=PA10|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name=":0">John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite", ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages''.  Ed. Roger D. Woodard (2004, Cambridge)  Pages 218–280</ref><ref>Huehnergard 2011: xxiii</ref><ref>George (2007: 31)</ref> was an [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic language]] that is attested in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Akkad (region)|Akkad]], [[Assyria]], [[Isin]], [[Larsa]], [[Babylonia]] and perhaps [[Dilmun]]) from the mid-[[3rd millennium BC|third millennium BC]] until its gradual replacement in common use by [[Old Aramaic language|Old Aramaic]] among Assyrians and Babylonians from the 8th century BC.

Akkadian, which is the earliest documented [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woodard |first=Roger D. |title=The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum |date=April 10, 2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-68497-2 |page=83}}</ref> is named after the city of [[Akkad (city)|Akkad]], a major centre of Mesopotamian civilization during the [[Akkadian Empire]] ({{circa|2334}}–2154 BC). It was written using the [[cuneiform script]], originally used for [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], but also used to write multiple languages in the region including [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]], [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]], [[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Old Persian]] and [[Hittite language|Hittite]]. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian went beyond just the cuneiform script; owing to their close proximity, a lengthy span of contact and the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige]] held by the former, Sumerian significantly impacted Akkadian phonology, vocabulary and syntax.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hasselbach-Andee |first=Rebecca |title=A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-119-19380-7 |page=132}}</ref> This mutual influence of Akkadian and Sumerian has also led scholars to describe the languages as a ''[[Sprachbund]]''.<ref>{{cite book|title=Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation|author=Deutscher, Guy|author-link=Guy Deutscher (linguist)|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] US|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-953222-3|pages=20–21}}</ref>

Akkadian proper names are first attested in Sumerian texts in the mid-3rd millennium BC, and inscriptions ostensibly written in Sumerian but whose character order reveals that they were intended to be read in East Semitic (presumably early Akkadian) date back to as early as {{circa|2600 BC}}.<ref>George (2007: 37)</ref> From about the 25th century BC, texts fully written in Akkadian begin to appear. By the 20th century BC, two variant dialectic forms of the same language were in use in Assyria and Babylonia, known as '''Assyrian''' and '''Babylonian''' respectively.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Grammar of Akkadian, 3rd edition|author=Huehnergard, John|publisher=Eisenbrauns|year=2011|isbn=978-1-57506-941-8}}</ref> The bulk of preserved material is from this later period, corresponding to the [[Near East]]ern [[Iron Age]]. In total, hundreds of thousands of texts and text fragments have been excavated, covering a vast textual tradition of religious and mythological narrative, legal texts, scientific works, personal correspondence, political, civil and military events, economic tracts and many other examples.

Centuries after the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Akkadian, in its Assyrian and Babylonian varieties, was the native language of the Mesopotamian empires ([[Old Assyrian Empire]], [[Babylonia]], [[Middle Assyrian Empire]]) throughout the later Bronze Age, and became the [[lingua franca]] of much of the Ancient [[Near East]] by the time of the [[Bronze Age collapse]] {{circa|1150 BC}}. However, its gradual decline began in the Iron Age, during the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] when in the mid-eighth century BC [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] introduced [[Imperial Aramaic]] as a lingua franca of the Assyrian empire.  By the [[Hellenistic period]], the language was largely confined to scholars and priests working in temples in Assyria and Babylonia. The last known Akkadian cuneiform document dates from the 1st century AD.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geller |first1=Markham Judah |title=The Last Wedge |journal=Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie |date=1997 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=43–95 |doi=10.1515/zava.1997.87.1.43|s2cid=161968187 }}</ref>

[[Neo-Mandaic|Mandaic]] spoken by [[Mandaeans|Mandean]] [[Gnostics]] and the dialects spoken by the extant [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] ([[Suret language|Suret]] and [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]]) are three extant [[Neo-Aramaic languages]] that retain Akkadian vocabulary and grammatical features, as well as personal and family names. These are spoken by Assyrians and Mandeans mainly in northern [[Iraq]], southeast [[Turkey]], northeast [[Syria]], northwest [[Iran]], the southern [[Caucasus]] and by communities in the [[Assyrian diaspora]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
 | title = Mandaeans v. Mandaic Language
 | encyclopedia =Encyclopædia Iranica
 | date =July 20, 2009
 | first1 = Christa 
 | last1=Müller-Kessler
 | edition = online 2012
}}
''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasitische Archäologie'' 86 (1997): 43–95.</ref>

Akkadian is a [[fusional language]] with [[grammatical case]]. Like all Semitic languages, Akkadian uses the system of [[Semitic root|consonantal roots]]. The [[Kültepe texts]], which were written in [[Old Assyrian language|Old Assyrian]], include [[Hittite language|Hittite]] loanwords and names, which constitute the oldest record of any [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]].<ref>E. Bilgic and S. Bayram. ''Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri II''. Turk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1995. {{ISBN|975-16-0246-7}}</ref><ref>[[Calvert Watkins|Watkins, Calvert]]. "Hittite". In: ''The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor''. Edited by Roger D. Woodard. Cambridge University Press. 2008. p. 6. {{ISBN|978-0-511-39353-2}}</ref>

==Classification==
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction= horizontal
| header   = Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary<br /><small>({{circa|2200 BC}})</small>
| image1   = Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary.jpg
| image2   = Inscription of Naram-Sin.jpg
| footer   = Left: Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform syllabary, used by early Akkadian rulers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krejci |first1=Jaroslav |title=Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East |date=1990 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0168-2 |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M88CVW8RkCcC&pg=PA34 |language=en |access-date=2020-02-26 |archive-date=2020-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309142449/https://books.google.com/books?id=M88CVW8RkCcC&pg=PA34 |url-status=live }}</ref> Right: Seal of [[Akkadian Empire]] ruler [[Naram-Sin of Akkad|Naram-Sin]] (reversed for readability), {{circa|2250 BC}}. The name of Naram-Sin ({{langx|akk-x-old|{{cuneiform|6|𒀭𒈾𒊏𒄠𒀭𒂗𒍪}}|translit=<sup>[[dingir|D]]</sup>Na-ra-am <sup>[[dingir|D]]</sup>[[Sin (mythology)|Sîn]]}}, {{Transliteration|akk-x-old|Sîn}} being written {{langx|akk-x-old|{{cuneiform|6|𒂗𒍪}}|translit=EN.ZU}}), appears vertically in the right column.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mémoires |date=1900 |publisher=Mission archéologique en Iran |page=[https://archive.org/details/mmoires02franuoft/page/53 53] |url=https://archive.org/details/mmoires02franuoft}}</ref> British Museum.
}}
Akkadian belongs with the other [[Semitic languages]] in the [[Near East]]ern branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages]], a family native to [[Middle East]], [[Arabian Peninsula]], parts of [[Anatolia]], parts of the [[Horn of Africa]], [[North Africa]], [[Malta]], [[Canary Islands]] and parts of [[West Africa]] ([[Hausa language|Hausa]]). Akkadian is only ever attested in [[Mesopotamia]] and neighboring regions in the Near East.

Within the Near Eastern Semitic languages, Akkadian forms an [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] subgroup (with [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]] and perhaps [[Dilmunite language|Dilmunite]]). This group differs from the [[Northwest Semitic languages]] and [[South Semitic languages]] in its [[subject–object–verb]] word order, while the other Semitic languages usually have either a [[verb–subject–object]] or [[subject–verb–object]] order.

Additionally Akkadian is the only Semitic language to use the [[preposition and postposition|preposition]]s ''ina'' and ''ana'' ([[locative case]], English ''in''/''on''/''with'', and [[dative case|dative]]-locative case, ''for''/''to'', respectively). Other Semitic languages like [[Arabic]], [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] have the prepositions ''bi/bə'' and ''li/lə'' (locative and dative, respectively). The origin of the Akkadian spatial prepositions is unknown.

In contrast to most other Semitic languages, Akkadian has only one non-sibilant [[fricative consonant|fricative]]: ḫ {{IPA|[x]}}. Akkadian lost both the [[glottal consonant|glottal]] and [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] fricatives, which are characteristic of the other Semitic languages. Until the Old Babylonian period, the Akkadian [[sibilant]]s were exclusively [[Affricate consonant|affricated]].<ref name=":0" />

==History and writing==

===Writing===
{{Main|Akkadian cuneiform}}
[[Image:AkkadischLand.png|200px|thumb|[[Cuneiform]] writing (Neo-Assyrian script)<br />
(1 = Logogram (LG) "mix"/syllabogram (SG) ''{{IPA|ḫi}}'',<br />
2 = LG "moat",<br />
3 = SG ''{{IPA|aʾ}}'',<br />
4 = SG ''{{IPA|aḫ}}, {{IPA|eḫ}}, {{IPA|iḫ}}, {{IPA|uḫ}}'',<br />
5 = SG ''kam'',<br />
6 = SG ''im'',<br />
7 = SG ''bir'')]]
Old Akkadian is preserved on clay tablets dating back to {{circa|2500 BC}}. It was written using [[cuneiform]], a script adopted from the Sumerians using wedge-shaped symbols pressed in wet clay. As employed by Akkadian scribes, the adapted cuneiform script could represent either (a) Sumerian [[logogram]]s (''i.e.'', picture-based characters representing entire words), (b) [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] syllables, (c) Akkadian syllables, or (d) [[phonetic complement]]s. In Akkadian the script practically became a fully fledged [[Syllabary|syllabic script]], and the original [[Logogram|logographic]] nature of cuneiform became secondary{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}<!--I doubt that positing such a radical difference between Sumerian and Akkadian cuneiform is really justified. Already Sumerian has syllabic signs used for pronunciation when needed, and Akkadian continued to use logograms quite a lot.-->, though logograms for frequent words such as 'god' and 'temple' continued to be used. For this reason, the sign ''AN'' can on the one hand be a logogram for the word ''ilum'' ('god') and on the other signify the god [[Anu]] or even the syllable ''-an-''. Additionally, this sign was used as a [[determinative]] for divine names.

Another peculiarity of Akkadian cuneiform is that many signs do not have a well defined phonetic value. Certain signs, such as ''{{transliteration|sem|AḪ}}'', do not distinguish between the different [[vowel]] qualities. Nor is there any coordination in the other direction; the syllable ''{{transliteration|sem|-ša-}}'', for example, is rendered by the sign ''{{transliteration|sem|ŠA}}'', but also by the sign ''{{transliteration|sem|NĪĜ}}''. Both of these are often used for the same syllable in the same text.

Cuneiform was in many ways unsuited to Akkadian: among its flaws was its inability to represent important [[phonemes]] in Semitic, including a [[glottal stop]], [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeals]], and [[emphatic consonant]]s. In addition, cuneiform was a [[syllabary]] writing system—i.e., a consonant plus vowel comprised one writing unit—frequently inappropriate for a Semitic language made up of [[Triliteral|triconsonantal root]]s (i.e., three consonants plus any vowels).

===Development===
Akkadian is divided into several [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] based on [[geography]] and [[historical period]]:<ref>Caplice, p.5 (1980)</ref>
*Old Akkadian, 2500–1950 BC
*Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian, 1950–1530 BC
*Middle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian, 1530–1000 BC
*Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian, 1000–600 BC
*Late Babylonian, 600 BC–100 AD

One of the earliest known Akkadian inscriptions was found on a bowl at [[Ur]], addressed to the very early pre-Sargonic king Meskiagnunna of Ur ({{circa|2485}}–2450 BC) by his queen Gan-saman, who is thought to have been from Akkad.<ref name=Bertman_94>{{cite book|last1=Bertman|first1=Stephen|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-019-518364-1|page=94|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&pg=PA94|access-date=16 May 2015|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511014731/https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&pg=PA94|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Akkadian Empire]], established by [[Sargon of Akkad]], introduced the Akkadian language (the "language of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]]") as a written language, adapting [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] cuneiform orthography for the purpose. During the [[Middle Bronze Age]] (Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian period), the language virtually displaced Sumerian, which is assumed to have been extinct as a living language by the 18th century BC.

Old Akkadian, which was used until the end of the 3rd millennium BC, differed from both Babylonian and Assyrian, and was displaced by these dialects. By the 21st century BC Babylonian and Assyrian, which were to become the primary dialects, were easily distinguishable. Old Babylonian, along with the closely related dialect [[Mari, Syria|Mariotic]], is clearly more innovative than the Old Assyrian dialect and the more distantly related [[Eblaite language]]. For this reason, forms like ''lu-prus'' ('I will decide') were first encountered in Old Babylonian instead of the older ''la-prus''.<ref name="R. Veenhof, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri V 2010">K. R. Veenhof, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri V, Turk Tarih Kurumu, 2010, {{ISBN|978-975-16-2235-8}}</ref>

While generally more archaic, Assyrian developed certain innovations as well, such as the "Assyrian [[vowel harmony]]". Eblaite was even more so, retaining a productive [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] and a [[relative pronoun]] declined in case, number and gender. Both of these had already disappeared in Old Akkadian. Over 20,000 cuneiform tablets in Old Assyrian have been recovered from the [[Kültepe]] site in [[Anatolia]].
Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use both of [[cuneiform]] and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence.<ref name="R. Veenhof, Ankara Kultepe Tabletleri V 2010"/>

Old Babylonian was the language of king [[Hammurabi]] and [[Code of Hammurabi|his code]], which is one of the oldest collections of laws in the world. (see [[Code of Ur-Nammu]].) Old Assyrian developed as well during the second millennium BC, but because it was a purely popular language—kings wrote in Babylonian—few long texts are preserved. It was, however, notably used in the correspondence of Assyrian traders in Anatolia in the 20th–18th centuries BC and that even led to its temporary adoption as a diplomatic language by various local Anatolian polities during that time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vita |first=Juan-Pablo |date=2020-01-01 |title=Akkadian as a Lingua Franca |url=https://www.academia.edu/42912317 |journal=R. Hasselbach-Andee (Ed.), A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages, Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Hoboken 2020, 357-372. |pages=358–359}}</ref>

The Middle Babylonian period started in the 16th century BC. The division is marked by the [[Kassites|Kassite]] invasion of Babylonia around 1550&nbsp;BC. The Kassites, who reigned for 300 years, gave up their own language in favor of Akkadian, but they had little influence on the language. At its apogee, Middle Babylonian was the written language of diplomacy of the entire [[Ancient Near East]], including Egypt ([[Amarna Period]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vita |first=Juan-Pablo |date=2020-01-01 |title=Akkadian as a Lingua Franca |url=https://www.academia.edu/42912317 |journal=R. Hasselbach-Andee (Ed.), A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages, Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Hoboken 2020, 357-372. |page=360}}</ref> During this period, a large number of loan words were included in the language from [[Northwest Semitic languages]] and [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]]. However, the use of these words was confined to the fringes of the Akkadian-speaking territory.

From 1500&nbsp;BC onwards, the Assyrian language is termed Middle Assyrian. It was the language of the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]]. However, the Babylonian cultural influence was strong and the Assyrians wrote royal inscriptions, religious and most scholarly texts in Middle Babylonian, whereas Middle Assyrian was used mostly in letters and administrative documents.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/704717 | doi=10.1086/704717 | title=''A Descriptive Middle Assyrian Grammar'', by J. J. De Ridder, Leipziger Altorientalistische Studien 8 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018). Pp. 628. $133.00 (Cloth) | date=2019 | last1=Kouwenberg | first1=Bert | journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume=78 | issue=2 | pages=348–351 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:Cuneiform script.jpg|thumb|A Neo-Babylonian inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II]]During the first millennium BC, Akkadian progressively lost its status as a ''lingua franca''. In the beginning, from around 1000&nbsp;BC, Akkadian and [[Aramaic]] were of equal status, as can be seen in the number of copied texts: clay tablets were written in Akkadian, while scribes writing on papyrus and leather used Aramaic. From this period on, one speaks of [[Neo-Babylonian]] and [[Neo-Assyrian]].

Neo-Assyrian experienced an upswing in popularity in the 10th century BC when the Assyrian kingdom became a major power with the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]. During the existence of that empire, however, Neo-Assyrian began to turn into a chancellery language, being marginalized by [[Old Aramaic]]. The dominance of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] over [[Aram-Damascus]] in the middle of the 8th century led to the establishment of Aramaic as a ''lingua franca''<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.sejongjul.org/archive/view_article?pid=jul-5-1-1|title=Aramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538-333 B.C.E.)|last1=Bae|first1=Chul-hyun|date=2004|journal=Journal of Universal Language|volume=5|pages=1–20|doi=10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1|access-date=2018-12-20|doi-access=free|archive-date=2018-12-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221134608/https://www.sejongjul.org/archive/view_article?pid=jul-5-1-1|url-status=live}}</ref> of the empire, rather than it being eclipsed by Akkadian. Texts written 'exclusively' in Neo-Assyrian disappear within 10 years of [[Nineveh]]'s destruction in 612&nbsp;BC. Under the [[Achaemenids]], Aramaic continued to prosper, but Assyrian continued its decline. The language's final demise came about during the [[Hellenistic period]] when it was further marginalized by [[Koine Greek]], even though Neo-Assyrian cuneiform remained in use in literary tradition well into [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] times.

Similarly, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] conquest of the Mesopotamian kingdoms contributed to the decline of Babylonian, from that point on known as Late Babylonian, as a popular language. However, the language was still used in its written form. Even after the Greek invasion under [[Alexander the Great]] in the 4th century BC, Akkadian was still a contender as a written language, but spoken Akkadian was likely extinct by this time, or at least rarely used.  The last positively identified Akkadian text comes from the 1st century AD.<ref>John Huehnergard & Christopher Woods, 2004 "Akkadian and Eblaite", ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages'', pg. 218.</ref> The latest known text in cuneiform Babylonian is an astronomical almanac dated to 79/80&nbsp;AD.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunger |first1=Hermann |last2=de Jong |first2=Teije |date=30 January 2014 |title=Almanac W22340a From Uruk: The Latest Datable Cuneiform Tablet |journal=Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie |volume=104 |issue=2 |doi=10.1515/za-2014-0015 |s2cid=163700758}}</ref> However, the latest cuneiform texts are almost entirely written in Sumerian logograms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=C. B. F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPHj37r09EMC&q=latest+akkadian+text&pg=PA17 |title=Cuneiform. Reading the Past |date=1987 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-06115-6 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California |page=17 |language=en |access-date=2020-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511014804/https://books.google.com/books?id=lPHj37r09EMC&q=latest+akkadian+text&pg=PA17 |archive-date=2021-05-11 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Iamblichus (novelist)|Iamblichus]], a 2nd century Syrian novelist, may have been one of the last known people to know Babylonian.

===Decipherment===
[[File:Georg Friedrich Grotefend.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Georg Friedrich Grotefend]]]]
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The Akkadian language began to be rediscovered when [[Carsten Niebuhr]] in 1767 was able to make extensive copies of cuneiform texts and published them in Denmark. The deciphering of the texts started immediately, and bilinguals, in particular [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]]-Akkadian bilinguals, were of great help. Since the texts contained several royal names, isolated signs could be identified, and were presented in 1802 by [[Georg Friedrich Grotefend]]. By this time it was already evident that Akkadian was a Semitic language, and the final breakthrough in deciphering the language came from [[Edward Hincks]], [[Sir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet|Henry Rawlinson]] and [[Jules Oppert]] in the middle of the 19th century.

In the early 21st century it was shown that automatic high-quality translation of Akkadian can be achieved using [[natural language processing]] methods such as [[convolutional neural network]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gutherz |first1=Gai |last2=Gordin |first2=Shai |last3=Sáenz |first3=Luis |last4=Levy |first4=Omer |last5=Berant |first5=Jonathan |date=2023-05-02 |editor-last=Kearns |editor-first=Michael |title=Translating Akkadian to English with neural machine translation |url=https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/doi/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad096/7147349 |journal=PNAS Nexus |language=en |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=pgad096 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad096 |issn=2752-6542 |pmc=10153418 |pmid=37143863}}</ref>
[[Image:GilgameshTablet.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[deluge (mythology)|Deluge]] tablet of the [[Gilgamesh]] epic in Akkadian.]]

===Dialects===
The following table summarises the dialects of Akkadian identified with certainty so far.

{| class="wikitable"
 |+ Known Akkadian dialects
 ! Dialect !! Location
 |-
 | Assyrian || Northern Mesopotamia
 |-
 | Babylonian || Central and Southern Mesopotamia
 |-
 | Mariotic || Central Euphrates (in and around the city of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]])
 |-
 | Nuzi || Northern Tigris (in and around the city of [[Nuzi]])<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gordon|first=Cyrus H.|date=1938|title=The Dialect of the Nuzu Tablets|journal=Orientalia|volume=7|pages=32–63|jstor=43581190}}</ref>
 |-
 | Tell Beydar || Northern Syria (in and around [[Tell Beydar]])
 |}

Some researchers (such as W. Sommerfeld 2003) believe that the Old Akkadian variant used in the older texts is not an ancestor of the later Assyrian and Babylonian dialects, but rather a separate dialect that was replaced by these two dialects and which died out early.

[[Eblaite language|Eblaite]], formerly thought of as yet another Akkadian dialect, is now generally considered a separate East Semitic language.

==Phonology==
{{anchor|Phonology}}
Because Akkadian as a spoken language is extinct and no contemporary descriptions of the pronunciation are known, little can be said with certainty about the [[phonetics]] and [[phonology]] of Akkadian. Some conclusions can be made, however, due to the relationship to the other [[Semitic language]]s and variant spellings of Akkadian words.

===Consonants===
The following table presents the [[consonant]]s of the Akkadian language, as distinguished in Akkadian cuneiform. The reconstructed phonetic value<ref name=":0" /> of a [[phoneme]] is given in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription, alongside its standard ([[DIN 31635|DMG-Umschrift]]) [[transliteration]] in angle brackets {{code|⟨ ⟩}}.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Akkadian consonants
|-
!colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} {{angbr IPA|m}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}} {{angbr IPA|n}}
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Plosive|Stop]]/<br>[[Affricate]]
! <small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}} {{angbr IPA|p}}{{efn-la|name=aspiration|Borrowings from and to [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] have been interpreted as indicating that Akkadian voiceless non-emphatic stops were originally unaspirated {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, and {{IPA|/k/}}, but became aspirated {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}} around 2000 BCE.<ref name="ReferenceA">Kogan, L., Krebernik, M. 2021: A history of the Akkadian lexicon. In: J.-P. Vita (ed.), ''History of the Akkadian Language. Vol. I.'' Leiden–Boston, 366–476. P. 418-419.</ref><ref name="hdl.handle.net">Jagersma, Bram. (2010, 4 November). A descriptive grammar of Sumerian. Leiden University. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/16107 . P. 35.</ref>}}
| {{IPA link|t}} {{angbr IPA|t}}{{efn-la|name=aspiration}}
|{{IPA link|t͡s}} {{angbr IPA|s}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}} {{angbr IPA|k}}{{efn-la|name=aspiration}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA link|ʔ}} {{angbr IPA|ʾ}}
|-
! <small>[[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t’}} {{angbr IPA|ṭ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡s’}} {{angbr IPA|ṣ}}
|
| {{IPA link|k’}} {{angbr IPA|q}}{{efn-la|Alternatively transcribed as {{angbr IPA|ḳ}}.}}
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}} {{angbr IPA|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}} {{angbr IPA|d}}
|{{IPA link|d͡z}} {{angbr IPA|z}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}} {{angbr IPA|g}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
!<small>[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|s}} {{angbr IPA|š}}{{efn-la|{{angbr IPA|š}} represented the [[voiceless alveolar fricative]] {{IPA|/s/}} in the Assyrian dialect and a [[voiceless postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in the Babylonian dialect.  Alternatively transcribed as {{angbr IPA|s̱}}.|name=sibilant}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr IPA|š}}{{efn-la|name=sibilant}}
|{{IPA link|x}} {{angbr IPA|ḫ}}{{efn-la|Alternatively transcribed as {{angbr IPA|x}}, {{angbr IPA|ġ}}, or simply {{angbr IPA|h}}.}}
|
|-
!<small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
| colspan="2" |
|
|{{IPA link|ʁ}} {{angbr IPA|r}}{{Efn-la|Akkadian {{angbr IPA|r}} is alternatively interpreted as a [[Guttural R|guttural rhotic]] [{{IPA link|ʁ}}] or [{{IPA link|ʀ}}] {{See below|[[#Reconstruction|below]]}}.|name=rhotic}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}} {{angbr IPA|r}}{{Efn-la|Akkadian {{angbr IPA|r}} is alternatively interpreted as a [[Guttural R|guttural rhotic]] [{{IPA link|ʁ}}] or [{{IPA link|ʀ}}] {{See below|[[#Reconstruction|below]]}}.|name=rhotic}}
|{{IPA link|l}} {{angbr IPA|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr IPA|y}}{{efn-la|Alternatively transcribed as {{angbr IPA|j}}.}}
| {{IPA link|w}} {{angbr IPA|w}}
|
|}
{{notelist-la}}

==== Reconstruction ====
[[File:AO 5477 (photograph and transcription).jpg|thumb|The first known Sumerian-Akkadian bilingual tablet dates from the reign of [[Rimush]]. Louvre Museum AO 5477. The top column is in Sumerian, the bottom column is its translation in Akkadian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=THUREAU-DANGIN |first1=F. |title=Notes Assyriologiques |journal=Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale |date=1911 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=138–141 |jstor=23284567 |issn=0373-6032}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=12108 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr |access-date=2020-05-10 |archive-date=2020-07-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715003716/http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=12108 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Akkadian emphatic consonants are typically reconstructed as [[Ejective consonant|ejectives]], which are thought to be the oldest realization of emphatics across the Semitic languages.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Semitic Languages|last1 = Hetzron|first1 = Robert}}</ref> One piece of evidence for this is that Akkadian shows a development known as [[Geers's law]], where one of two emphatic consonants dissimilates to the corresponding non-emphatic consonant. For the sibilants, traditionally {{angbr IPA|š}} has been held to be postalveolar {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, and {{angbr IPA|s}}, {{angbr IPA|z}}, {{angbr IPA|ṣ}} analyzed as fricatives; but attested [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilations]] in Akkadian suggest otherwise.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Kogan, Leonid (2011). "Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology". In Semitic languages: an international handbook, Stefan Weninger, ed. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 68.</ref> For example, when the possessive suffix ''-šu'' is added to the root ''awat'' ('word'), it is written ''awassu'' ('his word') even though ''šš'' would be expected.

The most straightforward interpretation of this shift from ''tš'' to ''ss'', is that {{angbr IPA|s, ṣ}} form a pair of voiceless alveolar affricates {{IPA|/t͡s/ /t͡sʼ/}}, {{angbr IPA|š}} is a voiceless alveolar sibilant {{IPA|/s/}}, and {{angbr IPA|z}} is a voiced alveolar affricate or fricative {{IPA|/d͡z/~/z/}}. The assimilation is then [awat+su] > {{IPA|/awatt͡su/}}. In this vein, an alternative transcription of {{angbr IPA|š}} is {{angbr IPA|s̱}}, with the macron below indicating a soft (lenis) articulation in Semitic transcription. Other interpretations are possible. {{IPA|/ʃ/}} could have been assimilated to the preceding {{IPA|/t/}}, yielding {{IPA|/ts/}}, which would later have been simplified to {{IPA|/ss/}}.

The rhotic {{angbr IPA|r}} has traditionally been interpreted as a [[voiced alveolar trill]] {{IPA|/r/}} but its pattern of alternation with {{angbr IPA|ḫ}} suggests it was a fricative (either [[voiced uvular fricative|uvular]] {{IPA|/ʁ/}} or [[voiced velar fricative|velar]] {{IPA|/ɣ/}}). In the Hellenistic period, Akkadian {{angbr IPA|r}} was transcribed using the Greek ρ, indicating it was pronounced similarly as an alveolar sound (though Greeks may also have perceived a [[uvular trill]] as ρ).<ref name=":0" />

==== Descent from Proto-Semitic ====
Several [[Proto-Semitic]] phonemes are lost in Akkadian. The Proto-Semitic glottal stop {{transliteration|sem|[[Aleph (letter)|*ʔ]]}}, as well as the fricatives {{transliteration|sem|[[Ayin|*ʕ]]}}, {{transliteration|sem|[[He (letter)|*h]]}}, {{transliteration|sem|[[Heth (letter)|*ḥ]]}} are lost as consonants, either by sound change or orthographically, but they gave rise to the vowel quality ''e'' not exhibited in Proto-Semitic. The [[voiceless lateral fricatives]] ({{transliteration|sem|[[Śawt|*ś]], [[Ḍād|*ṣ́]]}}) merged with the sibilants as in [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]], leaving 19 consonantal phonemes. Old Akkadian preserved the /*ś/ phoneme longest but it eventually merged with [[Shin (letter)|/*š/]], beginning in the [[First Babylonian dynasty|Old Babylonian period]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite thesis |degree=Doctoral |title = A descriptive grammar of Sumerian|url = https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/16107 |publisher=Universiteit Leiden |access-date = 2015-11-20 |last=Jagersma |first=Abraham Hendrik |page = 46|date = 2010 |archive-date = 2015-10-16|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151016111558/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/16107|url-status = live}}</ref> The following table shows Proto-Semitic phonemes and their correspondences among Akkadian, [[Modern Standard Arabic]] and [[Tiberian Hebrew]]:
[[File:Inscription in Babylonian, in the Xerxes I inscription at Van, 5th century BCE.jpg|thumb|An inscription in Babylonian, in the [[Xerxes I inscription at Van]], 5th century BC]]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center"
! | [[Proto-Semitic]]
! | Akkadian
! colspan="2" | [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
! colspan="2" |[[Aramaic]]
! colspan="2" | [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*b}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|b}}''
| ب || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|b}}
|𐡁
|{{transliteration|sem|b/ḇ}}
| ב || {{transliteration|sem|b/ḇ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*d}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|d}}''
| د || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|d}}
|𐡃
|{{transliteration|sem|d/ḏ}}
| ד || {{transliteration|sem|d/ḏ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*g}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|g}}''
| ج || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ǧ}}
|𐡂
|{{transliteration|sem|g/ḡ}}
| ג || {{transliteration|sem|g/ḡ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*p}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|p}}''
| ف || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|f}}
|𐡐
|{{transliteration|sem|p/p̄}}
| פ || {{transliteration|sem|p/p̄}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*t}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|t}}''
| ت || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|t}}
|𐡕
|{{transliteration|sem|t/ṯ}}
| ת || {{transliteration|sem|t/ṯ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*k}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|k}}''
| ك || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|k}}
|𐡊
|{{transliteration|sem|k/ḵ}}
| כ || {{transliteration|sem|k/ḵ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ʔ}}
| (∅)/ <big>{{transliteration|sem|ʾ}}</big>
| ء || <big>{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʾ}}</big>
|𐡀
|<big>{{transliteration|sem|ʾ}}</big>
| א || <big>{{transliteration|he|ʾ}}</big>
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ṭ}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}''
| ط || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ṭ}}
|𐡈
|{{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
| ט || {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ḳ}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|q}}''
| ق || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|q}}
|𐡒
|{{transliteration|sem|q}}
| ק || {{transliteration|sem|q}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ḏ}}
| rowspan="2" valign="center" | ''{{transliteration|sem|z}}''
| ذ || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ḏ}}
|{{bdo|ltr|𐡆 ,𐡃}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ḏ}}'', {{transliteration|sem|d/ḏ}}
| rowspan="2" | ז || rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|z}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*z}}
| ز || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|z}}
|𐡆
|{{transliteration|sem|z}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ṯ}}
| rowspan="3" valign="center" | ''{{transliteration|sem|š}}''
| ث || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ṯ}}
|{{bdo|ltr|𐡔 ,𐡕}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ}}'', {{transliteration|sem|t/ṯ}}
| rowspan="2" |שׁ || rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|š}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*š}}
| س || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|s}}
|𐡔
|{{transliteration|sem|š}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ś}}
| ش || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|š}}
|{{bdo|ltr|𐡔 ,𐡎}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ś}}'', {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| שׂ 
| {{transliteration|sem|ś}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*s}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|s}}''
| س || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|s}}
|𐡎
|{{transliteration|sem|s}}
| ס 
| {{transliteration|sem|s}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ṱ}}
| rowspan="3" valign="center" | ''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}''
| ظ || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ẓ}}
|{{bdo|ltr|𐡑 ,𐡈}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṯ̣}}'', {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
| rowspan="3" |צ || rowspan="3" |{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ṣ}}
| ص || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ṣ}}
|𐡑
|{{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ṣ́}}
| ض || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ḍ}}
|{{bdo|ltr|𐡒 ,𐡏}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ṣ́}}'', <big>{{transliteration|sem|ʿ}}</big>
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ġ}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| غ || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ġ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{bdo|ltr|𐡏}}
|''{{transliteration|sem|ġ}}'', <big>{{transliteration|sem|ʿ}}</big>
| rowspan="2" |ע || rowspan="2" | <big>{{transliteration|he|ʿ}}</big>
|-
! '''{{transliteration|sem|*ʕ}}'''
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}'' / (e) <ref group="t2" name="zero">These are only distinguished from the ∅ (zero) reflexes of {{IPAslink|h}} and {{IPAslink|ʔ}} by {{IPAslink|e}}-coloring the adjacent vowel *a, e.g. PS ''*ˈbaʕ(a)l-um'' ('owner, lord') → Akk. ''bēlu(m)'' ({{harvnb|Dolgopolsky|1999|p=35}}).</ref>
| ع || <big>{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ʿ}}</big>
|<big>{{transliteration|sem|ʿ}}</big>
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ḫ}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}''
| خ || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ḫ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{bdo|ltr|𐡇}}
|''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ḫ}}'', {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| rowspan="2" |ח || rowspan="2" |{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*ḥ}}
| (e) <ref group="t2" name="zero" />
| ح || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|ḥ}}
|{{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*h}}
| (∅) 
| ه || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|h}}
|𐡄
|{{transliteration|sem|h}}
| ה || {{transliteration|sem|h}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*m}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|m}}''
| م || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|m}}
|𐡌
|m
| מ || m
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*n}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|n}}''
| ن || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|n}}
|𐡍
|{{transliteration|sem|n}}
| נ || {{transliteration|sem|n}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*r}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|r}}''
| ر || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|r}}
|𐡓
|{{transliteration|sem|r}}
| ר || {{transliteration|sem|r}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*l}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|l}}''
| ل || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|l}}
|𐡋
|{{transliteration|sem|l}}
| ל || {{transliteration|sem|l}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*w}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|w}}''
| و || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|w}}
|𐡅
|{{transliteration|sem|w}}
| ו || {{transliteration|sem|w}}
|-
! {{transliteration|sem|*y}}
| ''{{transliteration|sem|y}}''
| ي || {{transliteration|ar|DIN|y}}
|𐡉
|{{transliteration|sem|y}}
| י || {{transliteration|sem|y}}
|-
! | [[Proto-Semitic]]
! | Akkadian
! colspan="2" | [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
! colspan="2" |[[Aramaic]]
! colspan="2" | [[Tiberian Hebrew|Hebrew]]
|}

{{reflist|group=t2}}

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
 |+ Akkadian vowels
 !   !! [[Front vowel|Front]]!! [[Central vowel|Central]]!! [[Back vowel|Back]]
 |-
 ! [[Close vowel|Close]]
 | {{IPA link|i}} ||   || {{IPA link|u}}
 |-
 ! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
 | {{IPA link|e}} ||   ||  
 |-
 ! [[Open vowel|Open]]
 |   || {{IPA link|a}} ||  
 |}

The existence of a back mid-vowel {{IPA|/o/}} has been proposed, but the cuneiform writing gives no good proof for this.<ref>Sabatino Moscati et al. "An Introduction to Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages Phonology and Morphology". (section on vowels and semi-vowels)</ref> There is limited contrast between different u-signs in lexical texts, but this scribal differentiation may reflect the superimposition of the Sumerian phonological system (for which an /o/ phoneme has also been proposed), rather than a separate phoneme in Akkadian.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Akkadian and Eblaite|url = https://www.academia.edu/6933497|website = www.academia.edu|access-date = 2015-11-19|last = Huehnergard & Woods|page = 233|archive-date = 2021-05-11|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210511014738/https://www.academia.edu/6933497/2004_Akkadian_and_Eblaite|url-status = live}}</ref>

All consonants and [[vowel]]s appear in long and short forms. Long consonants are transliterated as double consonants, and inconsistently written as such in cuneiform. Long vowels are transliterated with a macron (ā, ē, ī, ū) or a circumflex (â, ê, î, û), the latter being used for long vowels arising from the contraction of vowels in hiatus. The distinction between long and short is [[phoneme|phonemic]], and is used in the grammar; for example, ''iprusu'' ('that he decided') versus ''iprusū'' ('they decided').

===Stress===
There is broad agreement among most Assyriologists about Akkadian [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] patterns.<ref name=":1">Helle, Sophus. ''Rhythm and Expression in Akkadian Poetry''. Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 2014; 104(1): 56-73. P. 58. [https://sophushelle.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/helle-2014-rhythm-and-expression.pdf Online]</ref> The rules of Akkadian stress were originally reconstructed by means of a comparison with other Semitic languages, and the resulting picture was gradually amended using internal linguistic evidence from Akkadian sources, especially deriving from so-called ''plene'' spellings (spellings with an extra vowel).<ref name=":1" />

According to this widely accepted system, the place of [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] in Akkadian is completely predictable and sensitive to [[syllable weight]]. There are three syllable weights: ''light'' (ending in -V); ''heavy'' (ending in -V̄ or -VC), and ''superheavy'' (ending in -V̂, -V̄C or -V̂C). If the last syllable is superheavy, it is stressed, otherwise the rightmost heavy non-final syllable is stressed. If a word contains only light syllables, the first syllable is stressed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Huehnergard |first1=John |title=A Grammar of Akkadian |publisher=Eisenbrauns |year=2005 |isbn=1-57506-922-9 |edition=2nd |pages=3–4}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> It has also been argued that monosyllabic words generally are not stressed but rather function as [[clitic]]s.<ref name=":1" /> The special behaviour of /V̂/ syllables is explained by their functioning, in accordance with their historical origin, as sequences of two syllables, of which the first one bears stress.<ref name=":1" />

A rule of Akkadian phonology is that certain short (and probably unstressed) vowels are dropped. The rule is that the last vowel of a succession of syllables that end in a short vowel is dropped, for example the declinational root of the verbal adjective of a root PRS is ''PaRiS-''. Thus the masculine singular nominative is ''PaRS-um'' (< ''*PaRiS-um'') but the feminine singular nominative is ''PaRiStum'' (< ''*PaRiS-at-um''). Additionally there is a general tendency of syncope of short vowels in the later stages of Akkadian.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}

==Grammar==
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2022}}
[[File:Nebuchadnezzar II bronze step inscription.jpg|thumb|Neo-Babylonian inscription of king [[Nebuchadnezzar II]], 7th century BC]]

===Morphology===

====Consonantal root====
Most roots of the Akkadian language consist of three consonants, called the radicals, but some roots are composed of four consonants, so-called quadriradicals. The radicals are occasionally represented in transcription in upper-case letters, for example ''PRS'' (to decide). Between and around these radicals various [[infix]]es, [[suffix]]es and [[prefix]]es, having word generating or grammatical functions, are inserted. The resulting consonant-vowel pattern differentiates the original meaning of the root. The middle radical can be geminated, which is represented by a doubled consonant in transcription, and sometimes in the cuneiform writing itself.

The consonants ''{{IPA|ʔ}}'', ''{{IPA|w}}'', ''{{IPA|j}}'' and ''{{IPA|n}}'' are termed "weak radicals" and roots containing these radicals give rise to irregular forms.

==== Case, number and gender ====
Formally, Akkadian has three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three cases ([[Nominative case|nominative]], [[Accusative case|accusative]] and [[Genitive case|genitive]]). However, even in the earlier stages of the language, the dual number is vestigial, and its use is largely confined to natural pairs (eyes, ears, etc.). Adjectives are never found in the dual. In the dual and plural, the accusative and genitive are merged into a single [[oblique case]].

Akkadian, unlike [[Arabic language|Arabic]], has only "sound" plurals formed by means of a plural ending. [[Broken plurals]] are not formed by changing the word stem. As in all Semitic languages, some masculine nouns take the prototypically feminine plural ending (''-āt'').

The nouns ''šarrum'' (king) and ''šarratum'' (queen) and the adjective ''dannum'' (strong) will serve to illustrate the case system of Akkadian.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Noun and adjective paradigms
|-
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Noun
! colspan="2" | Adjective
|-
! colspan="2" |Number / Case
! masc. || fem.
! masc. || fem.
|-
! rowspan="3" |Singular
! Nominative
| šarr-um || šarr-at-um || dann-um || dann-at-um
|-
! Genitive
| šarr-im || šarr-at-im || dann-im || dann-at-im
|-
! Accusative
| šarr-am || šarr-at-am || dann-am || dann-at-am
|-
! rowspan="2" |Dual
! Nominative
| šarr-ān || šarr-at-ān || colspan='2' rowspan='2' bgcolor="gray" |
|-
! Oblique<ref group=t3>The oblique case includes the accusative and genitive.</ref>
| šarr-īn || šarr-at-īn
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plural
! Nominative
| šarr-ū || šarr-āt-um || dann-ūt-um || dann-āt-um
|-
! Oblique
| šarr-ī || šarr-āt-im || dann-ūt-im || dann-āt-im
|}
{{Reflist|group=t3}}
As is clear from the above table, the adjective and noun endings differ only in the masculine plural. Certain nouns, primarily those referring to geography, can also form a locative ending in ''-um'' in the singular and the resulting forms serve as [[adverbial]]s. These forms are generally not productive, but in the Neo-Babylonian the ''um''-locative replaces several constructions with the preposition ''ina''.

In the later stages of Akkadian, the [[mimation]] (word-final ''-m'') and [[nunation]] (dual final ''-n'') that occurred at the end of most case endings disappeared, except in the locative. Later, the nominative and accusative singular of masculine nouns collapsed to ''-u'' and in Neo-Babylonian most word-final short vowels were dropped. As a result, case differentiation disappeared from all forms except masculine plural nouns. However, many texts continued the practice of writing the case endings, although often sporadically and incorrectly. As the most important [[Language contact|contact language]] throughout this period was [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], which itself lacks case distinctions, it is possible that Akkadian's loss of cases was an areal as well as [[Phonology|phonological]] phenomenon.

====Noun states and nominal sentences====
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =vertical
| header=Cylinder of Antiochus I
| image1   = Antiochus cylinder with transcription.jpg
| caption1 = The [[Antiochus cylinder]], written by [[Antiochus I Soter]], as great king of kings of [[Babylon]], restorer of gods [[Esagila|E-sagila]] and [[E-zida]], {{circa|250 BCE}}. Written in traditional Akkadian.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Haubold |first1=Johannes |title=Greece and Mesopotamia: Dialogues in Literature |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01076-5 |page=135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85sLLYY-owgC&pg=PA135 |language=en |access-date=2019-03-24 |archive-date=2020-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317025836/https://books.google.com/books?id=85sLLYY-owgC&pg=PA135 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Andrade |first1=Nathanael J. |title=Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-24456-6 |page=46 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ROhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |language=en |access-date=2019-03-24 |archive-date=2020-03-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310164150/https://books.google.com/books?id=4ROhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Antiochus cylinder |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1351032&partId=1&object=23121&page=1 |website=British Museum |access-date=2019-03-24 |archive-date=2019-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401180830/https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1351032&partId=1&object=23121&page=1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wallis Budge |first1=Ernest Alfred |title=Babylonian Life and History |date=1884 |publisher=Religious Tract Society |page=[https://archive.org/details/babylonianlifea03budggoog/page/n114 94] |url=https://archive.org/details/babylonianlifea03budggoog |language=en}}</ref>
| image2   = Antiochus I Soter with titles on the cylinder of Antiochus.jpg
| caption2 = [[Antiochus I Soter]] with titles in Akkadian on the cylinder of Antiochus:<br />''"Antiochus, King, Great King, King of multitudes, King of Babylon, King of countries"'' 
| footer=
}} 
As is also the case in other Semitic languages, Akkadian nouns may appear in a variety of "states" depending on their grammatical function in a sentence. The basic form of the noun is the ''status rectus'' (the governed state), which is the form as described above, complete with case endings. In addition to this, Akkadian has the ''status absolutus'' (the [[absolute state]]) and the ''status constructus'' ([[construct state]]). The latter is found in all other Semitic languages, while the former appears only in Akkadian and some dialects of Aramaic.

The status absolutus is characterised by the loss of a noun's case ending (e.g. ''awīl'' < ''awīlum'', ''šar'' < ''šarrum''). It is relatively uncommon, and is used chiefly to mark the predicate of a nominal sentence, in fixed adverbial expressions, and in expressions relating to measurements of length, weight, and the like.

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|Awīl-um šū šarrāq
|man.NOM 3SG.MASC thief.{{gcl|ABSOLUTUS|status absolutus}}
|This man is a thief}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|šarrum lā šanān
|king.NOM.{{gcl|RECTUS|status rectus}} NEG oppose.INF.{{gcl|ABSOLUTUS|status absolutus}}
|The king who cannot be rivaled}}

The status constructus is more common by far, and has a much wider range of applications. It is employed when a noun is followed by another noun in the genitive, a pronominal suffix, or a verbal clause in the subjunctive, and typically takes the ''shortest form of the noun which is phonetically possible''. In general, this amounts to the loss of case endings with short vowels, with the exception of the genitive -i in nouns preceding a pronominal suffix, hence:

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|māri-šu
|son.{{gcl|CONSTRUCTUS|status constructus}}-3SG.POSS
|His son, its (masculine) son}}

but

{{interlinear|number=(4)
|mār šarr-im
|son.{{gcl|CONSTRUCTUS|status constructus}} king.GEN.SG
|The king's son}}

There are numerous exceptions to this general rule, usually involving potential violations of the language's phonological limitations. Most obviously, Akkadian does not tolerate word-final consonant clusters, so nouns like ''kalbum'' (dog) and ''maḫrum'' (front) would have illegal construct state forms ''*kalb'' and ''*maḫr'' unless modified. In many of these instances, the first vowel of the word is simply repeated (e.g. ''kalab'', ''maḫar''). This rule, however, does not always hold true, especially in nouns where a short vowel has historically been elided (e.g. ''šaknum'' < ''*šakinum'' "governor"). In these cases, the lost vowel is restored in the construct state (so ''šaknum'' yields ''šakin'').

{{interlinear|number=(5)
|kalab belim
|dog.{{gcl|CONSTRUCTUS|status constructus}} master.GEN.SG
|The master's dog}}

{{interlinear
| number = (6)|šakin ālim|governor.{{gcl|CONSTRUCTUS|status constructus}} city.GEN.SG|The city's governor
}}

A genitive relation can also be expressed with the relative preposition ''ša'', and the noun that the genitive phrase depends on appears in status rectus.

{{interlinear|number=(7)
|salīmātum ša awīl Ešnunna
|Alliances.NOM.{{gcl|RECTUS|status rectus}} which man.{{gcl|CONSTRUCTUS|status constructus}} Ešnunna.GEN
|The alliances of the Ruler of Ešnunna ({{lit}} "Alliances which man of Ešnunna (has)")}}

The same preposition is also used to introduce true relative clauses, in which case the verb is placed in the subjunctive mood.

{{interlinear|number=(7)
|awīl-um ša māt-am i-kšud-Ø-u
|man.NOM that land.SG.ACC 3-conquer.PRET-SG.MASC-SJV
|The man who conquered the land.}}

====Verbal morphology====

=====Verb aspects=====
The Akkadian verb has six [[Finite verb|finite]] verb [[Grammatical aspect|aspects]] ([[preterite]],  [[Perfective|perfect]], [[present tense|present]], [[imperative (grammar)|imperative]], [[Irrealis mood#Precative|precative]], and vetitive (the negative form of precative)) and three [[Non-finite verb|infinite]] forms ([[infinitive]], [[participle]] and [[Non-finite verb|verbal adjective]]). The preterite is used for actions that are seen by the speaker as having occurred at a single point in time. The present is primarily imperfective in meaning and is used for concurrent and future actions as well as past actions with a temporal dimension. The final three finite forms are [[Injunctive mood|injunctive]] where the imperative and the precative together form a paradigm for positive commands and wishes, and the vetitive is used for negative wishes. The [[Periphrasis|periphrastic]] prohibitive, formed by the present form of the verb and the negative [[adverb]] lā, is used to express negative commands.

The infinitive of the Akkadian verb is a [[verbal noun]], and in contrast to some other languages the Akkadian infinitive can be declined in [[grammatical case|case]]. The verbal adjective is an adjectival form and designates the state or the result of the action of the verb, and consequently the exact meaning of the verbal adjective is determined by the [[semantics]] of the verb itself{{specify|date=April 2021}}<!--Active or passive, present or past?-->. The participle, which can be active or passive, is another verbal adjective and its meaning is similar to the [[English gerund]].{{specify|date=April 2021}}<!--This is unclear, since what's called 'gerund' in English can hardly be called a participle. Also, it would be good to specify whether any factors determine if the participle is active or passive.-->

The following table shows the conjugation of the [[Derived stem|G-stem]] verbs derived from the root PRS ("to decide") in the various verb aspects of Akkadian:

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|-
! colspan="3" | 
! Preterite
! Perfect
! Present
! Imperative
! Stative
! Infinitive
! Participle (active)
! Verbal adjective
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
! colspan="2" | singular
|''aprus''||''aptaras''||''aparras''||rowspan=2 bgcolor='gray'| ||''parsāku''|| rowspan=8|''parāsum'' ||rowspan=8|''pārisum'' (masc.) /<br /> ''pāristum'' (fem.)  ||  rowspan=8|''parsum'' (masc.) /<br /> ''paristum'' (fem.)
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
|''niprus''||''niptaras''||''niparras''||''parsānu''
|-
! rowspan="3" | 2nd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | singular
! masc.
|''taprus''||''taptaras''||''taparras''||''purus''||''parsāta''
|-
! fem.
|''taprusī''||''taptarsī'' (< *''taptarasī'')||''taparrasī''||''pursi''||''parsāti''
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
|''taprusā''||''taptarsā''||''taparrasā''||''pursa''||''parsātunu'' (masc.) /<br /> ''parsātina'' (fem.)
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd<br />person
! colspan="2" | singular
|''iprus''||''iptaras''||''iparras''||rowspan=3 bgcolor='gray'| ||''paris'' (masc.) /<br /> ''parsat'' (fem.)
|-
! rowspan="2" | plural
! masc.
|''iprusū''||''iptarsū'' (< *''iptarasū'')||''iparrasū''||''parsū''
|-
! fem.
|''iprusā''||''iptarsā'' (< ''*iptarasā'')||''iparrasā''||''parsā''
|}

The table below shows the different [[affix]]es attached to the preterite aspect of the verb root PRS "to decide"; and as can be seen, the [[grammatical gender]]s differ only in the second person singular and third person plural.

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="3" | 
! G-Stem
! D-Stem
! Š-Stem
! N-Stem
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
! colspan="2" | singular
| a-prus-Ø || u-parris-Ø || u-šapris-Ø || a-pparis-Ø
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
| ni-prus-Ø || nu-parris-Ø || nu-šapris-Ø || ni-pparis-Ø
|-
! rowspan="3" | 2nd<br />person
! singular
! masc.
| ta-prus-Ø || tu-parris-Ø || tu-šapris-Ø || ta-pparis-Ø
|-
! singular
! fem.
| ta-prus-ī || tu-parris-ī || tu-šapris-ī || ta-ppars-ī
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
| ta-prus-ā || tu-parris-ā || tu-šapris-ā || ta-ppars-ā
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd<br />person
! colspan="2" | singular
| i-prus-Ø || u-parris-Ø || u-šapris-Ø || i-pparis-Ø
|-
! plural
! masc.
| i-prus-ū || u-parris-ū || u-šapris-ū || i-ppars-ū
|-
! plural
! fem.
| i-prus-ā || u-parris-ā || u-šapris-ā || i-ppars-ā
|}

=====Verb moods=====
Akkadian verbs have three moods:
#[[Indicative]], used in independent clauses, is unmarked.
#[[Subjunctive]], used in dependent clauses, is marked in forms which do not end in a vowel by the suffix ''-u'' (compare Arabic and Ugaritic subjunctives) but is otherwise unmarked. In the later stages of most dialects, the subjunctive is indistinct, as short final vowels were mostly lost.
#[[Ventive|Venitive]] or [[allative]], not a mood in the strictest sense, being a development of the first-person dative pronominal suffix ''-am''/''-m''/''-nim''. With [[verbs of motion]], it often indicates motion toward an object or person (''e.g.'', ''illik'', "he went" vs. ''illikam'', "he came"). However, this pattern is not consistent, even in earlier stages of the language, and its use often appears to serve a stylistic rather than [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] or [[lexicon|lexical]] function.

The following table demonstrates the verb moods of verbs derived from the root PRS ("to decide", "to separate"):

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Preterite.<ref group=t4 name=third-pm>Both verbs are for the 3rd person masculine singular.</ref>
! [[#Stative|Stative]].<ref group=t4 name=third-pm/>
|-
! [[Indicative]]
| ''iprus'' || ''paris''
|-
! [[Subjunctive]]
| ''iprusu'' || ''parsu''
|-
! [[Ventive|Venitive]]
| ''iprusam'' || ''parsam''
|}

{{reflist|group=t4}}

=====Verb patterns=====
Akkadian verbs have thirteen separate [[derived stem]]s formed on each [[Triliteral|root]]. The basic, underived, stem is the G-stem (from the German Grundstamm, meaning "basic stem"). [[Causative]] or [[intensive]] forms are formed with the doubled D-stem, and it gets its name from the doubled-middle radical that is characteristic of this form. The doubled middle radical is also characteristic of the present. The forms of the D-stem use the secondary conjugational affixes, so a D-form will never be identical to a form in a different stem. The Š-stem is formed by adding a prefix ''š-'', and these forms are mostly causatives. The passive forms of the verb are in the N-stem, formed by adding a ''n-'' prefix. The ''n-'' element is assimilated to a following consonant, so the original /n/ is only visible in a few forms.

[[reflexive verb|Reflexive]] and [[iterative]] verbal stems can be derived from each of the basic stems. The reflexive stem is formed with an infix ''-ta'', and the [[derived stems]] are therefore called Gt, Dt, Št and Nt, and the preterite forms of the Xt-stem are identical to the perfects of the X-stem. Iteratives are formed with the infix ''-tan-'', giving the Gtn, Dtn, Štn and Ntn. Because of the [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] of ''n'', the /n/ is only seen in the present forms, and the Xtn preterite is identical to the Xt [[Dynamic verb|durative]].

The final stem is the ŠD-stem, a form mostly attested only in poetic texts, and whose meaning is usually identical to either the Š-stem or the D-stem of the same verb.  It is formed with the Š prefix (like the Š-stem) in addition to a doubled-middle radical (like the D-stem).

An alternative to this naming system is a numerical system. The basic stems are numbered using [[Roman numeral]]s so that G, D, Š and N become I, II, III and IV, respectively. The [[infix]]es are numbered using [[Arabic numeral]]s; 1 for the forms without an infix, 2 for the Xt, and 3 for the Xtn. The two numbers are separated using a solidus. As an example, the Štn-stem is called III/3. The most important user of this system is the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary.

There is mandatory congruence between the subject of the sentence and the verb. This is expressed by [[prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es. There are two different sets of affixes, a primary set used for the forms of the G and N-stems, and a secondary set for the D and Š-stems.

The stems, their nomenclature and examples of the third-person masculine singular [[#Stative|stative]] of the verb ''parāsum'' (root PRS: 'to decide, distinguish, separate') is shown below:

{|class="wikitable" align="center"
! # || Stem || Verb || Description || Correspondence
|-
|I.1||G||''PaRiS''||the simple stem, used for [[Transitive verbs|transitive]] and [[intransitive verbs]]|| Arabic stem I (''fa'ala'') and Hebrew pa'al
|-
|II.1||D||''PuRRuS''||gemination of the second radical, indicating the intensive|| Arabic stem II (''faʿʿala'') and Hebrew ''pi'el''
|-
|III.1||Š||''šuPRuS''||š-preformative, indicating the causative|| Arabic stem IV ('''af'ala'') and Hebrew ''hiph'il''
|-
|IV.1||N||''naPRuS''||n-preformative, indicating the reflexive/passive|| Arabic stem VII (''infa'ala'') and Hebrew ''niph'al''
|-
|I.2||Gt||''PitRuS''||simple stem with t-infix after first radical, indicating reciprocal or reflexive|| Arabic stem VIII (''ifta'ala'') and Aramaic '''ithpe'al'' (tG)
|-
|II.2||Dt||''PutaRRuS''||doubled second radical preceded by infixed t, indicating intensive reflexive|| Arabic stem V (''tafaʿʿala'') and Hebrew ''hithpa'el'' (tD)
|-
|III.2||Št||''šutaPRuS''||š-preformative with t-infix, indicating reflexive causative|| Arabic stem X (''istaf'ala'') and Aramaic '''ittaph'al'' (tC)
|-
|IV.2||Nt||''itaPRuS'' || n-preformative with a t-infix preceding the first radical, indicating reflexive passive || rowspan='6' bgcolor='gray' |
|-
|I.3||Gtn||''PitaRRuS''||simple stem with tan-infix after first radical|
|-
|II.3||Dtn||''PutaRRuS''||doubled second radical preceded by tan-infix
|-
|III.3||Štn|| ''šutaPRuS'' ||š-preformative with tan-infix
|-
|IV.3||Ntn||''itaPRuS''||n-preformative with tan-infix
|-
|||ŠD||''šuPuRRuS''||š-preformative with doubled second radical
|}
{{reflist|group=t5}}

===Stative===
A very often appearing form which can be formed by [[noun]]s, [[adjectives]] as well as by [[predicative verb|verbal adjectives]] is the [[stative]]. [[Predicative (adjectival or nominal)|Nominal predicatives]] occur in the status absolutus and correspond to the verb "to be" in English. The stative in Akkadian corresponds to the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] pseudo-participle. The following table contains an example of using the noun ''šarrum'' (king), the adjective ''rapšum'' (wide) and the verbal adjective ''parsum'' (decided).

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="3" | 
! šarrum || rapšum || parsum
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st<br />person
! colspan="2" | singular
| šarr-āku || rapš-āku || pars-āku
|-
! colspan="2" | plural
| šarr-ānu || rapš-ānu || pars-ānu
|-
! rowspan="4" | 2nd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | singular
! masc.
| šarr-āta || rapš-āta || pars-āta
|-
! fem.
| šarr-āti || rapš-āti || pars-āti
|-
! rowspan="2" | plural
! masc.
| šarr-ātunu || rapš-ātunu || pars-ātunu
|-
! fem.
| šarr-ātina || rapš-ātina || pars-ātina
|-
! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | singular
! masc.
| šar-Ø || rapaš-Ø || paris-Ø
|-
! fem.
| šarr-at || rapš-at || pars-at
|-
! rowspan="2" | plural
! masc.
| šarr-ū || rapš-ū || pars-ū
|-
! fem.
| šarr-ā || rapš-ā || pars-ā
|}

Thus, the stative in Akkadian is used to convert simple stems into effective sentences, so that the form ''šarr-āta'' is equivalent to: "you were king", "you are king" and "you will be king". Hence, the stative is independent of time forms.

===Derivation===
Beside the already explained possibility of derivation of different verb stems, Akkadian has numerous nominal formations derived from verb [[triliteral|roots]]. A very frequently encountered form is the maPRaS form. It can express the location of an event, the person performing the act and many other meanings. If one of the root consonants is [[labial consonant|labial]] (p, b, m), the [[prefix]] becomes na- (maPRaS > naPRaS).  Examples for this are: ''maškanum'' (place, location) from ŠKN (set, place, put), ''mašraḫum'' (splendour) from ŠRḪ (be splendid), ''maṣṣarum'' (guards) from NṢR (guard), ''napḫarum'' (sum) from  PḪR (summarize).

A very similar formation is the maPRaSt form. The noun derived from this nominal formation is grammatically feminine. The same rules as for the maPRaS form apply, for example ''maškattum'' (deposit) from ŠKN (set, place, put), ''narkabtum'' (carriage) from RKB (ride, drive, mount).

The [[suffix]] – ūt is used to derive [[Noun#Concrete nouns and abstract nouns|abstract nouns]]. The nouns which are formed with this suffix are grammatically feminine. The suffix can be attached to nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g. ''abūtum'' (paternity) from ''abum'' (father), ''rabûtum'' (size) from ''rabûm'' (large), ''waṣûtum'' (leaving) from WṢY (leave).

Also derivatives of verbs from nouns, adjectives and numerals are numerous. For the most part, a D-stem is derived from the root of the noun or adjective. The derived verb then has the meaning of "make X do something" or "becoming X", for example: ''duššûm'' (let sprout) from ''dīšum'' (grass), ''šullušum'' (to do something for the third time ) from ''šalāš'' (three).

===Pronouns===

====Personal pronouns====

=====Independent personal pronouns=====
Independent [[personal pronouns]] in Akkadian are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Nominative || colspan=2 | Oblique || colspan=2 | [[Dative]]
|-
!  colspan=2|Person || [[Singulative number|singular]] || [[plural]] || singular || plural || singular || plural
|-
! colspan=2|1st
| anāku "I" || nīnu "we" || yâti || niāti || yâšim || niāšim
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
!<small>masculine</small>
|  atta "you" ||  attunu "you" || kâti (kâta) || kunūti ||kâšim || kunūšim
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| atti "you" || attina "you" || kâti || kināti || kâšim || kināšim
|-
! rowspan=2|3rd
!<small>masculine</small>
| šū "he" || šunu "they" || šātilu (šātilu) || šunūti ||šuāšim (šāšim) || šunūšim
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| šī "she" || šina "they" || šiāti (šuāti, šâti) || šināti || šiāšim (šâšim) || šināšim
|-
|}

=====Suffixed (or enclitic) pronouns=====
[[Suffix]]ed (or [[enclitic]]) pronouns (mainly denoting the [[genitive]], [[accusative]] and [[dative]]) are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | || colspan=2 | Genitive || colspan=2 | Accusative || colspan=2 | [[Dative]]
|-
!  colspan=2|Person || [[Singulative number|singular]] || [[plural]] || singular || plural || singular || plural
|-
! colspan=2|1st
| -i, -ya <ref group=t5>-ni is used for the nominative, i.e. following a verb denoting the subject.</ref> || -ni || -ni || -niāti || -am/-nim || -niāšim
|-
!  rowspan=2|2nd
!<small>masculine</small>
|  -ka ||  -kunu || -ka || -kunūti || -kum || -kunūšim
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| -ki || -kina || -ki || -kināti || -kim || -kināšim
|-
! rowspan=2|3rd
!<small>masculine</small>
| -šu  || -šunu || -šu  || -šunūti || -šum || -šunūšim
|-
!<small>feminine</small>
| -ša || -šina || -ši || -šināti || -šim || -šināšim
|-
|}

{{reflist|group=t5}}

====Demonstrative pronouns====
[[Demonstrative pronoun]]s in Akkadian differ from the [[West Semitic languages|Western Semitic]] variety. The following tables show the Akkadian demonstrative pronouns according to near and far [[deixis]]:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Proximal Demonstrative ("this", "these")
|-
! colspan="2" | 
! Masculine
! Feminine
|-
! rowspan="3" | Singular
! Nom.
|''annûm''||''annītum''
|-
! Acc.
|''anniam''||''annītam''
|-
! Gen.
|''annîm''||''annītim''
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! Nom.
|''annûtum''||''anniātum''
|-
! Acc./Gen.
|''annûtim''||''anniātim''
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Distal Demonstrative ("that", "those")
|-
! colspan="2" | 
! Masculine
! Feminine
|-
! rowspan="3" | Singular
! Nom.
|''ullûm''||''ullītum''
|-
! Acc.
|''ulliam''||''ullītam''
|-
! Gen.
|''ullîm''||''ullītim''
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! Nom.
|''ullûtum''||''ulliātum''
|-
! Acc./Gen.
|''ullûtim''||''ulliātim''
|}

====Relative pronouns====
[[Relative pronouns]] in Akkadian are shown in the following table:

{| class="wikitable" 
|-
! colspan="2" | 
! [[Nominative]]
! [[Accusative]]
! [[Genitive]]
|-
! rowspan="2" | Singular
! masc.
| šu
| ša
| ši
|-
! fem.
| šāt
| colspan="2" | šāti
|-
! colspan="2" | Dual
| colspan="3" | šā
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! masc.
| colspan="3" | šūt
|-
! fem.
| colspan="3" | šāt
|}

Unlike plural relative pronouns, singular relative pronouns in Akkadian exhibit full declension for case. Only the form ''ša'' (originally accusative masculine singular) survived, while the other forms disappeared in time.

====Interrogative pronouns====
The following table shows the [[interrogative pronouns]] used in Akkadian:
{| class="wikitable"
! Akkadian
! English
|-
| ''mannum''||who?
|-
| ''mīnum'', ''minûm''||what?
|-
| ''ayyum''||which?
|-
|}

===Prepositions===
Akkadian has [[preposition]]s which consist mainly of only one word. For example: ''ina'' (in, on, out, through, under), ''ana'' (to, for, after, approximately), ''adi'' (to), ''aššum'' (because of), ''eli'' (up, over), ''ištu/ultu'' (of, since), ''mala'' (in accordance with), ''itti'' (also, with). There are some compound prepositions which are combined with ''ina'' and ''ana'' (e.g. ''ina maḫar'' (forwards), ''ina balu'' (without), ''ana ṣēr'' (up to), ''ana maḫar'' (forwards). Regardless of the complexity of the preposition, the following noun is always in the [[genitive case]].

Examples: ''ina bītim'' (in the house, from the house), ''ana dummuqim'' (to do good), ''itti šarrim'' (with the king), ''ana ṣēr mārīšu'' (up to his son).

===Numerals===
Since [[Numeral system|numeral]]s are written mostly as a number sign in the [[cuneiform]] script, the [[transliteration]] of many numerals is not well ascertained yet. Along with the counted noun, the [[cardinal number|cardinal numeral]]s are in the status absolutus. Because other cases are very rare, the forms of the status rectus are known only by isolated numerals. The numerals 1 and 2 as well as 21–29, 31–39, 41–49 correspond with the counted in the [[grammatical gender]]. The numerals 3–20, 30, 40 and 50 are characterized by [[polarity of gender]], i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa.

This polarity is typical of the [[Semitic language]]s and appears, for example, in [[classical Arabic]]. The numerals 60, 100, and 1,000 do not change according to the gender of the counted noun. Counted nouns more than two appear in the plural form. Body parts that occur in pairs appear in the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] form  in Akkadian; ''e.g.'', ''šēpum'' (foot) becomes ''šēpān'' (two feet).

The [[ordinal number|ordinal]]s are formed (with few exceptions) by adding a [[case ending]] to the nominal form PaRuS. The P, R and S must be substituted with the suitable consonants of the numeral. It is noted, that in the case of the numeral "one", the ordinal (masculine) and the cardinal number are the same. A [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]] occurs in the numeral "four".{{citation needed|date=July 2023}}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+Akkadian numbers<ref>Huehnergard, 3rd ed., §23.2</ref>
!rowspan=3|#
!colspan=4|Cardinal 
!Congruence 
!colspan=2|Ordinal
|-
!colspan=2|<small>(masculine)</small>
!colspan=2|<small>(feminine)</small>
!rowspan=2|<small>(Gender agreement of the cardinal numeral)</small>
!rowspan=2|<small>(masculine)</small>
!rowspan=2|<small>(feminine)</small>
|-
!<small>(absolute)</small>
!<small>(free)</small>
!<small>(absolute)</small>
!<small>(free)</small>
|-
| align='left' | 1 || ''ištēn'' || (''ištēnum'') || ''išteat'', ''ištēt'' || (''ištētum'') || Congruent (no gender polarity) || ''pānûm''<br />''maḫrûm''<br />(''ištīʾum'')<br />''ištēn'' || ''pānītum''<br />''maḫrītum''<br />(''ištītum'')<br />''išteat''
|-
| align='left' | 2 || ''šinā'' || — || ''šittā'' || — || Congruent || ''šanûm'' || ''šanītum''
|-
| align='left' | 3 || ''šalāšat'' || ''šalāštum'' || ''šalāš'' || ''šalāšum'' || Gender polarity || ''šalšum'' || ''šaluštum''
|-
| align='left' | 4 || ''erbet(ti)'' || ''erbettum'' || ''erbe'', ''erba'' || ''erbûm'' || Gender polarity || ''rebûm'' || ''rebūtum''
|-
| align='left' | 5 || ''ḫamšat'' || ''ḫamištum'' || ''ḫamiš'' || ''ḫamšum'' || Gender polarity || ''ḫamšum'' || ''ḫamuštum''
|-
| align='left' | 6 || ''šeššet'' || ''šedištum'' || ''šediš''? || ''šeššum'' || Gender polarity || ''šeššum'' || ''šeduštum''
|-
| align='left' | 7 || ''sebet(ti)'' || ''sebettum'' || ''sebe'' || ''sebûm'' || Gender polarity || ''sebûm'' || ''sebūtum''
|-
| align='left' | 8 || ''samānat'' || ''samāntum'' || ''samāne'' || ''samānûm'' || Gender polarity || ''samnum'' || ''samuntum''
|-
| align='left' | 9 || ''tišīt'' || ''tišītum'' || ''tiše'' || ''tišûm'' || Gender polarity || ''tešûm'' || ''tešūtum''
|-
| align='left' | 10 || ''eš(e)ret'' || ''ešertum'' || ''ešer'' || ''eš(e)rum'' || Gender polarity || ''ešrum'' || ''ešurtum''
|-
| align='left' | 11 || colspan=2| ''ištēššeret'' || colspan=2| ''ištēššer'' || Gender polarity || ''ištēššerûm'' || ''ištēššerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 12 || colspan=2| ''šinšeret'' || colspan=2| ''šinšer'' || Gender polarity || ''šinšerûm'' || ''šinšerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 13 || colspan=2| ''šalāššeret'' || colspan=2| ''šalāššer'' || Gender polarity || ''šalāššerûm'' || ''šalāššerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 14 || colspan=2| ''erbēšeret'' || colspan=2| ''erbēšer'' || Gender polarity || ''erbēšerûm'' || ''erbēšerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 15 || colspan=2| ''ḫamiššeret'' || colspan=2| ''ḫamiššer'' || Gender polarity || ''ḫamiššerûm'' || ''ḫamiššerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 16 || colspan=2| ''šeššeret''? || colspan=2| ''šeššer''? || Gender polarity || ''šeššerûm''? || ''šeššerītum''?
|-
| align='left' | 17 || colspan=2| ''sebēšeret'' || colspan=2| ''sebēšer'' || Gender polarity || ''sebēšerûm'' || ''sebēšerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 18 || colspan=2| ''samāššeret'' || colspan=2| ''samāššer'' || Gender polarity || ''samāššerûm'' || ''samāššerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 19 || colspan=2| ''tišēšeret'' || colspan=2| ''tišēšer'' || Gender polarity || ''tišēšerûm'' || ''tišēšerītum''
|-
| align='left' | 20 || colspan='4' align='center' | ''ešrā'' || No gender distinction || ''ešrûm'' || ''ešrītum''?
|-
| align='left' | 30 || colspan='4' align='center' | ''šalāšā'' || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|-
| align='left' | 40 || colspan='4' align='center' | ''erbeā'', ''erbâ'' || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|-
| align='left' | 50 || colspan='4' align='center' | ''ḫamšā'' || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|-
| align='left' | 60 || colspan='4' align='center' | absolute ''šūš(i)'', free ''šūšum'' || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|-
| align='left' | 100 || colspan='4' align='center' | absolute sg. ''meat'', pl. ''meât''<ref>E.g. ''šalāš meât'' '300'</ref> (free ''meatum'') || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|-
| align='left' | 600 || colspan='4' align='center' | absolute ''nēr'', free ''nērum'' || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|-
| align='left' | 1000 || colspan='4' align='center' | absolute ''līm(i)'', free ''līmum'' || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|-
| align='left' | 3600 || colspan='4' align='center' | absolute ''šār'', free ''šārum'' || No gender distinction || colspan=2| (as with 20?)
|}

Examples: erbē aššātum (four wives) (masculine numeral), meat ālānū (100 towns).

===Syntax===

====Nominal phrases====
[[Adjectives]], [[relative clauses]] and [[apposition]]s follow the noun.
While [[Numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] precede the counted noun.
In the following table the nominal phrase ''erbēt šarrū dannūtum ša ālam īpušū abūya'' 'the four strong kings who built the city are my fathers' is analyzed:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Word
!Meaning
!Analysis
!Part of the nominal phrase
|-
| ''erbēt'' || four || masculine (gender polarity) || Numeral
|-
| ''šarr-ū'' || king || [[nominative]] plural || Noun (Subject)
|-
| ''dann-ūtum'' || strong || nominative masculine plural || Adjective
|-
| ''ša'' || which || relative pronoun || rowspan='3' valign='middle' | Relative clause
|-
| ''āl-am'' || city || [[accusative]] singular
|-
| ''īpuš-ū'' || built|| 3rd person masculine plural
|-
| ''[[ab (cuneiform)|ab]]-ū-ya'' || my fathers || masculine plural + possessive pronoun || Apposition
|-
|}

====Sentence syntax====
Akkadian sentence order was Subject+Object+Verb (SOV), which sets it apart from most other ancient Semitic languages such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Biblical Hebrew language|Biblical Hebrew]], which typically have a [[verb–subject–object]] (VSO)  word order.  Modern [[South Semitic]] languages in [[Ethiopia]] also have SOV order, but these developed within historical times from the classical [[verb–subject–object]] (VSO) language [[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]]. It has been hypothesized that this word order was a result of influence from the [[Sumerian language]], which was also SOV. There is evidence that native speakers of both languages were in intimate language contact, forming a single society for at least 500 years, so it is entirely likely that a [[sprachbund]] could have formed.{{sfn | Deutscher | 2000 | p=21}} Further evidence of an original VSO or SVO ordering can be found in the fact that direct and indirect object pronouns are suffixed to the verb.  Word order seems to have shifted to SVO/VSO late in the 1st millennium BC to the 1st millennium AD, possibly under the influence of [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]].

==Vocabulary==
The Akkadian vocabulary is mostly of [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] origin. Although classified as [[East Semitic]], many elements of its basic vocabulary find no evident parallels in related Semitic languages: ''mārum'' 'son' (Semitic *bn), ''qātum'' 'hand' (Semitic *yd), ''šēpum'' 'foot' (Semitic *rgl), ''qabûm'' 'say' (Semitic *qwl), ''izuzzum'' 'stand' (Semitic *qwm), ''ana'' 'to, for' (Semitic *li).

Due to extensive contact with Sumerian and [[Aramaic]], the Akkadian vocabulary contains many [[loan word]]s from these languages. Aramaic loan words were limited to the 1st centuries of the 1st millennium BC and primarily in the north and middle parts of [[Mesopotamia]]. Sumerian loan words were spread in the whole linguistic area. Beside the previous languages, some nouns were borrowed from [[Hurrian]], [[Kassite language|Kassite]], [[Ugaritic]] and other ancient languages.

Since Sumerian and Hurrian, two non-Semitic languages, differ from Akkadian in word structure, only nouns and some adjectives (not many verbs) were borrowed from these languages. Some verbs were borrowed, along with many nouns, from Aramaic and Ugaritic, both of which are Semitic languages.

The following table contains examples of loan words in Akkadian:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Akkadian
!Meaning
!Source
!Word in the language of origin
|-
| ''dûm'' || hill || Sumerian || ''du''
|-
| ''erēqum'' || flee || Aramaic || ''ʿRQ'' ([[Triliteral|root]])
|-
| ''gadalûm'' || dressed in linen || Sumerian || ''gada lá''
|-
| ''isinnum'' || firmly || Sumerian || ''ezen''
|-
| ''kasulatḫum'' || a device of copper || Hurrian || ''kasulatḫ-''
|-
| ''kisallum'' || court || Sumerian || ''kisal''
|-
| ''laqāḫum'' || take || Ugaritic || ''LQḤ'' ([[Triliteral|root]])
|-
| ''paraššannum'' || part of horse riding gear || Hurrian || ''paraššann-''
|-
| ''purkullum'' || stone cutter || Sumerian || ''bur-gul''
|-
| ''qaṭālum'' || kill || Aramaic || ''QṬL'' ([[Triliteral|root]])
|-
| ''uriḫullum'' || conventional penalty || Hurrian || ''uriḫull-''
|-
|}
Akkadian was also a source of borrowing to other Semitic languages such as ''biṣru'' "onion" (into {{langx|ar|بَصَل|baṣal}} and {{langx|he|בצל|betsel}}), ''āsu'' "myrtle" ({{lang|ar|آس}} ''ās'') and so on,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Levey |first1=Martin |title=Early Arabic pharmacology: An introduction based on ancient and medieval sources |date=1973 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=90-04-03796-9 |pages=64–5}}</ref> above all [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] with examples: Sumerian ''da-ri'' ('lastingly', from Akkadian ''dārum''), Sumerian ''ra gaba'' ('riders, messenger', from Akkadian ''rākibum'').

In 2011, the [[Oriental Institute (Chicago)|Oriental Institute]] of the [[University of Chicago]] completed a 21-volume dictionary, the ''[[Chicago Assyrian Dictionary]]'', of the Akkadian language. The dictionary took 90 years to develop, beginning in 1921, with the first volume published in 1956. The completion of this work was hailed as a significant milestone for the study of the language by prominent academic [[Irving Finkel]] of the British Museum.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Hebblethwaite|first1=Cordelia|date=2011-06-14|title=Dictionary 90 years in the making|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13715296|access-date=2018-06-21|archive-date=2018-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029043741/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-13715296|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Wilford|first=John Noble|date=2011-06-06|title=After 90 Years, a Dictionary of an Ancient World|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/07/science/07dictionary.html|access-date=2021-05-07|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2021-05-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501071659/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/07/science/07dictionary.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Sample text==
The following is the 7th section of the [[Code of Hammurabi|Hammurabi law code]], written in the mid-18th century BC:

{{interlinear|lang=akk|glossing=link|indent=2
| šumma awīl-um lū kasp-am lū ḫurāṣ-am lū ward-am lū amt-am
| if man-NOM or silver-ACC or gold-ACC or slave-M.ACC or slave-F.ACC
| If a man has bought silver or gold, a male or a female slave,
}}
{{interlinear|lang=akk|glossing=link|indent=2
| lū alp-am lū immer-am lū imēr-am ū lū {mimma šumšu} ina
| or cattle/oxen-ACC or sheep-ACC or donkey-ACC and or something from
| an ox, a sheep, or a donkey—or anything for that matter—
}}
{{interlinear|lang=akk|glossing=link|indent=2
| qāt mār awīl-im ū lū warad awīl-im balum šīb-ī u
| hand-{{gcl|CONST|Status Constructus|Construct state}} son-{{gcl|CONST|Status Constructus|Construct state}} man-GEN and or slave-{{gcl|CONST|Status Constructus|Construct state}} man-GEN without witnesses-GEN and
| from another man or from another man's slave without witnesses or contract,
}}
{{interlinear|lang=akk|glossing=link|indent=2
| riks-ātim i-štām-Ø ū lū ana maṣṣārūt-im i–mḫur-Ø
| contracts-GEN bought-3.SG.PERF and or for safekeeping-GEN received-3.SG.PRET
| or if he accepted something for safekeeping without same,
}}
{{interlinear|lang=akk|glossing=link|indent=2
| awīl-um šū šarrāq i-ddāk
| man-NOM he-3.M.SG stealer-{{gcl|ABS|Status Absolutus|Absolute state}} is_killed-3.SG.PASS-PRS
| then this man is a thief and hence to be killed.
}}

==Akkadian literature==
{{Main|Akkadian literature}}
*[[Atrahasis Epic]] (early 2nd millennium BC)
*[[Enûma Elish]] ({{Circa|18th century BC}})
*[[Amarna letters]] (14th century BC)
*[[Epic of Gilgamesh]] ([[Sin-liqe-unninni]]', Standard Babylonian version, 13th to 11th century BC)
*[[Ludlul bēl nēmeqi|Ludlul Bel Nemeqi]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*Aro, Jussi (1957). ''Studien zur mittelbabylonischen Grammatik''.  Studia Orientalia 22.  Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica.
*Buccellati, Giorgio (1996).  ''A Structural Grammar of Babylonian''.  Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
*Buccellati, Giorgio (1997).  "Akkadian", ''The Semitic Languages''.  Ed. Robert Hetzron.  New York: Routledge.  Pages 69–99.
*Bussmann, Hadumod (1996). ''Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics''. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-20319-8}}
*Caplice, Richard (1980). ''Introduction to Akkadian''. Rome: Biblical Institute Press. (1983: {{ISBN|88-7653-440-7}}; 1988, 2002: {{ISBN|88-7653-566-7}}) (The 1980 edition is partly available [http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/introduction/ita/start.htm online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060507045102/http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/introduction/ita/start.htm |date=2006-05-07 }}.)
*{{Cite book|last1 = Dolgopolsky|first1 = Aron| title = From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew| year = 1999 | publisher = Centro Studi Camito-Semitici di Milano | location = Milan}}
* {{cite book | last1=Deutscher | first1=G. | title=Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation | publisher=OUP Oxford | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-19-154483-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuoyPWY5gTkC&pg=PA21 | access-date=2018-08-26 | archive-date=2020-03-16 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316201815/https://books.google.com/books?id=SuoyPWY5gTkC&pg=PA21 | url-status=live }}
*Gelb, I.J. (1961).  ''Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar''. Second edition.  Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary 2.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
*George, A. (2007). "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian". In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.), ''Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern''. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, p.&nbsp;37. [http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3139/1/PAGE_31%2D71.pdf Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731204154/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3139/1/PAGE_31-71.pdf|date=2020-07-31}} 
*Huehnergard, John (2005). ''A Grammar of Akkadian (Second Edition)''. Eisenbrauns. {{ISBN|1-57506-922-9}}
*Marcus, David (1978). ''A Manual of Akkadian''. University Press of America. {{ISBN|0-8191-0608-9}}
*Mercer, Samuel A B (1961). ''Introductory Assyrian Grammar''. New York: F Ungar.  {{ISBN|0-486-42815-X}}
*{{Cite book|author=Sabatino Moscati|title=An Introduction to Comparative Grammar of Semitic Languages Phonology and Morphology|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1980|isbn=978-3-447-00689-7}}
*[[Wolfram von Soden|Soden, Wolfram von]] (1952). ''Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik''. Analecta Orientalia 33. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. (3rd ed., 1995: {{ISBN|88-7653-258-7}})
*Woodard, Roger D. The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-521-68497-2}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

===General description and grammar===
* Gelb, I. J. (1961). ''Old Akkadian writing and grammar''. Materials for the Assyrian dictionary, no. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-62304-1}}
* Hasselbach, Rebecca. ''Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag 2005. {{ISBN|978-3-447-05172-9}}
* Huehnergard, J. [https://www.academia.edu/234695/2011_A_Grammar_of_Akkadian_3rd_edition_ A Grammar of Akkadian (3rd ed. 2011.)] Harvard Semitic Museum  Studies 45. {{ISBN|978-1-57506-922-7}}
* Huehnergard, J. (2005). [https://www.academia.edu/234697/2013_Key_to_A_Grammar_of_Akkadian_3rd_edition_ A Key to A Grammar of Akkadian]. Harvard Semitic Studies. Eisenbrauns.
* [[Wolfram von Soden|Soden, Wolfram von]]: ''Grundriß der Akkadischen Grammatik''. Analecta Orientalia. Bd 33. Rom 1995.  {{ISBN|88-7653-258-7}}
* Streck, Michael P. ''Sprachen des Alten Orients''. Wiss. Buchges., Darmstadt 2005.  {{ISBN|3-534-17996-X}}
* Ungnad, Arthur: ''Grammatik des Akkadischen.'' Neubearbeitung durch L. Matouš, München 1969, 1979 (5. Aufl.).  {{ISBN|3-406-02890-X}}
*Woodard, Roger D. ''The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum''. Cambridge University Press 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-521-68497-2}}
*Ikeda, Jun. ''Early Japanese and Early Akkadian Writing Systems.'' University of Tsukuba. 2007 [http://www.caeno.org/origins/papers/Ikeda_Kunogenesis.pdf]

===Textbooks===
* Basics of Akkadian:  A Grammar Workbook and Glossary, By Gordon P. Hugenberg with Nancy L. Erickson, 2022.
* Rykle Borger: ''Babylonisch-assyrische Lesestücke.'' Rom 1963.(3., revidierte Auflage, 2006 Teil. I-II)
**Part I: ''Elemente der Grammatik und der Schrift. Übungsbeispiele. Glossar.''
**Part II: ''Die Texte in Umschrift.''
**Part III: ''Kommentar. Die Texte in Keilschrift.''
* Richard Caplice: ''Introduction to Akkadian.'' Biblical Institute Press, Rome 1988, 2002 (4.Aufl.).  {{ISBN|88-7653-566-7}}
* Kaspar K. Riemschneider: ''Lehrbuch des Akkadischen.'' [[Verlag Enzyklopädie]], Leipzig 1969, Langenscheidt [[Verlag Enzyklopädie]], Leipzig 1992 (6. Aufl.).  {{ISBN|3-324-00364-4}}
* Martin Worthington: "Complete Babylonian: Teach Yourself" London 2010 {{ISBN|0-340-98388-4}}

===Dictionaries===
* Jeremy G. Black, Andrew George, Nicholas Postgate: ''A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian.'' Harrassowitz-Verlag, Wiesbaden 2000.  {{ISBN|3-447-04264-8}}
* Wolfram von Soden: ''Akkadisches Handwörterbuch.'' 3 Bde. Wiesbaden 1958–1981.  {{ISBN|3-447-02187-X}}
* Martha T. Roth, ed.: ''[[Chicago Assyrian Dictionary|The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.]]'' 21 vols. in 26. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Chicago 1956–2010. ([https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/chicago-assyrian-dictionary available free online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918184402/http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/pubs/catalog/cad/ |date=18 September 2011 }})

===Akkadian cuneiform===
*Cherry, A. (2003). ''A basic neo-Assyrian cuneiform syllabary''. Toronto, Ont: Ashur Cherry, York University.
*Cherry, A. (2003). ''Basic individual logograms (Akkadian)''. Toronto, Ont: Ashur Cherry, York University.
*Rykle Borger: ''Mesopotamisches Zeichenlexikon.'' Alter Orient und Altes Testament (AOAT). Bd 305. Ugarit-Verlag, Münster 2004. {{ISBN|3-927120-82-0}}
*[[René Labat (assyriologist)|René Labat]]: ''Manuel d'Épigraphie Akkadienne.'' Paul Geuthner, Paris 1976, 1995 (6.Aufl.).  {{ISBN|2-7053-3583-8}}

===Translations===
*[[Shin Shifra]], Jacob Klein (1996). ''In Those Far Days''. Tel Aviv, [[Am Oved]] and The Israeli Center for Libraries' project for translating Exemplary Literature to Hebrew. This is an anthology of Sumerian and Akkadian poetry, translated into Hebrew.

===Technical literature on specific subjects===
* Ignace J. Gelb: ''Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar.'' Materials for the Assyrian dictionary. Bd 2. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1952, 1961, 1973.  {{ISBN|0-226-62304-1}}  {{ISSN|0076-518X}}
*[https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/2/5/pgad096/7147349%20] Gutherz, Gai, et al. "Translating Akkadian to English with neural machine translation." PNAS nexus 2.5, 2023
* Markus Hilgert: ''Akkadisch in der Ur III-Zeit.'' Rhema-Verlag, Münster 2002.  {{ISBN|3-930454-32-7}}
* Walter Sommerfeld: ''Bemerkungen zur Dialektgliederung Altakkadisch, Assyrisch und Babylonisch.'' In: ''Alter Orient und Altes Testament'' (AOAT). Ugarit-Verlag, Münster 274.2003.  {{ISSN|0931-4296}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{WikisourceWiki|Akkadian}}
{{wiktionary category}}
*[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/saao/knpp/cuneiformrevealed/ Introduction to Cuneiform Script and the Akkadian language] on [http://oracc.org/ The Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (Oracc)]
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/akkadian.htm Akkadian cuneiform on Omniglot (Writing Systems and Languages of the World)]
*[https://archive.org/details/assyriangrammarw00mercuoft ''Assyrian grammar with chrestomathy and glossary (1921)'' by Samuel A B Mercer]
*[http://www.assyrianlanguages.org/akkadian Akkadian-English-French Online Dictionary]
*[https://isaw.nyu.edu/publications/awol-index/html/www.klinopis.cz/www-klinopis-cz.html Old Babylonian Text Corpus (includes dictionary)]
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/research/publications/chicago-assyrian-dictionary The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD)]
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/mad2.pdf Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar, by I. J. Gelb, 2nd Ed. (1961)]
*[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/mad3.pdf Glossary of Old Akkadian, by I. J. Gelb (1957)]
*[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/doc/builder/linganno/AKK/akk-roots/#Index_of_Akkadian_roots List of 1280 Akkadian roots, with a representative verb form for each]
*[http://packages.ubuntu.com/trusty/ttf-ancient-fonts Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts] and Akkadian font for Ubuntu Linux-based operating system (ttf-ancient-fonts)
*[http://www.aina.org/cad.html The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD)]
*[https://wikis.hu-berlin.de/interlinear_glossing/Akkadian:Glossing_of_common_Akkadian_forms Akkadian in the wiki ''Glossing Ancient Languages''] (recommendations for the [[Interlinear gloss|Interlinear Morphemic Glossing]] of Akkadian texts)

{{Ancient Mesopotamia}}
{{Semitic languages|expanded=East}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Akkadian language| ]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 3rd millennium BC]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 8th century BC]]
[[Category:Cuneiform]]