View source for Anselm of Canterbury

{{Short description|Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109}}
{{Redirect|Saint Anselm|other uses|Saint Anselm (disambiguation)}}

{{Infobox Christian leader
| honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
| name = Anselm
| title = [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]<br>[[Doctor of the Church]]
| image = Anselm_of_Canterbury,_seal.svg
| caption = Anselm depicted on his seal
| church = [[Catholic Church in England and Wales|Catholic Church]]
| archdiocese = Canterbury
| see = Canterbury
| appointed = 1093
| ended = 21 April 1109
| predecessor = [[Lanfranc]]
| successor = [[Ralph d'Escures]]
| ordination = 
| consecration = 4 December 1093
| occupation = Monk, prior, abbot, archbishop
| other_post = [[Abbot of Bec]]
| birth_name = Anselme d'Aoste
| birth_date = c. 1033
| birth_place = [[Aosta]], [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Kingdom of Burgundy]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date = 21 April 1109
| death_place = [[Diocese of Canterbury|Canterbury]], [[Kingdom of England|England]]
| buried = [[Canterbury Cathedral]]
| parents = Gundulph<br/>Ermenberge
| feast_day = 21 April
| venerated = [[Catholic Church]]<br />[[Anglican Communion]]{{sfnp|Church Pension Fund|2010|p={{page needed|date=March 2024}}}}<br />[[Lutheranism]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.resurrectionpeople.org/saints.html |title=Notable Lutheran Saints |website=Resurrectionpeople.org |access-date=16 July 2019 |archive-date=16 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516024927/http://www.resurrectionpeople.org/saints.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| saint_title = Bishop, [[Confessor of the Faith|Confessor]], [[Doctor of the Church]]<br/>(''Doctor Magnificus'')
| beatified_date = 
| beatified_place = 
| beatified_by = 
| canonized_date = 4 October 1494
| canonized_place = [[Rome]], [[Papal States]]
| canonized_by = [[Pope Alexander VI]]
| attributes = {{nowrap|His [[mitre]], [[pallium]], and [[crozier]]}}<br/>His books<br/>A ship, representing the spiritual independence of the Church.
| module = {{Infobox philosopher
| embed             = yes
| region            = [[Western philosophy]]
* [[British philosophy]]
* [[Italian philosophy]]
| era              = [[Medieval philosophy]]
| name             = Anselm
| education        =
| notable_works    = ''[[Proslogion]]''<br/>''[[Cur Deus Homo]]''
|school_tradition  = [[Scholasticism]]<br/>[[Neoplatonism]]{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|pp=23–24}}<br/>[[Augustinianism]]
|main_interests    = [[Metaphysics]], [[theology]]
| notable_ideas    = {{ubl|[[Argument from degree]]|[[Ontological argument]]|[[Satisfaction theory of atonement]]}}
}}
| honorific_suffix = [[Benedictines|OSB]]
}}

'''Anselm of Canterbury''' [[Benedictines|<small>OSB</small>]] ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|n|s|ɛ|l|m}}; 1033/4–1109), also known as {{nowrap|'''Anselm of Aosta'''}} ({{langx|fr|Anselme d'Aoste|link=no}}, {{langx|it|Anselmo d'Aosta|link=no}}) after [[Aosta|his birthplace]] and {{nowrap|'''Anselm of Bec'''}} ({{langx|fr|Anselme du Bec|link=no}}) after his [[Abbey of Bec|monastery]], was an Italian<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Anselm-of-Canterbury |title=Saint Anselm of Canterbury |encyclopedia=Britannica.com |access-date=24 November 2018}}</ref> [[Benedictines|Benedictine]] monk, [[abbot]], philosopher, and theologian of the [[Catholic Church]], who served as [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] from 1093 to 1109.

As Archbishop of Canterbury, he defended the church's interests in England amid the [[Investiture Controversy]]. For his resistance to the English kings [[William II of England|William&nbsp;II]] and [[Henry I of England|Henry&nbsp;I]], he was exiled twice: once from 1097 to 1100 and then from 1105 to 1107. While in exile, he helped guide the [[Byzantine Rite|Greek Catholic]] bishops of southern Italy to adopt [[Roman Rite]]s at the [[Council of Bari]]. He worked for the [[primate bishop|primacy]] of Canterbury over the [[Archbishop of York]] and over the bishops of [[Catholic Church in Wales|Wales]], and at his death he appeared to have been successful; however, [[Pope Paschal&nbsp;II]] later reversed the papal decisions on the matter and restored York's earlier status.

Beginning at [[Bec Abbey|Bec]], Anselm composed dialogues and treatises with a rational and [[Philosophy|philosophical]] approach, which have sometimes caused him to be credited as the founder of [[Scholasticism]]. Despite his lack of recognition in this field in his own time, Anselm is now famous as the originator of the [[ontological argument]] for the [[existence of God]] and of the [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|satisfaction theory]] of [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement]].

After his death, Anselm was canonized as a saint; his feast day is 21 April. He was proclaimed a [[Doctor of the Church]] by a papal bull of [[Pope Clement XI]] in 1720.

==Biography==
{{anchor|History|Life}}
[[File:Maison StAnselme 2.JPG|thumb|upright|left|A plaque commemorating the supposed birthplace of Anselm in Anselm street, [[Aosta]], Italy. (The identification may be spurious.){{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n18 2–3]}}]]

===Family===
Anselm was born in or [[Aosta Valley|around]] [[Aosta]] in [[Upper Burgundy]] sometime between April 1033 and April 1034.{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n34 1–2]}} The area now forms part of the [[Republic of Italy]], but Aosta had been part of the post-[[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingian]] [[Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles|Kingdom of Burgundy]] until the death of the childless [[Rudolph III of Burgundy|Rudolph&nbsp;III]] in 1032.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=7}} The [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Conrad II]] and [[Odo II, Count of Blois]] then went to war over the succession. [[Humbert the White-Handed]], [[Count of Maurienne]], so distinguished himself that he was granted a [[county of Aosta|new county]] carved out of the secular holdings of the [[bishop of Aosta]]. Humbert's son [[Otto I, Count of Savoy|Otto]] was subsequently permitted to inherit the extensive [[March of Susa]] through his wife [[Adelaide of Susa|Adelaide]]{{sfnp|Previté-Orton|1912|p=155}} in preference to her uncle's families, who had supported the effort to establish an independent [[Kingdom of Italy (HRE)|Kingdom of Italy]] under [[William V, Duke of Aquitaine]]. Otto and Adelaide's unified lands{{sfnp|Kirsch|1911}} then controlled the most important passes in the [[Western Alps]] and formed the [[county of Savoy]] whose [[House of Savoy|dynasty]] would later rule the [[Kingdom of Sardinia|kingdoms of Sardinia]] and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]].{{sfnp|Mack Smith|1989|p={{page needed|date=March 2024}}}}{{sfnp|Villari|1911|pp=254–257}}

Records during this period are scanty, but both sides of Anselm's immediate family appear to have been dispossessed by these decisions{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n34 1–4]}} in favour of their extended relations.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=8}} His father Gundulph{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} or Gundulf{{sfnp|Robson|1996}} or Gondulphe{{sfnp|Rivolin|2009}} was a [[Lombards|Lombard]] noble,{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} probably one of Adelaide's [[Arduinici]] uncles or cousins;{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n34 1]}} his mother Ermenberge{{sfnp|Rivolin|2009}} was almost certainly the granddaughter of [[Conrad the Peaceful]], related both to the Anselmid bishops of Aosta and to the heirs of [[Henry II (HRE)|Henry&nbsp;II]] who had been passed over in favour of Conrad.{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n34 1]}} The marriage was thus probably arranged for political reasons but proved ineffective in opposing Conrad after his successful annexation of Burgundy on 1 August 1034.{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n18 2]}} ([[Burchard, bishop of Aosta|Bishop Burchard]] subsequently revolted against imperial control but was defeated and was ultimately [[translation (bishop)|translated]] to the [[diocese of Lyon]].) Ermenberge appears to have been the wealthier partner in the marriage. Gundulph moved to his wife's town,{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=7}} where she held a palace, most likely near the cathedral, along with a villa in the [[Aosta Valley|valley]].{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n20 4–7]}} Anselm's father is sometimes described as having a harsh and violent temper{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} but contemporary accounts merely portray him as having been overgenerous or careless with his wealth;{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n23 7–8]}} Meanwhile, Anselm's mother Ermenberge, patient and devoutly religious,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}}  made up for her husband's faults by her prudent management of the family estates.{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n23 7–8]}} In later life, there are records of three relations who visited Bec: Folceraldus, Haimo, and Rainaldus. The first repeatedly attempted to exploit Anselm's renown, but was rebuffed since he already had his ties to another monastery, whereas Anselm's attempts to persuade the other two to join the Bec community were unsuccessful.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=9}}

===Early life===
[[File:Saint-Anselme, rue De Maistre AO.JPG|thumb|left|Monument to St Anselm in Aosta, Xavier de Maistre street.]]

At the age of fifteen, Anselm felt the call to enter a monastery but, failing to obtain his father's consent, he was refused by the abbot.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} The illness he then suffered has been considered by some a [[psychosomatic illness|psychosomatic]] effect of his disappointment,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} but upon his recovery he gave up his studies and for a time lived a carefree life.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}}

Following the death of his mother, probably at the birth of his sister Richera,{{sfnp|Wilmot-Buxton|1915|loc= Ch.&nbsp;3}} Anselm's father repented his own earlier lifestyle but professed his new faith with a severity that the boy found likewise unbearable.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=365–366}} When Gundulph entered a monastery,{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=366}} Anselm, at age 23,{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|p=9}} left home with a single attendant,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} crossed the [[Alps]], and wandered through [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] and [[Kingdom of France|France]] for three years.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}}{{efn|An entry concerning Anselm's parents in the records of Christ Church in Canterbury leaves open the possibility of a later reconciliation.{{sfnp|Robson|1996}}}} His countryman [[Lanfranc]] of [[Pavia]] was then [[Prior (ecclesiastical)|prior]] of the [[Benedictines|Benedictine]] [[abbey of Bec]] in Normandy. Attracted by Lanfranc's reputation, Anselm reached [[Duchy of Normandy|Normandy]] in 1059.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} After spending some time in [[Avranches]], he returned the next year. His father having died, he consulted with Lanfranc as to whether to return to his estates and employ their income in providing [[almsgiving|alms for the poor]] or to renounce them, becoming a [[hermit]] or a monk at Bec or [[Cluny]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§1}} Given what he saw as his own conflict of interest, Lanfranc sent Anselm to [[Maurilius]], the [[archbishop of Rouen]], who convinced him to enter Bec as a [[Catholic novitiate|novice]] at the age of 27.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} Probably in his first year, he wrote his first work on philosophy, a treatment of [[Latin]] paradoxes called the ''[[#Dialogues|Grammarian]]''.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} Over the next decade, the [[Rule of Saint Benedict]] reshaped his thought.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=32}}

===Abbot of Bec===
====Early years====
[[File:Moine de l'abbaye du Bec-Hellouni.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bec Abbey]] in [[Normandy]]]]

Three years later, in 1063, [[William the Conqueror|Duke William II]] summoned Lanfranc to serve as the abbot of his new [[Abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen|abbey of St&nbsp;Stephen]] at [[Caen]]{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} and the monks of Bec, despite the initial hesitation of some on account of his youth,{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} elected Anselm prior.{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|p=10}} A notable opponent was a young monk named Osborne. Anselm overcame his hostility first by praising, indulging, and privileging him in all things despite his hostility and then, when his affection and trust were gained, gradually withdrawing all preference until he upheld the strictest obedience.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|pp=366–367}} Along similar lines, he remonstrated with a neighbouring abbot who complained that his charges were incorrigible despite being beaten "night and day".{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=367–368}} After fifteen years, in 1078, Anselm was unanimously elected as Bec's abbot following the death of its founder,{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=368}} the warrior-monk [[Herluin of Bec|Herluin]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} He was blessed as abbot by [[Gilbert d'Arques]], Bishop of Évreux, on 22 February 1079.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=282}}

Under Anselm's direction, Bec became the foremost seat of learning in Europe,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} attracting students from France, [[medieval Italy|Italy]], and elsewhere.{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|p=15}} During this time, he wrote the ''[[#Monologion|Monologion]]'' and ''[[Proslogion]]''.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} He then composed a series of [[dialogue]]s on the nature of [[truth]], [[free will]],{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} and the [[fall of Satan]].{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} When the [[nominalism|nominalist]] [[Roscelin]] attempted to appeal to the authority of [[Lanfranc]] and Anselm at his trial for the heresy of [[tritheism]] at [[Council of Soissons|Soissons]] in 1092,{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA483 483]}} Anselm composed the first draft of ''[[#Other works|De Fide Trinitatis]]'' as a rebuttal and as a defence of [[Trinitarianism]] and [[universals]].{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} The fame of the monastery grew not only from his intellectual achievements, however, but also from his good example{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§1}} and his loving, kindly method of discipline,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} particularly with the younger monks.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} There was also admiration for his spirited defence of the abbey's independence from lay and archiepiscopal control, especially in the face of  [[Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert de Beaumont, Earl of Leicester]] and  the new Archbishop of Rouen, [[William Bona Anima]].{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=281}}
{{clear}}

====In England====
[[File:Abbaye du Bec-Hellouin - croix anglicane.jpg|thumb|right|A cross at [[Bec Abbey]] commemorating the connection between it and [[Canterbury Cathedral|Canterbury]]. [[Lanfranc]], Anselm, and [[Theobald of Bec|Theobald]] were all priors at Bec before serving as [[primate bishop|primates]] in [[Kingdom of England|England]].]]
Following the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] of [[Anglo-Saxon England|England]] in 1066, devoted lords had given the abbey extensive lands across the [[English Channel|Channel]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} Anselm occasionally visited to oversee the monastery's property, to wait upon his sovereign [[William the Conqueror|William I of England]] (formerly Duke William II of Normandy),{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=369}} and to visit Lanfranc, who had been installed as [[archbishop of Canterbury]] in 1070.{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|p=16}} He was respected by William I{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=74}} and the good impression he made while in Canterbury made him the favourite of its cathedral chapter as a future successor to Lanfranc.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} Instead, upon the archbishop's death in 1089, [[William II of England|King William&nbsp;II]]—William Rufus or William the Red—refused the appointment of any successor and appropriated the see's lands and revenues for himself.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} Fearing the difficulties that would attend being named to the position in opposition to the king, Anselm avoided journeying to England during this time.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} The gravely ill [[Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester|Hugh, Earl of Chester]], finally lured him over with three pressing messages in 1092,{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=370}} seeking advice on how best to handle the establishment of the new monastery of [[Abbey of St Werburgh|St&nbsp;Werburgh]] at Chester.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} Hugh had recovered by the time of Anselm's arrival,{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} and Anselm was occupied four{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} or five months organizing the new community.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} He then travelled to his former pupil [[Gilbert Crispin]], [[abbot of Westminster|abbot]] of [[Westminster Abbey|Westminster]], and waited, apparently delayed by the need to assemble the donors of Bec's new lands in order to obtain royal approval of the grants.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lxf-LvQvvwIC&pg=PA189 189]}}

[[File:A Chronicle of England - Page 118 - Anselm Made Archbishop of Canterbury.jpg|thumb|left|A 19th-century portrayal of Anselm being dragged to the cathedral by the English bishops]]
{{Catholic philosophy}}
At Christmas, William II pledged by the [[Holy Face of Lucca]] that neither Anselm nor any other would sit at Canterbury while he lived{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=371}} but in March he fell seriously ill at [[Alveston]]. Believing his [[sin]]ful behavior was responsible,{{sfnp|Barlow|1983|pp=298–299}} he summoned Anselm to hear his [[Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)|confession]] and administer [[last rites]].{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lxf-LvQvvwIC&pg=PA189 189]}} He published a proclamation releasing his captives, discharging his debts, and promising to henceforth govern according to the law.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} On 6 March 1093, he further nominated Anselm to fill the vacancy at Canterbury; the clerics gathered at court acclaiming him, forcing the [[crozier]] into his hands, and bodily carrying him to a nearby church amid a ''[[Te Deum]]''.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lxf-LvQvvwIC&pg=PA189 189–190]}} Anselm tried to refuse on the grounds of age and ill-health for months{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|p=16}} and the monks of Bec refused to give him permission to leave them.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lxf-LvQvvwIC&pg=PA191 191–192]}} Negotiations were handled by the recently restored [[William de St-Calais|Bishop William]] of [[Diocese of Durham|Durham]] and [[Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert, count of Meulan]].{{sfnp|Barlow|1983|p=306}} On 24 August, Anselm gave King&nbsp;William the conditions under which he would accept the position, which amounted to the agenda of the [[Gregorian Reform]]: the king would have to return the Catholic Church lands which had been seized, accept his spiritual counsel, and forswear [[Antipope Clement III]] in favour of [[Pope Urban II|Urban&nbsp;II]].{{sfnp|Vaughn|1974|p=246}} William Rufus was exceedingly reluctant to accept these conditions: he consented only to the first{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=286}} and, a few days afterwards, reneged on that, suspending preparations for Anselm's [[investiture]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Public pressure forced William to return to Anselm and in the end they settled on a partial return of Canterbury's lands as his own concession.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1974|p=248}} Anselm received [[Dispensation (canon law)|dispensation]] from his duties in Normandy,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=91}} did [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] to William, and—on 25 September 1093—was [[enthronement|enthroned]] at [[Canterbury Cathedral]].{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|p=17}} The same day, William&nbsp;II finally returned the lands of the see.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=286}}

From the mid-8th century, it had become the custom that [[metropolitan bishop]]s could not be [[consecration|consecrated]] without a woollen [[pallium]] given or sent by the [[pope]] himself.{{sfnp|Boniface|747|loc=Letter to Cuthbert}} Anselm insisted that he journey to [[Rome]] for this purpose but William would not permit it. Amid the [[Investiture Controversy]], [[Pope&nbsp;Gregory&nbsp;VII]] and [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Henry&nbsp;IV]] had [[Papal deposing power|deposed]] each other twice; bishops loyal to Henry finally elected [[Antipope Clement III|Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna]], as a second pope. In France, [[Philip I of France|Philip&nbsp;I]] had recognized Gregory and his successors [[Pope Victor III|Victor&nbsp;III]] and [[Pope Urban II|Urban&nbsp;II]], but Guibert (as "Clement&nbsp;III") held Rome after 1084.{{sfnp|Hayes|1911|p=683}} William had not chosen a side and maintained his right to prevent the acknowledgement of either pope by an English subject prior to his choice.{{sfnp|Kent|1907}} In the end, a ceremony was held to [[consecration|consecrate]] Anselm as archbishop on 4 December, without the pallium.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=286}}

===Archbishop of Canterbury===
As archbishop, Anselm maintained his monastic ideals, including stewardship, prudence, and proper instruction, prayer and contemplation.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1988|p=218}} Anselm advocated for [[Gregorian Reform|reform]] and interests of Canterbury.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1978|p=357}} As such, he repeatedly pressed the English monarchy for support of the reform agenda.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=293}} His principled opposition to royal prerogatives over the Catholic Church, meanwhile, twice led to his exile from England.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|pp=91–92}}

The traditional view of historians has been to see Anselm as aligned with the papacy against lay authority and Anselm's term in office as the English theatre of the [[Investiture Controversy]] begun by Pope&nbsp;Gregory&nbsp;VII and the emperor Henry&nbsp;IV.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|pp=91–92}} By the end of his life, he had proven successful, having freed Canterbury from submission to the English king,{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=82}} received papal recognition of the submission of [[Canterbury–York dispute|wayward]] [[archdiocese of York|York]]{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=83}} and the [[Celtic Christianity|Welsh bishops]], and gained strong authority over the Irish bishops.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=298}} He died before the [[Canterbury–York dispute]] was definitively settled, however, and [[Pope Honorius&nbsp;II]] finally found in favour of York instead.{{sfnp|Duggan|1965|pp=98–99}}

[[File:Canterbury Cathedral 1174b.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|[[Canterbury Cathedral]] following [[Ernulf]] and [[Conrad (prior)|Conrad]]'s expansions{{sfnp|Willis|1845|p=[https://archive.org/details/architecturalhi03willgoog/page/n60 38]}}]]
Although the work was largely handled by [[Christ Church Cathedral Priory|Christ Church's priors]] [[Ernulf]] (1096–1107) and [[Conrad (prior)|Conrad]] (1108–1126), Anselm's episcopate also saw the expansion of [[Canterbury Cathedral]] from Lanfranc's initial plans.{{sfnp|Willis|1845|pp=[https://archive.org/details/architecturalhi03willgoog/page/n39 17–18]}} The eastern end was demolished and an expanded [[Choir (architecture)|choir]] placed over a large and well-decorated [[crypt]], doubling the cathedral's length.{{sfnp|Cook|1949|p=49}} The new choir formed a church unto itself with its own [[transept]]s and a semicircular [[ambulatory]] opening into three [[side chapel|chapels]].{{sfnp|Willis|1845|pp=[https://archive.org/details/architecturalhi03willgoog/page/n67 45–47]}}

====Conflicts with William Rufus====
Anselm's vision was of a Catholic Church with its own internal authority, which clashed with William&nbsp;II's desire for royal control over both church and State.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=293}} One of Anselm's first conflicts with William came in the month he was consecrated. William&nbsp;II was preparing to wrest [[duchy of Normandy|Normandy]] from his elder brother, [[Robert II, Duke of Normandy|Robert&nbsp;II]], and needed funds.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=287}} Anselm was among those expected to pay him. He offered [[GBP|£]]500 but William refused, encouraged by his courtiers to insist on £1000 as a kind of [[annates]] for Anselm's elevation to archbishop. Anselm not only refused, he further pressed the king to fill England's other vacant positions, permit bishops to meet freely in councils, and to allow Anselm to resume enforcement of [[canon law]], particularly against [[Incest#Christian|incestuous marriages]],{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} until he was ordered to silence.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA482 482]}} When a group of bishops subsequently suggested that William might now settle for the original sum, Anselm replied that he had already [[almsgiving|given the money to the poor]] and "that he disdained to purchase his master's favour as he would a horse or ass".{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA483 483]}} The king being told this, he replied Anselm's blessing for his invasion would not be needed as "I hated him before, I hate him now, and shall hate him still more hereafter".{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA482 482]}} Withdrawing to Canterbury, Anselm began work on the ''[[Cur Deus Homo]]''.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA483 483]}}

[[File:AnselmP136.gif|thumb|left|"Anselm Assuming the [[Pallium]] in [[Canterbury Cathedral]]" from [[Ethel Mary Wilmot-Buxton|E. M. Wilmot-Buxton]]'s 1915 ''Anselm''{{sfnp|Wilmot-Buxton|1915|p= 136}}]]
Upon William's return, Anselm insisted that he travel to the court of Urban&nbsp;II<!--not in Rome--> to secure the pallium that legitimized his office.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA483 483]}} On 25 February 1095, the [[Lords Spiritual]] and [[Lords Temporal|Temporal]] of England met in a council at [[Rockingham, Northamptonshire|Rockingham]] to discuss the issue. The next day, William ordered the bishops not to treat Anselm as their primate or as Canterbury's archbishop, as he openly adhered to Urban. The bishops sided with the king, the [[William de St-Calais|Bishop of Durham]] presenting his case{{sfnp|Powell & al.|1968|p=52}} and even advising William to depose and exile Anselm.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1987|pp=182–185}} The nobles siding with Anselm, the conference ended in deadlock and the matter was postponed. Immediately following this, William secretly sent [[William Warelwast]] and [[Gerard (archbishop of York)|Gerard]] to Italy,<!--not in Rome; likely at Council of Piacenza-->{{sfnp|Vaughn|1978|p=357}} prevailing on Urban to send a [[papal legate|legate]] bearing Canterbury's pallium.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=289}} [[Walter of Albano|Walter, bishop of Albano]], was chosen and negotiated in secret with William's representative, the Bishop of Durham.{{sfnp|Cantor|1958|p=92}} The king agreed to publicly support Urban's cause in exchange for acknowledgement of his rights to accept no legates without invitation and to block clerics from receiving or obeying papal letters without his approval. William's greatest desire was for Anselm to be removed from office. Walter said that "there was good reason to expect a successful issue in accordance with the king's wishes" but, upon William's open acknowledgement of Urban as pope, Walter refused to depose the archbishop.{{sfnp|Barlow|1983|pp=342-344}} William then tried to sell the pallium to others, failed,{{sfnp|Davies|1874|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eIADAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} tried to extract a payment from Anselm for the pallium, but was again refused. William then tried to personally bestow the pallium to Anselm, an act connoting the church's subservience to the throne, and was again refused.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA485 485]}} In the end, the pallium was laid on the altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it on 10 June 1095.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA485 485]}}

The [[First Crusade]] was declared at the [[Council of Clermont]] in November.{{efn|Anselm did not publicly condemn the Crusade but replied to an Italian whose brother was then in Asia Minor that he would be better off in a monastery instead. [[R. W. Southern|Southern]] summarized his position in this way: "For him, the important choice was quite simply between the [[heavenly Jerusalem]], the true vision of Peace signified by the name Jerusalem, which was to be found in the monastic life, and the carnage of the [[History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages|earthly Jerusalem]] in this world, which under whatever name was nothing but a vision of destruction".{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=169}}}} Despite his service for the king which earned him rough treatment from Anselm's biographer [[Eadmer]],{{sfnp|Cantor|1958|p=97}}{{sfnp|Vaughn|1987|p=188}} upon the grave illness of the [[William de St-Calais|Bishop of Durham]] in December, Anselm journeyed to console and bless him on his deathbed.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1987|p=194}} Over the next two years, William opposed several of Anselm's efforts at reform—including his right to convene a council{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=74}}—but no overt dispute is known. However, in 1094, the [[Medieval Wales|Welsh]] had begun to recover their lands from the [[Marcher Lords]] and William's 1095 invasion had accomplished little; two larger forays were made in 1097 against [[Cadwgan ap Bleddyn|Cadwgan]] in [[Kingdom of Powys|Powys]] and [[Gruffudd ap Cynan|Gruffudd]] in [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]]. These were also unsuccessful and William was compelled to erect a series of border fortresses.{{sfnp|Potter|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h_zW8TBBVQkC&pg=PA47 47]}} He charged Anselm with having given him insufficient knights for the campaign and tried to fine him.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=291}} In the face of William's refusal to fulfill his promise of church reform, Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome—where an army of French crusaders had finally installed Urban—in order to seek the counsel of the pope.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=293}} William again denied him permission. The negotiations ended with Anselm being "given the choice of exile or total submission": if he left, William declared he would seize Canterbury and never again receive Anselm as archbishop; if he were to stay, William would impose his fine and force him to swear never again to appeal to the papacy.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=292}}

====First exile====
[[File:Romanelli - The Meeting of the Countess Matilda and Anselm of Canterbury in the Presence of Pope Urban II.jpg|thumb|right|[[Giovanni Francesco Romanelli|Romanelli]]'s {{circa|lk=no|1640}} ''Meeting of [[Countess Matilda]] and Anselm of Canterbury in the Presence of [[Pope Urban&nbsp;II]]'']]
Anselm chose to depart in October 1097.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=293}} Although Anselm retained his nominal title, William immediately seized the revenues of his bishopric and retained them til death.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1978|p=360}} From [[Lyon]], Anselm wrote to Urban, requesting that he be permitted to resign his office. Urban refused but commissioned him to prepare a defence of the [[Filioque|Western doctrine of the procession of the Holy Spirit]] against representatives from the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Church]].{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cimpTwnAjxwC&pg=PA279 279]}} Anselm arrived in Rome by April{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cimpTwnAjxwC&pg=PA279 279]}} and, according to his biographer [[Eadmer]], lived beside the pope during the [[Siege of Capua (1098)|Siege of Capua]] in May.{{sfnp|Southern|1963}} [[Roger I of Sicily|Count Roger]]'s [[Muslim Sicily|Saracen]] troops supposedly offered him food and other gifts but the count actively resisted the clerics' attempts to convert them to Catholicism.{{sfnp|Southern|1963}}

At the [[Council of Bari]] in October, Anselm delivered his defence of the ''[[Filioque]]'' and the use of [[unleavened bread]] in the [[Eucharist]] before 185 bishops.{{sfnp|Kidd|1927|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tc5FAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 252–3]}} Although this is sometimes portrayed as a failed [[ecumenism|ecumenical dialogue]], it is more likely that the "Greeks" present were the local bishops of Southern Italy,{{sfnp|Fortescue|1907|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gu5d7_bByvIC&pg=PA203 203]}} some of whom had been ruled by [[Constantinople]] as recently as 1071.{{sfnp|Kidd|1927|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tc5FAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 252–3]}} The formal acts of the council have been lost and Eadmer's account of Anselm's speech principally consists of descriptions of the bishops' [[vestments]], but Anselm later collected his arguments on the topic as {{lang|la|[[#Other works|De Processione Spiritus Sancti]]}}.{{sfnp|Fortescue|1907|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gu5d7_bByvIC&pg=PA203 203]}} Under pressure from their [[Norman Italy|Norman lords]], the Italian Greeks seem to have accepted papal supremacy and Anselm's theology.{{sfnp|Fortescue|1907|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gu5d7_bByvIC&pg=PA203 203]}} The council also condemned William II. Eadmer credited Anselm with restraining the pope from excommunicating him,{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cimpTwnAjxwC&pg=PA279 279]}} although others attribute Urban's politic nature.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}}

Anselm was present in a [[seat of honour]] at the [[Council of Rome (1099)|Easter Council]] at [[Old St Peter's|St&nbsp;Peter's]] in Rome the next year.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=280}} There, amid an outcry to address Anselm's situation, Urban renewed bans on [[lay investiture]] and on clerics doing homage.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=281}} Anselm departed the next day, first for [[Schiavi]]—where he completed his work ''[[Cur Deus Homo]]''—and then for [[Lyon]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}}{{sfnp|Sharpe|2009}}

====Conflicts with Henry I====
[[File:Quimper - Cathédrale Saint-Corentin - PA00090326 - 025.jpg|thumb|right|The life of St&nbsp;Anselm told in 16 [[Medaillon (architecture)|medallions]] in a [[stained-glass window]] in [[Quimper Cathedral]], [[Brittany]], in France]]
William Rufus [[Walter Tirel#Death of William II|was killed hunting in the New Forest]] on 2 August 1100. His brother [[Henry I of England|Henry]] was present and moved quickly to secure the throne before the return of his elder brother [[Robert Curthose|Robert, Duke of Normandy]], from the [[First Crusade]]. Henry invited Anselm to return, pledging in his letter to submit himself to the archbishop's counsel.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=63}} The cleric's support of Robert would have caused great trouble but Anselm returned before establishing any other terms than those offered by Henry.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lxf-LvQvvwIC&pg=PA291 291]}} Once in England, Anselm was ordered by Henry to do homage for his Canterbury estates{{sfnp|Hollister|1983|p=120}} and to receive his investiture by [[episcopal ring|ring]] and [[crozier]] anew.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=67}} Despite having done so under William, the bishop now refused to violate [[canon law]]. Henry for his part refused to relinquish a right possessed by his predecessors and even sent an embassy to [[Pope&nbsp;Paschal&nbsp;II]] to present his case.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} Paschal reaffirmed Urban's bans to that mission and the one that followed it.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}}

Meanwhile, Anselm publicly supported Henry against the claims and threatened invasion of his brother [[Robert Curthose]]. Anselm wooed wavering barons to the king's cause, emphasizing the religious nature of their oaths and duty of loyalty;{{sfnp|Hollister|2003|pp=137–138}} he supported the deposition of [[Ranulf Flambard]], the disloyal new [[bishop of Durham]];{{sfnp|Hollister|2003|pp=135–136}} and he threatened Robert with excommunication.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=295}} The lack of popular support greeting his invasion near [[Portsmouth]] compelled Robert to accept the [[Treaty of Alton]] instead, renouncing his claims for an annual payment of 3000&nbsp;[[mark (currency)|marks]].

Anselm held a council at [[Lambeth Palace]] which found that Henry's beloved [[Matilda of Scotland|Matilda]] had not technically become a [[nun]] and was thus eligible to wed and become queen.{{sfnp|Hollister|2003|pp=128–129}} On [[Michaelmas]] in 1102, Anselm was finally able to convene a [[Council of London in 1102|general church council at London]], establishing the [[Gregorian Reform]] within England. The council prohibited marriage, [[concubinage]], and drunkenness to all those in holy orders,{{sfnp|Partner|1973|pp=467–475, 468}} condemned [[sodomy]]{{sfnp|Boswell|1980|p=215}} and [[simony]],{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=295}} and regulated [[vestments|clerical dress]].{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=295}} Anselm also obtained a resolution against the [[Slavery in the British Isles|British slave trade]].{{sfnp|Crawley|1910}} Henry supported Anselm's reforms and his authority over the English Church but continued to assert his own authority over Anselm. Upon their return, the three bishops he had dispatched on his second delegation to the pope claimed—in defiance of Paschal's sealed letter to Anselm, his public acts, and the testimony of the two monks who had accompanied them—that the pontiff had been receptive to Henry's counsel and secretly approved of Anselm's submission to the crown.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA489 489–91]}} In 1103, then, Anselm consented to journey himself to Rome, along with the king's envoy [[William Warelwast]].{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=71}} Anselm supposedly travelled in order to argue the king's case for a dispensation{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} but, in response to this third mission, Paschal fully excommunicated the bishops who had accepted investment from Henry, though sparing the king himself.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}}

====Second exile====
After this ruling, Anselm received a letter forbidding his return and withdrew to Lyon to await Paschal's response.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} On 26 March 1105, Paschal again excommunicated prelates who had accepted investment from Henry and the advisors responsible, this time including [[Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert de Beaumont]], Henry's chief advisor.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=74}} He further finally threatened Henry with the same;{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|pp=19–20}} in April, Anselm sent messages to the king directly{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA496 496–97]}} and through his sister [[Adela of Normandy|Adela]] expressing his own willingness to excommunicate Henry.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} This was probably a negotiation tactic{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=75}} but it came at a critical period in Henry's reign{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} and it worked: a meeting was arranged and a compromise concluded at [[L'Aigle]] on 22 July 1105. Henry would forsake lay investiture if Anselm obtained Paschal's permission for clerics to do homage for their lands;{{sfnp|Vaughn|1978|p=367}}{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=76}} Henry's bishops'{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} and counsellors' excommunications were to be lifted provided they advise him to obey the papacy (Anselm performed this act on his own authority and later had to answer for it to Paschal);{{sfnp|Vaughn|1978|p=367}} the revenues of Canterbury would be returned to the archbishop; and priests would no longer be permitted to marry.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=76}} Anselm insisted on the agreement's ratification by the pope before he would consent to return to England, but wrote to Paschal in favour of the deal, arguing that Henry's forsaking of lay investiture was a greater victory than the matter of homage.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=77}} On 23 March 1106, Paschal wrote Anselm accepting the terms established at L'Aigle, although both clerics saw this as a temporary compromise and intended to continue pressing for reforms,{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA497 497–98]}} including the ending of homage to lay authorities.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|pp=296–297}}

Even after this, Anselm refused to return to England.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=80}} Henry travelled to [[Le Bec-Hellouin|Bec]] and met with him on 15 August 1106. Henry was forced to make further concessions. He restored to Canterbury all the churches that had been seized by William or during Anselm's exile, promising that nothing more would be taken from them and even providing Anselm with a security payment.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Henry had initially taxed married clergy and, when their situation had been outlawed, had made up the lost revenue by controversially extending the tax over all Churchmen.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=297}} He now agreed that any prelate who had paid this would be exempt from taxation for three years.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} These compromises on Henry's part strengthened the rights of the church against the king. Anselm returned to England before the new year.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}}

====Final years====
[[File:Canterburycathedralanselmtomb.jpg|thumb|right|The Altar of St&nbsp;Anselm in his chapel at [[Canterbury Cathedral]]. It was constructed by English sculptor [[Stephen Cox (sculptor)|Stephen Cox]] from [[Aosta]] marble donated by [[Aosta Valley|its regional government]]<ref>{{citation |last=Cross |first=Michael |contribution=Altar in St Anselm Chapel |contribution-url=http://canterbury-buildings.org.uk/#/altar-anselm/4567028795 |title=Canterbury Historical and Archaeological Society |access-date=30 June 2015 }}</ref> and consecrated on 21 April 2006 at a ceremony including the [[Giuseppe Anfossi|Bishop of Aosta]] and the [[Paul-Emmanuel Clénet|Abbot of Bec]].<ref>{{citation |contribution=St Anselm's Chapel Altar |contribution-url=http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WMEAPF_St_Anselms_Chapel_Altar_Canterbury_Cathedral_Canterbury_Kent_UK |title=Waymarking |publisher=Groundspeak |date=28 April 2012 |access-date=30 June 2015 |location=Seattle }}</ref> The location of Anselm's relics, however, remains uncertain.]]
In 1107, the [[Concordat of London]] formalized the agreements between the king and archbishop,{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=82}} Henry formally renounced the right of English kings to invest the bishops of the church.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} The remaining two years of Anselm's life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} He succeeded in getting [[Pope Paschal II|Paschal]] to send the pallium for the [[archbishop of York]] to Canterbury so that future archbishops-elect would have to profess obedience before receiving it.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1980|p=83}} The incumbent archbishop [[Thomas II of York|Thomas&nbsp;II]] had received his own pallium directly and insisted on [[archdiocese of York|York]]'s independence. From his deathbed, Anselm [[anathema]]tized all who failed to recognize Canterbury's primacy over all the English Church. This ultimately forced Henry to order Thomas to confess his obedience to Anselm's successor.{{sfnp|Vaughn|1975|p=298}} On his deathbed, he announced himself content, except that he had a treatise in mind on the origin of the [[soul]] and did not know, once he was gone, if another was likely to compose it.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3Xw4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA498 498]}}

He died on [[Holy Wednesday]], 21 April 1109.{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} His remains were [[Translation (relic)|translated]] to [[Canterbury Cathedral]]{{sfnp|Willis|1845|p=[https://archive.org/details/architecturalhi03willgoog/page/n68 46]}} and laid at the head of Lanfranc at his initial resting place to the south of the Altar of the [[Holy Trinity]] (now [[Thomas Becket|St&nbsp;Thomas]]'s Chapel).{{refn|name=SS|A letter of 9 January 1753 by "S.S." (probably [[Samuel Shuckford]] but possibly Samuel Stedman){{sfnp|Ollard & al.|1931|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nWsX2dhAONAC&pg=PA21 App.&nbsp;D, p.&nbsp;21]}} to [[Thomas Herring]].{{sfnp|HMC|1901|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA227 227–228]}}}} During the church's reconstruction after the disastrous fire of the 1170s, his remains were relocated,<ref name=SS/> although it is now uncertain where.

On 23 December 1752, [[Thomas Herring|Archbishop Herring]] was contacted by [[Count Perron]], the [[kingdom of Sardinia|Sardinian]] [[Italo-British relations|ambassador]], on behalf of [[Charles Emmanuel I of Sardinia|King Charles Emmanuel]], who requested permission to translate Anselm's [[relic]]s to Italy.{{sfnp|Ollard & al.|1931|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nWsX2dhAONAC&pg=PA20 App.&nbsp;D, p.&nbsp;20]}} (Charles had been [[duke of Aosta|duke]] of [[Duchy of Aosta|Aosta]] during his minority.) Herring ordered [[John Lynch (Dean of Canterbury)|his dean]] to look into the matter, saying that while "the parting with the rotten Remains of a Rebel to his King, a Slave to the Popedom, and an Enemy to the married Clergy (all this Anselm was)" would be no great matter, he likewise "should make no Conscience of palming on the Simpletons any other old Bishop with the Name of Anselm".{{refn|A letter of 23 December 1752 by [[Thomas Herring]] to [[John Lynch (Dean of Canterbury)|John Lynch]].{{sfnp|HMC|1901|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA226 226]}}}} The ambassador insisted on witnessing the excavation, however,{{refn|A letter of 6 January 1753 by [[Thomas Herring]] to [[John Lynch (Dean of Canterbury)|John Lynch]].{{sfnp|HMC|1901|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA227 227]}}}} and resistance on the part of the prebendaries seems to have quieted the matter.{{sfnp|Ollard & al.|1931|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nWsX2dhAONAC&pg=PA21 App.&nbsp;D, p.&nbsp;21]}} They considered the state of the cathedral's crypts would have offended the sensibilities of a Catholic and that it was probable that Anselm had been removed to near the altar of SS&nbsp;[[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Saint Paul|Paul]], whose [[side chapel]] to the right (i.e., south) of the high altar took Anselm's name following his canonization. At that time, his relics would presumably have been placed in a [[shrine]] and its contents "disposed of" during the [[English Reformation|Reformation]].<ref name=SS/> The ambassador's own investigation was of the opinion that Anselm's body had been confused with [[Theobald of Bec|Archbishop Theobald]]'s and likely remained entombed near the altar of the [[Virgin Mary]],{{refn|name=perron|A letter of 31 March 1753 by P. Bradley to [[Count Perron]].{{sfnp|HMC|1901|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA229 229–230]}}}} but in the uncertainty nothing further seems to have been done then or when inquiries were renewed in 1841.{{refn|name=perron2|A letter of 16 August 1841 by Lord Bolton, possibly to W. R. Lyall.{{sfnp|HMC|1901|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GWcpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA230 230–231]}}}}

==Writings==
[[File:AnselmCanterbury2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|right|A late 16th-century engraving of Anselm]]
Anselm has been called "the most luminous and penetrating intellect between [[Augustine of Hippo|St&nbsp;Augustine]] and [[Thomas Aquinas|St&nbsp;Thomas Aquinas]]"{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} and "the father of [[scholasticism]]",{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} [[Johannes Scotus Eriugena|Scotus Erigena]] having employed more [[mysticism]] in his arguments.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}} Anselm's works are considered philosophical as well as theological since they endeavour to render [[Christianity|Christian]] tenets of faith, traditionally taken as a [[revelation|revealed]] truth, as a [[reason|rational]] system.{{sfnp|Davies|Leftow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8zGpbpwRhIC&pg=PA2 2]}} Anselm also studiously analyzed the language used in his subjects, carefully distinguishing the meaning of the terms employed from the verbal forms, which he found at times wholly inadequate.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=Introduction}} His worldview was broadly [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]], as it was reconciled with Christianity in the works of [[Augustine of Hippo|St&nbsp;Augustine]] and [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite|Pseudo-Dionysius]],{{sfnp|Charlesworth|2003|pp=23–24}}{{efn|Direct knowledge of Plato's works was still quite limited. [[Calcidius]]'s incomplete Latin translation of [[Plato]]'s ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' was available and a staple of 12th-century philosophy but "seems not to have interested" Anselm.{{sfnp|Marenbon|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qrq2qXlegt4C&pg=PA170 170]}}}} with his understanding of [[Aristotelian logic]] gathered from the works of [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]].{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA14 14]}}{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§2}}{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} He or the thinkers in northern France who shortly followed him—including [[Abelard]], [[William of Conches]], and [[Gilbert of Poitiers]]—inaugurated "one of the most brilliant periods of [[Western philosophy]]", innovating [[logic]], [[semantics]], [[ethics]], [[metaphysics]], and other areas of [[philosophy of religion|philosophical theology]].{{sfnp|Marenbon|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qrq2qXlegt4C&pg=PA169 169–170]}}

Anselm held that faith necessarily precedes reason, but that reason can expand upon faith:{{sfnp|Hollister|1982|p=302}} "And I do not seek to understand that I may believe but believe that I might understand. For this too I believe since, unless I first believe, I shall not understand."{{efn|{{langx|la|Neque enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed [[credo ut intelligam]]. Nam et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam.}}}}{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911|p=82}} This is possibly drawn from Tractate&nbsp;XXIX of [[Augustine of Hippo|St&nbsp;Augustine]]'s ''Ten Homilies on the First Epistle of John'': regarding [[John 7]]:14–18, Augustine counseled "Do not seek to understand in order to believe but believe that thou may understand".{{sfnp|Schaff|2005}} Anselm rephrased the idea repeatedly{{efn|Other examples include "The Christian ought to go forth to understanding through faith, not journey to faith through understanding" ({{lang|la|Christianus per fidem debet ad intellectum proficere, non per intellectum ad fidem accedere}}) and "The correct order demands that we believe the depths of the Christian faith before we presume to discuss it with reason" ({{lang|la|Rectus ordo exigit, ut profunda Christianae fidei credamus, priusquam ea praesumamus ratione discutere}}).{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}}}} and Thomas Williams {{harv|''SEP''|2007}} considered that his aptest motto was the original title of the ''[[Proslogion]]'', "faith seeking understanding", which intended "an active love of God seeking a deeper knowledge of God."{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007}} Once the faith is held fast, however, he argued an attempt ''must'' be made to demonstrate its truth by means of reason: "To me, it seems to be negligence if, after confirmation in the faith, we do not study to understand that which we believe."{{efn|{{langx|la|Negligentise mihi esse videtur, si, postquam confirmatius in fide, non studemus quod credimus, intelligere.}}}}{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911|p=82}} Merely rational proofs are always, however, to be tested by scripture{{sfnp|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''Cur Deus Homo'', Vol.&nbsp;I, §2}}{{sfnp|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''De Fide Trinitatis'', §2}} and he employs Biblical passages and "what we believe" ({{lang|la|quod credimus}}) at times to raise problems or to present erroneous understandings, whose inconsistencies are then resolved by reason.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}}

Stylistically, Anselm's treatises take two basic forms, dialogues and sustained meditations.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} In both, he strove to state the rational grounds for central aspects of Christian doctrines as a pedagogical exercise for his initial audience of fellow monks and correspondents.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} The subjects of Anselm's works were sometimes dictated by contemporary events, such as his speech at the [[Council of Bari]] or the need to refute his association with the thinking of [[Roscelin]], but he intended for his books to form a unity, with his letters and latter works advising the reader to consult his other books for the arguments supporting various points in his reasoning.{{sfnp|Davies|Leftow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8zGpbpwRhIC&pg=PA201 201]}} It seems to have been a recurring problem that early drafts of his works were copied and circulated without his permission.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}}

[[File:Anselmus (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|right|A mid-17th century engraving of Anselm]]
While at Bec, Anselm composed:{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}}
* ''{{lang|la|[[#Dialogues|De Grammatico]]}}''
* {{lang|la|[[#Monologion|Monologion]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[Proslogion]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Dialogues|De Veritate]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Dialogues|De Libertate Arbitrii]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Dialogues|De Casu Diaboli]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Other works|De Fide Trinitatis]]}}, also known as {{lang|la|De Incarnatione Verbi}}{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}}

While archbishop of Canterbury, he composed:{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}}
* {{lang|la|[[Cur Deus Homo]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Other works|De Conceptu Virginali]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Other works|De Processione Spiritus Sancti]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Other works|De Sacrificio Azymi et Fermentati]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Other works|De Sacramentis Ecclesiae]]}}
* {{lang|la|[[#Other works|De Concordia]]}}

[[File:Illuminated initial from Anselm's Monologion.jpg|thumb|right|The [[manuscript illumination|illuminated]] beginning of an 11th-century manuscript of the ''Monologion'']]

===''Monologion''===
The ''Monologion'' ({{langx|la|Monologium}}, "Monologue"), originally entitled ''A Monologue on the Reason for Faith'' ({{lang|la|Monoloquium de Ratione Fidei}}){{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA85 85]}}{{efn|Anselm requested the works be retitled in a letter to [[Hugh, Archbishop of Lyon]],{{sfnp|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''Letters'', No.&nbsp;109}} but didn't explain why he chose to use the Greek forms. [[Ian Logan|Logan]] conjectures it may have derived from Anselm's secondhand acquaintance with [[Stoicism|Stoic]] terms used by [[Augustine of Hippo|St&nbsp;Augustine]] and by [[Martianus Capella]].{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA85 85]}}}} and sometimes also known as ''An Example of Meditation on the Reason for Faith'' ({{lang|la|Exemplum Meditandi de Ratione Fidei}}),{{sfnp|Luscombe|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_T2cAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}}{{efn|Although the [[Latin]] ''{{lang|la|{{linktext|meditandus}}}}'' is usually translated as "[[meditation]]", Anselm was not using the term in its modern sense of "self-reflection" or "consideration" but instead as a philosophical [[term of art]] which described the more active process of silently "reaching out into the unknown".{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA86 86]}}}} was written in 1075 and 1076.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} It follows St&nbsp;Augustine to such an extent that [[Margaret Gibson (historian)|Gibson]] argues neither Boethius nor Anselm state anything which was not already dealt with in greater detail by Augustine's ''[[De Trinitate]]'';{{sfnp|Gibson|1981|p=214}} Anselm even acknowledges his debt to that work in the ''Monologion'''s prologue.{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA21 21]}} However, he takes pains to present his reasons for belief in God without appeal to scriptural or patristic authority,{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA21 21–22]}} using new and bold arguments.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}} He attributes this style—and the book's existence—to the requests of his fellow monks that "nothing whatsoever in these matters should be made convincing by the authority of Scripture, but whatsoever... the necessity of reason would concisely prove".{{refn|{{harvnb|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''Monologion'', p.&nbsp;7}}, translated by [[Greg Sadler|Sadler]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}}}}

In the first chapter, Anselm begins with a statement that anyone should be able to convince themselves of the existence of God through reason alone "if he is even moderately intelligent".{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.1}} He argues that many different things are known as "good", in many varying kinds and degrees. These must be understood as being judged relative to a single attribute of goodness.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=loc. ??}} He then argues that goodness is itself very good and, further, is good through itself. As such, it must be the highest good and, further, "that which is supremely good is also supremely great. There is, therefore, some one thing that is supremely good and supremely great—in other words, supreme among all existing things."{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.2}} Chapter 2 follows a similar argument, while Chapter 3 argues that the "best and greatest and supreme among all existing things" must be responsible for the existence of all other things.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.2}} Chapter 4 argues that there must be the highest level of dignity among existing things and that the highest level must have a single member. "Therefore, there is a certain nature or substance or essence who through himself is good and great and through himself is what he is; through whom exists whatever truly is good or great or anything at all; and who is the supreme good, the supreme great thing, the supreme being or subsistent, that is, supreme among all existing things."{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.2}} The remaining chapters of the book are devoted to consideration of the attributes necessary to such a being.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.2}} The [[Euthyphro dilemma]], although not addressed by that name, is dealt with as a [[false dichotomy]].{{sfnp|Rogers|2008|p=8}} God is taken to neither conform to nor invent the moral order but to embody it:{{sfnp|Rogers|2008|p=8}} in each case of his attributes, "God ''having'' that attribute ''is precisely'' that attribute itself".{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§6}}

A letter survives of Anselm responding to Lanfranc's criticism of the work. The elder cleric took exception to its lack of appeals to scripture and authority.{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA21 21]}} The preface of the ''Proslogion'' records his own dissatisfaction with the ''Monologion'''s arguments, since they are rooted in ''[[Empirical evidence|a posteriori]]'' evidence and [[inductive reasoning]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}}

===''Proslogion''===
{{main|Proslogion|Ontological argument}}
The ''[[Proslogion]]'' ({{langx|la|Proslogium}}, "Discourse"), originally entitled ''Faith Seeking Understanding'' ({{lang|la|Fides Quaerens Intellectum}}) and then ''An Address on God's Existence'' ({{lang|la|Alloquium de Dei Existentia}}),{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA85 85]}}{{sfnp|Forshall|1840|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qvNfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA74 74]}}{{efn|See note above on the renaming of Anselm's works.}} was written over the next two years (1077–1078).{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} It is written in the form of an extended direct address to God.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} It grew out of his dissatisfaction with the [[#Monologion|Monologion]]'s interlinking and contingent arguments.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} His "single argument that needed nothing but itself alone for proof, that would by itself be enough to show that God really exists"{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}} is commonly{{efn|As by Thomas Williams.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}}}} taken to be merely the second chapter of the work. In it, Anselm reasoned that even atheists can imagine the greatest being, having such attributes that nothing greater could exist ({{lang|la|id quo nihil maius cogitari possit}}).{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} However, if such a being's attributes did not include existence, a still greater being could be imagined: one with all of the attributes of the first ''and'' existence. Therefore, the truly greatest possible being must necessarily exist. Further, this necessarily-existing greatest being must be God, who therefore necessarily exists.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}} This reasoning was known to the Scholastics as "Anselm's argument" ({{lang|la|ratio Anselmi}}) but it became known as the [[ontological argument]] for the [[existence of God]] following [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s treatment of it.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}}{{efn|Various scholars have disputed the use of the term "ontological" in reference to Anselm's argument. A list up to his own time is provided by [[James McEvoy (philosopher)|McEvoy]].{{sfnp|McEvoy|1994}}}}

[[File:12th-century painters - Meditations of St Anselm - WGA15732.jpg|thumb|A 12th-century illumination from the ''Meditations of St. Anselm'']]
More probably, Anselm intended his "single argument" to include most of the rest of the work as well,{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} wherein he establishes the attributes of God and their compatibility with one another. Continuing to construct a being greater than which nothing else can be conceived, Anselm proposes such a being must be "just, truthful, happy, and whatever it is better to be than not to be".{{refn|{{harvnb|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''Proslogion'', p.&nbsp;104}}, translated by [[Greg Sadler|Sadler]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§4}}}} Chapter 6 specifically enumerates the additional qualities of awareness, omnipotence, mercifulness, impassibility (inability to suffer),{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§4}} and immateriality;{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§3.1}} Chapter 11, self-existent,{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§3.1}} wisdom, goodness, happiness, and permanence; and Chapter 18, unity.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§4}} Anselm addresses the [[beg the question|question-begging]] nature of "greatness" in this formula partially by appeal to intuition and partially by independent consideration of the attributes being examined.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§3.1}} The incompatibility of, e.g., omnipotence, justness, and mercifulness are addressed in the abstract by reason, although Anselm concedes that specific acts of God are a matter of revelation beyond the scope of reasoning.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§3.2}} At one point during the 15th chapter, he reaches the conclusion that God is "not only that than which nothing greater can be thought but something greater than can be thought".{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} In any case, God's unity is such that all of his attributes are to be understood as facets of a single nature: "all of them are one and each of them is entirely what [God is] and what the other[s] are".{{refn|{{harvnb|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''Proslogion'', p.&nbsp;115}}, translated by [[Greg Sadler|Sadler]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§4}}}} This is then used to argue for the [[Holy Trinity|triune]] nature of the God, [[Jesus]], and "the one love common to [God] and [his] Son, that is, the [[Holy Spirit]] who proceeds from both".{{refn|{{harvnb|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''Proslogion'', p.&nbsp;117}}, translated by [[Greg Sadler|Sadler]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§4}}}} The last three chapters are a digression on what God's goodness might entail.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} Extracts from the work were later compiled under the name ''Meditations'' or ''The Manual of St&nbsp;Austin''.{{sfnp|Butler|1864}}

===''Responsio''===
The argument presented in the ''Proslogion'' has rarely seemed satisfactory{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}}{{efn|Variations of the argument were elaborated and defended by [[John Duns Scotus|Duns Scotus]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]], [[Alvin Plantinga|Plantinga]], and [[Norman Malcolm|Malcolm]]. In addition to Gaunilo, other notable objectors to its reasoning include [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Immanuel Kant]], with the most thorough analysis having been done by [[Paul E. Oppenheimer|Oppenheimer]] and [[Edward N. Zalta|Zalta]].{{sfnp|Oppenheimer|Zalta|1991}}{{sfnp|Oppenheimer|Zalta|2007}}{{sfnp|Oppenheimer|Zalta|2011}}}} and was swiftly opposed by [[Gaunilo]], a monk from the [[Marmoutier Abbey, Tours|abbey of Marmoutier in Tours]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§5}} His book "for the fool" ({{lang|la|Liber pro Insipiente}}){{efn|The title is a reference to Anselm's invocation of the [[Psalms]]' "The fool has said in his heart, 'There is no God'".<ref>Psalm 14:1.</ref><ref>Psalm 53:1.</ref> Gaunilo offers that, if Anselm's argument were all that supported the existence of God, the fool would be correct in rejecting his reasoning.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}}}} argues that we cannot arbitrarily pass from idea to reality{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}} ({{lang|la|de posse ad esse not fit illatio}}).{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} The most famous of Gaunilo's objections is a parody of Anselm's argument involving an island greater than which nothing can be conceived.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}} Since we can conceive of such an island, it exists in our understanding and so must exist in reality. This is, however, absurd, since its shore might arbitrarily be increased and in any case varies with the tide.

Anselm's reply ({{lang|la|Responsio}}) or apology ({{lang|la|Liber Apologeticus}}){{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}} does not address this argument directly, which has led [[Gyula Klima|Klima]],{{sfnp|Klima|2000}} Grzesik,{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} and others to construct replies for him and led [[Nicholas Wolterstorff|Wolterstorff]]{{sfnp|Wolterstorff|1993}} and others to conclude that Gaunilo's attack is definitive.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}} Anselm, however, considered that Gaunilo had misunderstood his argument.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}}{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§5}} In each of Gaunilo's four arguments, he takes Anselm's description of "that than which nothing greater can be thought" to be equivalent to "that which is greater than everything else that can be thought".{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§5}} Anselm countered that anything which does not actually exist is necessarily excluded from his reasoning and anything which might or probably does not exist is likewise aside the point. The ''Proslogion'' had already stated "anything else whatsoever other than [God] can be thought not to exist".{{refn|{{harvnb|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''Proslogion'', p.&nbsp;103}}, translated by [[Greg Sadler|Sadler]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§4}}}} The ''Proslogion'''s argument concerns and can only concern the ''single'' greatest entity out of all existing things. That entity both must exist and must be God.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§2.3}}

===Dialogues===
[[File:Littlemore.jpg|thumb|right|alt=MS Auct. D2. 6|An illuminated archbishop—presumably Anselm—from a 12th-century edition of his ''Meditations'']]
All of Anselm's [[dialogue]]s take the form of a lesson between a gifted and inquisitive student and a knowledgeable teacher. Except for in ''[[Cur Deus Homo]]'', the student is not identified but the teacher is always recognizably Anselm himself.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}}

Anselm's {{lang|la|De Grammatico}} ("On the Grammarian"), of uncertain date,{{efn|[[Richard Southern|Southern]]{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=65}} and Thomas Williams{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} date it to 1059–60, while [[John Marenbon|Marenbon]] places it "probably... shortly after" 1087.{{sfnp|Marenbon|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qrq2qXlegt4C&pg=PA170 170]}}}} deals with eliminating various [[paradox]]es arising from the grammar of Latin nouns and adjectives{{sfnp|Luscombe|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_T2cAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}} by examining the [[syllogism]]s involved to ensure the terms in the premises agree in meaning and not merely expression.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§8}} The treatment shows a clear debt to [[Boethius]]'s treatment of [[Aristotle]].{{sfnp|Logan|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4KO0zKJuNi4C&pg=PA14 14]}}

Between 1080 and 1086, while still at Bec, Anselm composed the dialogues {{lang|la|De Veritate}} ("On Truth"), {{lang|la|De Libertate Arbitrii}} ("On the Freedom of Choice"), and {{lang|la|De Casu Diaboli}} ("On the Devil's Fall").{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} {{lang|la|De Veritate}} is concerned not merely with the truth of statements but with correctness in will, action, and essence as well.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.1}} Correctness in such matters is understood as doing what a thing ought or was designed to do.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.1}} Anselm employs [[Aristotelian logic]] to affirm the existence of an absolute truth of which all other truth forms separate kinds. He identifies this absolute truth with God, who therefore forms the fundamental principle both in the existence of things and the correctness of thought.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}} As a corollary, he affirms that "everything that is, is rightly".{{refn|{{harvnb|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''De Veritate'', p.&nbsp;185}}, translated by [[Greg Sadler|Sadler]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§9}}}} {{lang|la|De Libertate Arbitrii}} elaborates Anselm's reasoning on correctness with regard to [[free will]]. He does not consider this a capacity to ''sin'' but a capacity to ''do good'' for its own sake (as opposed to owing to coercion or for self-interest).{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.1}} God and the good [[angel]]s therefore have free will despite being incapable of sinning; similarly, the non-coercive aspect of free will enabled man and the rebel angels to sin, despite this not being a necessary element of free will itself.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.2}} In {{lang|la|De Casu Diaboli}}, Anselm further considers the case of the fallen angels, which serves to discuss the case of rational agents in general.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§11}} The teacher argues that there are two forms of good—justice ({{lang|la|justicia}}) and benefit ({{lang|la|commodum}})—and two forms of evil: injustice and harm ({{lang|la|incommodum}}). All rational beings seek benefit and shun harm on their own account but independent choice permits them to abandon bounds imposed by justice.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§11}} Some angels chose their own happiness in preference to justice and were punished by God for their injustice with less happiness. The angels who upheld justice were rewarded with such happiness that they are now incapable of sin, there being no happiness left for them to seek in opposition to the bounds of justice.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.2}} Humans, meanwhile, retain the theoretical capacity to will justly but, owing to [[Fall of Man|the Fall]], they are incapable of doing so in practice except by divine grace.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.3}}

[[File:Ms 224 anselm.jpg|right|thumb|The beginning of the {{lang|la|[[Cur Deus Homo]]}}'s prologue, from a 12th-century manuscript held at [[Lambeth Palace]]]]

===''Cur Deus Homo''===<!--Linked from [[Template:Atonement in Christianity]]-->
{{main|Cur Deus Homo|Satisfaction theory of atonement}}
{{lang|la|[[Cur Deus Homo]]}} ("Why God was a Man")<!--NOT "Why God-Man"--> was written from 1095 to 1098 once Anselm was already archbishop of Canterbury{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} as a response for requests to discuss the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§7}} It takes the form of a dialogue between Anselm and Boso, one of his students.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3 & 7}} Its core is a purely rational argument for the necessity of the Christian [[atonement in Christianity|mystery of atonement]], the belief that [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus's crucifixion]] was necessary to [[atonement in Christianity|atone]] for mankind's sin. Anselm argues that, owing to [[Fall of Man|the Fall]] and mankind's fallen nature ever since, humanity has offended God. Divine justice demands restitution for sin but human beings are incapable of providing it, as all the actions of men are already obligated to the furtherance of God's glory.{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911|p=83}} Further, God's infinite justice demands infinite restitution for the impairment of his infinite dignity.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.3}} The enormity of the offence led Anselm to reject personal acts of atonement, even [[Peter Damian]]'s [[flagellants|flagellation]], as inadequate{{sfnp|Fulton|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7NEzHGR24wwC&pg=PA176 176]}} and ultimately vain.{{sfnp|Fulton|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7NEzHGR24wwC&pg=PA178 178]}} Instead, full recompense could only be made by God, which His infinite mercy inclines Him to provide. Atonement for humanity, however, could only be made through the figure of [[Jesus]], as a sinless being both fully divine and fully human.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§7}} Taking it upon himself to offer his own life on our behalf, his crucifixion accrues infinite worth, more than redeeming mankind and permitting it to enjoy a just will in accord with its intended nature.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§4.3}} This interpretation is notable for permitting divine justice and mercy to be entirely compatible{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=loc. ??}} and has exercised immense influence over church doctrine,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}}{{sfnp|Foley|1909}} largely supplanting the earlier theory developed by [[Origen]] and [[Gregory of Nyssa]]{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} that had focused primarily on [[Satan]]'s power over [[Fall of Man|fallen man]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}} {{lang|la|Cur Deus Homo}} is often accounted Anselm's greatest work,{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} but the legalist and amoral nature of the argument, along with its neglect of the individuals actually being redeemed, has been criticized both by comparison with the treatment by [[Abelard]]{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}} and for its subsequent development in [[Protestant Christianity|Protestant]] theology.{{sfnp|Foley|1909|pp=256–7}}

[[File:XII c. French manuscript of Anselm's 'De Concordia' (2).jpg|thumb|upright|right|The first page of a 12th-century manuscript of the {{lang|la|De&nbsp;Concordia}}]]

===Other works===
Anselm's {{lang|la|De Fide Trinitatis et de Incarnatione Verbi Contra Blasphemias Ruzelini}} ("On Faith in the Trinity and on the Incarnation of the Word Against the Blasphemies of Roscelin"),{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} also known as {{lang|la|Epistolae de Incarnatione Verbi}} ("Letters on the Incarnation of the Word"),{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} was written in two drafts in 1092 and 1094.{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} It defended [[Lanfranc]] and Anselm from association with the supposedly [[tritheist]] heresy espoused by [[Roscelin of Compiègne]], as well as arguing in favour of [[Trinitarianism]] and [[universals]].

{{lang|la|De Conceptu Virginali et de Originali Peccato}} ("On the Virgin Conception and Original Sin") was written in 1099.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} He claimed to have written it out of a desire to expand on an aspect of ''[[Cur Deus Homo]]'' for his student and friend Boso and takes the form of Anselm's half of a conversation with him.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} Although Anselm denied belief in [[Virgin Mary|Mary]]'s [[Immaculate Conception]],{{sfnp|Janaro|2006|p=51}} his thinking laid two principles which formed the groundwork for that dogma's development. The first is that it was proper that Mary should be so pure that—apart from God—no purer being could be imagined. The second was his treatment of original sin. Earlier theologians had held that it was transmitted from generation to generation by the sinful nature of [[sexual intercourse|sex]]. As in his earlier works, Anselm instead held that [[Adam]]'s sin was borne by his descendants through the change in human nature which occurred during the Fall. Parents were unable to establish a just nature in their children which they had never had themselves.{{sfnp|Janaro|2006|p=52}} This would subsequently be addressed in Mary's case by dogma surrounding the circumstances of her own birth.

{{lang|la|De Processione Spiritus Sancti Contra Graecos}} ("On the Procession of the Holy Spirit Against the Greeks"),{{sfnp|Forshall|1840|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qvNfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} written in 1102,{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} is a recapitulation of Anselm's treatment of the subject at the [[Council of Bari]].{{sfnp|Fortescue|1907|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gu5d7_bByvIC&pg=PA203 203]}} He discussed the Trinity first by stating that human beings could not know God from Himself but only from analogy. The analogy that he used was the self-consciousness of man. The peculiar double nature of consciousness, memory, and intelligence represents the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these two (memory and intelligence), proceeding from the relation they hold to one another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=93}}

{{lang|la|De Concordia Praescientiae et Praedestinationis et Gratiae Dei cum Libero Arbitrio}} ("On the Harmony of Foreknowledge and Predestination and the Grace of God with Free Choice") was written from 1107 to 1108.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} Like the {{lang|la|De Conceptu Virginali}}, it takes the form of a single narrator in a dialogue, offering presumable objections from the other side.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§3}} Its treatment of free will relies on Anselm's earlier works, but goes into greater detail as to the ways in which there is no actual incompatibility or paradox created by the divine attributes.{{sfnp|Davies|Leftow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8zGpbpwRhIC&pg=PA201 201]}} In its 5th chapter, Anselm reprises his consideration of [[eternity]] from the ''[[#Monologion|Monologion]]''. "Although nothing is there except what is present, it is not the temporal present, like ours, but rather the eternal, within which all times altogether are contained. If in a certain way, the present time contains every place and all the things that are in any place, likewise, every time is encompassed in the eternal present, and everything that is in any time."{{refn|{{harvnb|Anselm of Canterbury|loc=''De&nbsp;Concordia'', p.&nbsp;254}}, translated by [[Greg Sadler|Sadler]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§12}}}} It is an overarching present, all beheld at once by God, thus permitting both his "foreknowledge" and genuine free choice on the part of mankind.{{sfnp|Holland|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o3oNBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 43]}}

Fragments survive of the work Anselm left unfinished at his death, which would have been a dialogue concerning certain pairs of opposites, including ability/inability, possibility/impossibility, and necessity/freedom.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§13}} It is thus sometimes cited under the name {{lang|la|De Potestate et Impotentia, Possibilitate et Impossibilitate, Necessitate et Libertate}}.{{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} Another work, probably left unfinished by Anselm and subsequently revised and expanded, was {{lang|la|De Humanis Moribus per Similitudines}} ("On Mankind's Morals, Told Through Likenesses") or {{lang|la|De Similitudinibus}} ("On Likenesses").{{sfnp|Dinkova-Bruun|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pA6yCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 85]}} A collection of his sayings ({{lang|la|Dicta Anselmi}}) was compiled, probably by the monk Alexander.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§14}} He also composed prayers to various saints.{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}}

Anselm wrote nearly 500 surviving letters ({{lang|la|Epistolae}}) to clerics, monks, relatives, and others,{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=361}} the earliest being those written to the Norman monks who followed Lanfranc to England in 1070.{{sfnp|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} [[Richard Southern|Southern]] asserts that all of Anselm's letters "even the most intimate" are statements of his religious beliefs, consciously composed so as to be read by many others.{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=396}} His long letters to [[Waltram]], [[bishop of Naumburg|bishop]] of [[diocese of Naumburg|Naumberg]] in [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] ({{lang|la|Epistolae ad Walerannum}}) {{lang|la|De Sacrificio Azymi et Fermentati}} ("On Unleavened and Leavened Sacrifice") and {{lang|la|De Sacramentis Ecclesiae}} ("On the Church's Sacraments") were both written between 1106 and 1107 and are sometimes bound as separate books.{{sfnp|''SEP''|2007|loc=§1}} Although he seldom asked others to pray for him, two of his letters to hermits do so, "evidence of his belief in their spiritual prowess".{{sfnp|Hughes-Edwards|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PFSuBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}} His letters of guidance—one to Hugh, a hermit near [[Caen]], and two to a community of lay nuns—endorse their lives as a refuge from the difficulties of the political world with which Anselm had to contend.{{sfnp|Hughes-Edwards|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PFSuBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}}

Many of Anselm's letters contain passionate expressions of attachment and affection, often addressed "to the beloved lover" ({{lang|la|dilecto dilectori}}). While there is wide agreement that Anselm was personally committed to the monastic ideal of [[celibacy]], some academics such as [[Brian P. McGuire|McGuire]]{{sfnp|McGuire|1985}} and [[John Boswell|Boswell]]{{sfnp|Boswell|1980|pp=218–219}} have characterized these writings as expressions of a [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] inclination.{{sfnp|Doe|2000|p=18}} The general view, expressed by [[Glenn Olsen|Olsen]]{{sfnp|Olsen|1988}} and [[Richard Southern|Southern]], sees the expressions as representing a "wholly spiritual" affection "nourished by an incorporeal ideal".{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=157}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Eadmer of Canterbury Writing - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A 12th-century [[Illuminated manuscript|illumination]] of Eadmer composing Anselm's biography]]
Two biographies of Anselm were written shortly after his death by his chaplain and secretary [[Eadmer]] ({{lang|la|Vita et Conversatione Anselmi Cantuariensis}}) and the monk Alexander ({{lang|la|Ex Dictis Beati Anselmi}}).{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§1}} Eadmer also detailed Anselm's struggles with the English monarchs in his history ({{lang|la|Historia Novorum}}). Another was compiled about fifty years later by [[John of Salisbury]] at the behest of [[Thomas Becket]].{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=361}} The historians [[William of Malmesbury]], [[Orderic Vitalis]], and [[Matthew Paris]] all left full accounts of his struggles against the second and third Norman kings.{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=361}}

Anselm's students included [[Eadmer]], Alexander, [[Gilbert Crispin]], [[Honorius Augustodunensis]], and [[Anselm of Laon]]. His works were copied and disseminated in his lifetime and exercised an influence on the [[Scholasticism|Scholastics]], including [[Bonaventure]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[John Duns Scotus|Duns Scotus]], and [[William of Ockham]].{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§2}} His thoughts have guided much subsequent discussion on the procession of the [[Holy Spirit]] and the [[atonement in Christianity|atonement]]. His work also anticipates much of the later controversies over [[free will]] and [[predestination]].{{sfnp|Kent|1907}} An extensive debate occurred—primarily among French scholars—in the early 1930s about "nature and possibility" of [[Christian philosophy]], which drew strongly on Anselm's work.{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§2}}

Modern scholarship remains sharply divided over the nature of Anselm's episcopal leadership. Some, including [[Walter Fröhlich|Fröhlich]]{{sfnp|Fröhlich|1990|pp=37–52}} and [[Dom Schmitt|Schmitt]],{{sfnp|Gale|2010}} argue for Anselm's attempts to manage his reputation as a devout scholar and cleric, minimizing the worldly conflicts he found himself forced into.{{sfnp|Gale|2010}} [[Sally Vaughn|Vaughn]]{{sfnp|Vaughn|1987}} and others argue that the "carefully nurtured image of simple holiness and profound thinking" was precisely employed as a tool by an adept, disingenuous political operator,{{sfnp|Gale|2010}} while the traditional view of the pious and reluctant church leader recorded by [[Eadmer]]—one who genuinely "nursed a deep-seated horror of worldly advancement"—is upheld by [[Richard Southern|Southern]]{{sfnp|Southern|1990|pp=459–481}} among others.{{sfnp|Hughes-Edwards|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PFSuBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}}{{sfnp|Gale|2010}}

[[File:Anselm-CanterburyVit.jpg|thumb|left|A 19th-century stained-glass window depicting Anselm as archbishop, with his [[pallium]] and [[crozier]]]]

==Veneration==
[[File:Becca di Nona.jpg|thumb|right|[[Becca di Nona]] south of [[Aosta]], the site of a [[#Veneration|supposed mystical vision]] during Anselm's childhood.{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n28 12–14]}}]]
Anselm's [[hagiography]] records that, when a child, he had a [[religious experience|miraculous vision]] of [[God in Christianity|God]] on the summit of the [[Becca di Nona]] near his home, with God asking his name, his home, and his quest before sharing bread with him. Anselm then slept, awoke, returned to Aosta, and then retraced his steps before returning to speak to his mother.{{sfnp|Rule|1883|p=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessta01ansegoog/page/n28 12–14]}}

Anselm's [[canonization]] was requested of [[Pope Alexander&nbsp;III]] by [[Thomas Becket]] at the [[Council of Tours 1163|Council of Tours in 1163]].{{sfnp|''Rambler''|1853|p=361}} He may have been formally canonized before Becket's murder in 1170: no record of this has survived but he was subsequently listed among the saints at Canterbury and elsewhere.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} It is usually reckoned, however, that his cult was only formally sanctioned by [[Pope&nbsp;Alexander&nbsp;VI]] in 1494{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=92}}{{sfnp|Southern|1990|p=xxix}} or 1497<ref name=perron/> at the request of [[John Morton (cardinal)|Archbishop Morton]].<ref name=perron/> His [[calendar of the saints|feast day]] is commemorated on the day of his death, 21 April, by the [[Catholic Church]], much of the [[Anglican Communion]],{{sfnp|Sadler|2006|loc=§1}} and some forms of High Church [[Lutheranism]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} The location of his [[relic]]s [[#Final years|is uncertain]]. His most common attribute is a ship, representing the spiritual independence of the church.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

[[File:Roma Sant Anselmo 01.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sant'Anselmo all'Aventino|Sant'Anselmo]] in [[Rome]], the seat of the [[Abbot Primate]] of the [[Benedictine Confederation]]]]
Anselm was proclaimed a [[Doctor of the Church]] by [[Pope Clement&nbsp;XI]] in 1720;{{sfnp|Butler|1864}} he is known as the {{lang|la|doctor magnificus}} ("Magnificent Doctor"){{sfnp|Grzesik|2000}} or the {{lang|la|doctor Marianus}} ("[[Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholic)|Marian]] doctor").{{sfnp|Jackson|1909}} A chapel of [[Canterbury Cathedral]] south of the high altar is dedicated to him; it includes a modern stained-glass representation of the saint, flanked by his mentor Lanfranc and his steward [[Baldwin of Tournai|Baldwin]] and by kings William&nbsp;II and Henry&nbsp;I.<ref>{{citation |title=A Clerk of Oxford |url=http://aclerkofoxford.blogspot.com |contribution=The Stained Glass of Canterbury, Modern Edition |contribution-url=http://aclerkofoxford.blogspot.com/2011/04/stained-glass-of-canterbury-modern.html/2011/04/stained-glass-of-canterbury-modern.html |date=27 April 2011 |access-date=29 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Thistleton |first=Alan |contribution=St Anselm Window |contribution-url=http://canterbury-buildings.org.uk/#/anselm-window/4567414908 |title=Canterbury Historical and Archaeological Society |access-date=30 June 2015 }}</ref> The [[Pontifical Atheneum of St. Anselm]], named in his honor, was established in Rome by [[Pope Leo&nbsp;XIII]] in 1887. The adjacent [[Sant'Anselmo all'Aventino]], the seat of the [[Abbot Primate]] of the [[Benedictine Confederation|Federation of Black Monks]] (all the monks under the [[Rule of St Benedict]] except the [[Cistercians]] and the [[Trappists]]), was dedicated to him in 1900. 800 years after his death, on 21 April 1909, [[Pope Pius&nbsp;X]] issued the encyclical ''"[[Communium Rerum]]"'' praising Anselm, his ecclesiastical career, and his writings. In the United States, the [[Saint Anselm Abbey]] and [[Saint Anselm College|its associated college]] are located in [[New Hampshire]]; they held a celebration in 2009 commemorating the 900th anniversary of Anselm's death. In 2015, the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Justin Welby]], created the [[Community of Saint Anselm]], an [[Anglican religious order]] that resides at [[Lambeth Palace]] and is devoted to "[[Christian prayer|prayer]] and service to the poor".<ref name="Lodge2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/archbishop.welby.launches.monastic.community.at.lambeth.palace/65148.htm|title=Archbishop Welby launches monastic community at Lambeth Palace|last=Lodge|first=Carey|date=18 September 2015|publisher=[[Christian Today]]|language=en|access-date=5 April 2016}}</ref>

Anselm is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] in the [[Church of England]] and the [[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)|Episcopal Church]] on [[April 21|21 April]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=2021-03-27|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref>{{sfnp|Protestant Episcopal Church|2019|p={{page needed|date=March 2024}}}}

==Editions of Anselm's works==
* {{citation |last=Gerberon |first=Gabriel |author-link=Gabriel Gerberon |title=Sancti Anselmi ex Beccensi Abbate Cantuariensis Archiepiscopi Opera, nec non Eadmeri Monachi Cantuariensis Historia Novorum, et Alia Opuscula ''[''The Works of St&nbsp;Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury and Former Abbot of Bec, and the History of New Things and Other Minor Works of Eadmer, monk of Canterbury'']'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W65eJETCMyQC |location=Paris |date=1675 |publisher=Louis Billaine & Jean du Puis (2d ed. published by François Montalant in 1721|language=la}}; republished with errors by [[Jacques Paul Migne]] as [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_1815-1875__Migne__Patrologia_Latina_158_(AD_1853)_Harvard_College_Library__MLT.pdf.html Vols.&nbsp;CLVIII]&nbsp;& [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_1815-1875__Migne__Patrologia_Latina_159_(AD_1854)_Universite_Catholique_Lille__MLT.pdf.html CLIX] of the 2nd series of his ''[[Patrologia Latina]]'' in 1853 & 1854)
* {{citation |last=Ubaghs |first=Gerard Casimir [Gerardus Casimirus] |title=De la Connaissance de Dieu, ou Monologue et Prosloge<!--sic--> avec ses Appendices, de Saint Anselme, Archevêque de Cantorbéry et Docteur de l'Église ''&#91;''On Knowing God, or the Monologue and Proslogue with their Appendices, by Saint Anselme, Archbishop of Canterbury and Doctor of the Church''&#93;'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3oIPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1 |publisher=Vanlinthout & Cie |location=Louvain |date=1854 |language=la, fr}}
* {{citation |last=Ragey |first=Philibert |title=Mariale seu Liber precum<!--sic--> Metricarum ad Beatam Virginem Mariam Quotidie Dicendarum |publisher=Burns & Oates |location=London |date=1883 |language=la}}
* {{citation |last=Deane |first=Sidney Norton |date=1903 |title=St. Anselm: Proslogium, Monologium, an Appendix in Behalf of the Fool by Gaunilon, and Cur Deus Homo with an Introduction, Bibliography, and Reprints of the Opinions of Leading Philosophers and Writers on the Ontological Argument |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/ans/ans000.htm |location=Chicago |publisher=Open Court Publishing Co. (Republished and expanded as St. Anselm: Basic Writings in 1962) }}
* {{citation |last=Webb |first=Clement Charles Julian |url=https://archive.org/stream/devotionssainta00ansegoog#page/n9/mode/2up |title=The Devotions of Saint Anselm Archbishop of Canterbury |publisher=Methuen & Co. |location=London |date=1903 }} (Translating the ''Proslogion'', the ''"Meditations"'', and some prayers and letters)
* {{citation |last=Schmitt |first=Franz Sales [Franciscus Salesius] |date=1936 |contribution={{lang|de|Ein neues unvollendetes Werk des heilige Anselm von Canterbury}} [A New Unfinished Work by St&nbsp;Anselm of Canterbury] |title=Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie und Theologie des Mittelalters ''[''Contributions on the History of the Philosophy and Theology of the Middle Ages''], Vol.&nbsp;XXXIII, No.&nbsp;3'' |pages=22–43 |location=Munster |publisher=Aschendorf |language=la, de}}
* {{citation |last=Henry |first=Desmond Paul |title=The ''De Grammatico'' of St Anselm |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |location=South Bend |date=1964 |language=la, en}}
* {{citation |last=Charlesworth |first=Maxwell John |date=1965 |title=St. Anselm's ''Proslogion'' |location=South Bend |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |language=la, en}}
* {{citation |last=Schmitt |first=Franz Sales [Franciscus Salesius] |date=1968 |title=S. Anselmi Cantuariensis Archiepiscopi Opera Omnia |trans-title=The Complete Works of St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury |location=Stuttgart |publisher=Friedrich Fromann Verlag |language=la}}
* {{citation |last=Southern |first=Richard W. |author-link=Richard W. Southern |author2-last=Schmitt |author2-first=Franz Sales [Franciscus Salesius] |date=1969 |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Southern & al.|1969}} |title=Memorials of St. Anselm |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=la, en}}
* {{citation |last=Ward |first=Benedicta |title=The Prayers and Meditations of Saint Anselm |location=New York |publisher=Penguin Books |date=1973 }}
* {{citation |last1=Hopkins |first1=Jasper |last2=Richardson |first2=Herbert |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Jasper & al.|1976}} |title=Anselm of Canterbury |date=1976 |publisher=Edwin Mellen (A reprint of earlier separate translations; republished by Arthur J. Banning Press as The Complete Philosophical and Theological Treatises of Anselm of Canterbury in 2000) }} (Hopkins's translations available here [http://jasper-hopkins.info/].)
* {{citation |last=Fröhlich |first=Walter |date=1990–1994 |title=The Letters of Saint Anselm of Canterbury |location=Kalamazoo |publisher=Cistercian Publications |language=la, en}}
* {{citation |last=Davies |first=Brian |author2-last=Evans |author2-first=Gillian Rosemary |display-authors=1 |date=1998 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |title=Anselm of Canterbury: The Major Works }}
* {{citation |last=Williams |first=Thomas |date=2007 |title=Anselm: Basic Writings |location=Indianapolis |publisher=Hackett Publishing (A reprint of earlier separate translations) }}

==See also==
* ''[[Fides quaerens intellectum]]''
* [[Anselm (disambiguation)|Other Anselms]] and [[Saint Anselm (disambiguation)|Saint Anselms]]
* [[Saint Anselm's (disambiguation)|Saint Anselm's]], various places named in Anselm's honor
* ''[[Cur Deus Homo]]''
* [[Cluny Abbey]], [[Gregorian Reform]], and [[clerical celibacy]]
* [[Investiture Controversy]]
* [[Canterbury–York dispute]]
* [[Portal:Catholic Church/Patron Archive/April 21|Saint Anselm of Canterbury, patron saint archive]]
* [[Slavery in the British Isles]]
* [[Scholasticism]]
* [[Existence of God]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=n}}

==Citations==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{sfn whitelist |CITEREFJackson1909 }}
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |contribution=Reviews: St. Gregory and St. Anselm: ''Saint Anselme de Cantorbery. Tableau de la vie monastique, et de la lutte du pouvoir spirituel avec le pouvoir temporel au onzième siècle''. Par M.C. de Remusat. Didier, Paris, 1853 |title=The Rambler, A Catholic Journal and Review, ''Vol.&nbsp;XII, No.&nbsp;71 & 72'' |pages=360–374, 480–499 |ref={{harvid|''Rambler''|1853}} |location=London |publisher=Levey, Robson, & Franklyn for Burns & Lambert |date=1853 }}
* {{citation |last=Williams |first=Thomas |display-authors=0 |contribution=Saint Anselm |contribution-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anselm/ |date=2000 |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Stanford University |orig-year=Revised 2007 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |display-editors=0 |ref={{harvid|''SEP''|2007}} }}
* {{citation |author=Anselm of Canterbury |title=De Concordia |publisher=([[#Further reading|Schmitt edition]]) |language=la}}
* {{citation |last=Barlow |first=Frank|author-link=Frank Barlow (historian) |date=1983 |title=William Rufus |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-04936-5 }}
* {{cite EB9 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Anselm |volume=2  |ref={{harvid|''EB''|1878}} |pages=91–93 }}
* {{citation |author=Boniface |author-link=Saint Boniface |title=Letter to Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury |date=747 |url=http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/churchhistory220/LectureTwo/BonifaceLetters.html |publisher=translated by Talbot }}
* {{citation |last=Boswell |first=John |author-link=John Boswell |year=1980 |title=Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century |publisher=University Of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-06711-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/christianitysoci00john }}
* {{citation |last=Butler |first=Alban |contribution=St Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury |contribution-url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/STANSELM.htm |title=The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, ''Vol.&nbsp;VI'' |date=1864 |publisher=D. & J. Sadlier & Co. }}
* {{citation |last=Cantor |first=Norman F.|author-link=Norman Cantor |date=1958 |title=Church, Kingship, and Lay Investiture in England 1089–1135 |location=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] |publisher=Princeton University Press |oclc=2179163 }}
* {{citation |last=Charlesworth |first=Maxwell J.|author-link=Max Charlesworth |date=2003 |contribution=Introduction |title=St. Anselm's ''Proslogion'' with ''A Reply on Behalf of the Fool'' by Gaunilo and the Author's Reply to Gaunilo |location=South Bend |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |orig-date=Originally published 1965}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Anselm|volume=2|pages=81-83}}
* {{cite book |author=Church Pension Fund |date=2010 |title=Holy Men and Holy Women |publisher=Church Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-89869-637-0 |url=http://diobeth.typepad.com/files/holy-women-holy-men.pdf}}
* {{citation |last=Cook |first=G.H. |date=1949 |title=Portrait of Canterbury Cathedral |location=London |publisher=Phoenix House }}
* {{citation |last=Crawley |first=John J. |year=1910 |url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/ANSELM.HTM |title=Lives of the Saints |publisher=John J. Crawley & Co.}}
* Croset-Mouchet, Joseph, ''Saint Anselme (d'Aoste), archevêque de Cantorbéry : Histoire de sa vie et de son temps''.
* {{citation |contribution=St Anselm |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 |pages=73–75 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |edition=3rd |editor-last=Cross |editor-first=Frank Leslie |editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=Elizabeth A. |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3}}
* {{citation |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=Brian |editor2-last=Leftow |editor2-first=Brian |date=2004 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Anselm |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=[[Cambridge, England|Cambridge]] |isbn=0-521-00205-2 }}
* {{citation |last=Davies |first=James |title=History of England from the Death of "Edward the Confessor" to the Death of John, (1066–1216) A.D.<!--sic--> |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIADAAAAQAAJ |location=London |publisher=George Philip & Son |date=1874 }}
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*{{cite book |last=Fairweather |first=Eugene R. |author-link=E.R. Fairweather|date=1959 |editor-last= |editor-first= |title=Spicilegium Beccense: Congrès International du IXe Centenaire de L'Arrivée d'Anselme au Bec |volume=I|publication-place=[[Le Bec-Hellouin]]/[[Paris]] |publisher=[[Bec Abbey|Abbaye Notre-Dame du Bec]]/[[Librairie philosophique J. Vrin]] |orig-date= |pages=327–335 |chapter="Iustitia Dei" as the "Ratio" of the Incarnation |chapter-url=https://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=20096165659&searchurl=sortby%3D17%26tn%3DSpicilegium%2BBeccense&cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1#&gid=1&pid=1 |asin= B00DULQV7C|name-list-style=amp}}
*{{cite book |last=Fairweather |first=Eugene |author-link=E.R. Fairweather|date=1960 |editor-last= |editor-first= |title=L'homme et son destin d'après les penseurs du Moyen Age: Actes du premier congrès international de philosophie médiévale |volume=|publication-place=[[Louvain]]/[[Paris]] |publisher=Éditions Nauwelaerts/ Beatrice-Nauwelaerts |chapter=Truth, Justice and Moral Responsibility in the Thought of St. Anselm |chapter-url=https://www.abebooks.co.uk/LHomme-destin-dapres-penseurs-moyen-age-AA.VV/31721918435/bd#&gid=1&pid=1|asin=  B0727L3NVQ|name-list-style=amp}}
*{{Citation
| last = Fairweather 
| first = Eugene R.
| author-link = E.R. Fairweather
| title = Incarnation and Atonement: An Anselmian Response to Aulén's ''Christus Victor''
| journal = [[Canadian Journal of Theology]]
| volume = VII
| issue = 3
| pages = 167–175
| orig-date = 
| year = 1961
| language = English
| url = https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/cjt/07-3_167.pdf
| jstor = 
| archive-url = 
| archive-date = 
| doi = 
| id = 
| mr = 
| zbl = 
| jfm = }}
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{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |last=Cousin |first=M. Victor|author-link=Victor Cousin |title=Course of the History of Modern Philosophy, ''Vol.&nbsp;II, Lecture&nbsp;IX:'' Scholastic Philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fO7jAAAAMAAJ |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton & Co. (translated from the French by O.W. Wight, reprinted 1869) |date=1852 |ref=none}}
* {{citation |author=Anselm of Canterbury |title=[[s:Cur Deus Homo|Cur Deus Homo]] |publisher=([[#Further reading|Deane translation]]) |ref=none}}
* {{citation |author=Anselm of Canterbury  |title=Monologion |publisher=([[#Further reading|Schmitt edition]]) |language=la |ref=none}}
* {{citation |author=Anselm of Canterbury  |title=Proslogion |publisher=([[#Further reading|Schmitt edition]]) |language=la |ref=none}}
* {{citation |author=Anselm of Canterbury |title=De Veritate |publisher=([[#Further reading|Schmitt edition]]) |language=la |ref=none}}
* {{citation |last=Sweeney |first=Eileen C. |title=Anselm of Canterbury and the Desire for the Word |location= Washington D.C. |publisher=[[The Catholic University of America Press]] |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-8132-2873-0 |ref=none}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|works=or}}
{{Commons category|Anselm of Canterbury}}
* {{citation |last=Lewis |first=David |title=Canterbury Historical and Archaeological Society |contribution=St Anselm (1033–1109) The most eminent thinker and theologian of his age |contribution-url=http://canterbury-buildings.org.uk/#/anselm-biog/4566624626 |access-date=30 June 2015 }}, a treatment of the locations around the cathedral honoring St&nbsp;Anselm, including the icon of Our Lady of Bec, Anselm, and Lanfranc donated by the [[abbey of Bec]] in 1999 on the 50th anniversary of its refounding.
* {{citation |last=Scratchley |first=Charles James |display-authors=0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p5VUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA852 |chapter=Saint Anselm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p5VUAAAAYAAJ |title=The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, ''Vol.&nbsp;II, Pt.&nbsp;II'' |ref={{harvid|''SDUK''|1843}} |location=London |publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, & Longmans |date=1843 |pages=852–858 }}
* St Anselm's works at [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Scriptor:Anselmus_Cantuariensis Vicifons] and the [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/anselm.html Latin Library] {{in lang|la}}
* St Anselm's works at [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Anselm_of_Canterbury Wikisource]; the [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/anselm Christian Classics Ethereal Library]; and the [http://oll.libertyfund.org/people/saint-anselm Online Library of Liberty] {{in lang|en}}
* [http://jasper-hopkins.info/ St Anselm's works and related essays] at Prof.&nbsp;Jasper Hopkin's homepage. {{in lang|en}}
* {{Librivox author|id=4400}}
* {{citation |last=Halsall |first=Paul |display-authors=0 |contribution=Philosophers' Criticisms of Anselm's Ontological Argument for the Being of God |contribution-url=http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anselm-critics.asp |title=Medieval Sourcebook |publisher=Fordham University |location=New York |date=1998 }}
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_005.html Lewis E 5 De casu diaboli (On the Fall of the Devil) at OPenn]
* [https://www.academiestanselme.eu/ Académie Saint Anselme d'Aoste].

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