View source for Aquila (Roman)

{{Short description|Roman military standard}}
{{Italic title}}
{{About|the Roman battle standard||Aquila {{!}}Aquila}}
{{RomanMilitary}}
[[File:Ornament with Eagle, 100-200 AD, Roman, gold - Cleveland Museum of Art - DSC08277.JPG|thumb|upright|Roman ornament with an ''aquila'' (100–200 AD) from the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]]]
[[Image:Roman aquila.jpg|thumb|upright|A modern reconstruction of an ''aquila'']]
An '''''aquila''''' ({{IPA|la-x-classic|ˈakᶣɪla|lang}}; {{literally|[[Eagle (heraldry)|eagle]]}}) was a prominent symbol used in [[ancient Rome]], especially as the [[Roman military standards|standard of a Roman legion]]. A [[legionary]] known as an ''[[aquilifer]]'', the "eagle-bearer", carried this standard. Each [[Roman legion|legion]] carried one eagle. It represents the [[Eagle of Zeus|Eagle of Jove]] ([[Aëtos]]), being [[Jove]] the "Father of the Roman state".

The eagle had quasi-religious importance to the Roman soldier, far beyond being merely a symbol of his legion. To lose a standard was seen as extremely grave, shameful and dishonorable, and the Roman military went to great lengths both to protect a standard and to recover one if it were to be lost. For example,  after the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|annihilation of three legions in the Teutoburg Forest]], the Romans spent decades retaliating for the defeat while also attempting to recover the three lost eagles.

No legionary eagle standards are known to have survived. However, other Roman eagles, either symbolizing imperial rule or used as funerary emblems, have been discovered.<ref>{{cite web |title=Roman eagle found by archaeologists in City of London |date=2013-10-29 |website=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626044709/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/29/roman-eagle-found-archaeologists-london-sculpture-art |archive-date=2023-06-26 |url-status=live |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/29/roman-eagle-found-archaeologists-london-sculpture-art}}</ref>

[[File:Roma, ss. apostoli, portico esterno, aquila imperiale romana, II secolo dc, forse dal foro di traiano 01.jpg|thumb|Roman imperial eagle from the 2nd century AD, possibly from Trajan's Forum, in the outer portico of the Basilica of the Holy Apostles in Rome]]

==History==
{{main|Insignia#Ancient Rome}}
The ''signa militaria'' were the Roman military [[Ensign (flag)|ensign]]s or [[heraldic standard|standard]]s.<ref>Yates, James, "Signa Militaria" in Smith, William, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'', John Murray, London, 1875, pp. 1044–1046 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Signa_Militaria.html)</ref> The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have been a handful (''[[Insignia#Ancient Rome|manipulus]]'') of straw fixed to the top of a spear or pole. Hence the company of soldiers belonging to it was called a ''[[maniple (military unit)|maniple]]''. The bundle of [[hay]] or [[fern]] was soon succeeded by the figures of animals, of which [[Pliny the Elder]] (''H.N.'' x.16) enumerates five: the eagle, the wolf, the ox with the man's head, the horse, and the boar.<ref>The ox is sometimes confusingly described as a [[Minotaur]]. See [[Sextus Pompeius Festus|Festus]], s.v. Minotaur.</ref><ref>Theodore Mommsen, ''History of Rome'', vol. 3, p. 459.</ref> Pliny attributes to the consul [[Gaius Marius]] the setting aside of the four quadrupeds as standards and the retention of the eagle (''Aquila'') alone after the devastating Roman defeat at the [[Battle of Arausio]] against the [[Cimbri]] and [[Teutons]] in 104 BC. It was made of [[silver]], or [[bronze]], with upwards stretched wings, but was probably of relatively small size, since a standard-bearer (''[[signifer]]'') under [[Augustus]] is said in circumstances of danger (the Teutoburgerwald battle) to have wrenched the eagle from its staff and concealed it in the folds of his tunic above his girdle.<ref>Florus Epitome, book II XXX,38</ref> Pliny's claim is refuted by sources showing late republican and early imperial legions with other animal symbols such as bulls and wolves.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Michael J |date=2019 |title=Tactical reform in the late Roman republic: the view from Italy |url=https://biblioscout.net/article/10.25162/historia-2019-0004 |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=68 |issue=1 |doi=10.25162/historia-2019-0004 |s2cid=165437350 |issn=0018-2311|page=79 n. 14|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Image:Apoteosis de Claudio (Museo del Prado E-225) 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Eagle and weapons from an [[Augustus|Augustan-era]] funerary monument, probably that of [[Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus|Messalla]] ([[Museo del Prado|Prado]], [[Madrid]])]]
Even after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman Empire's religion; the eagle [[Byzantine flags and insignia|continued to be used as a symbol]] by the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the early [[Byzantine Empire]] although far more rarely and with a different meaning. In particular the [[double-headed eagle]], despite strongly linking back to a Pagan symbol, became very popular among Christians.

==Lost ''aquilae''==
*Battles where the aquilae were lost, units that lost the aquilae and the fate of the aquilae:
**73–71 BC – five aquilae were lost over the course of the [[Third Servile War]], recovered upon the defeat of [[Spartacus]] in 71 BC.<ref>Frontinus ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Frontinus/Strategemata/2*.html#5 Stratagems]'' 2.5.34</ref>
**53 BC – the defeat of [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]]. Several legions (returned in 20 BC).
**49–45 BC – loss of aquilae from legions of [[Aulus Gabinius]] and [[Publius Vatinius]] to the [[Dalmatae|Dalmatians]] during [[Caesar's Civil War]].<ref name="rgda,29">[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]], 29</ref> (returned in 23 BC).
** 45 BC – loss of aquilae in Spain during [[Caesar's Civil War]].<ref name="rgda,29" /> (returned in about 25 BC during the [[Cantabrian Wars]]).
**40 BC – defeat of [[Decidius Saxa]] by [[Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC|a combined Roman–Parthian force]] under [[Quintus Labienus]] near [[Antioch]].<ref>Cassius Dio 47, 35–36</ref> Several legions (at least one aquila was returned in 20 BC).
**36 BC – the defeat of Oppius Statianus by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] during [[Antony's Parthian War]]. Two legions (returned in 20 BC).
**(19 BC – degradation of a legion during the [[Cantabrian Wars]] by removal of the name "Augustan legion".<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html Cassius Dio, 54.11]</ref> The actual reason is unknown)
**17 BC – defeat of [[Marcus Lollius]] by Germanic tribes in Gallia in the [[Clades Lolliana]]. [[Legio V Macedonica]]<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/vell2.html#97 Velleius Paterculus, Vell. II – 97]</ref> (returned in 16 BC)
**9 – [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in Germania. [[Legio XVII]], [[Legio XVIII]], and [[Legio XIX]] (two recaptured by Germanicus in 15<ref>[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_1#60 Tacitus Annales 1, 60]</ref> and 16,<ref>[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_2#25 Tacitus, ann. 2,25]</ref> the last recaptured by [[Aulus Gabinius Secundus (consul 35)|Publius Gabinius Secundus]] in 41<ref>[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html#8 Cassius Dio 60,8,7]</ref>).
**66 – [[First Jewish–Roman War]]. [[Legio XII Fulminata]] (fate uncertain).
**70 –  destruction of [[Legio XV Primigenia]] during the [[Revolt of the Batavi]] near [[Xanten]]. (fate unknown)
**86 – defeat of [[Cornelius Fuscus]] in the [[First Battle of Tapae]] during [[Domitian's Dacian War]].<ref>[[Tacitus]], ''[[De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae]]'', [[:s:Vie d’Agricola (Panckoucke)#41|41]].</ref> [[Legio V Alaudae]] or [[Praetorian Guard]] (recaptured during [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]] in 101 or 102<ref>[[Dion Cassius]], ''Histoire romaine'', [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/historiens/Dion/livre68.htm livre LXVIII], 9, 3.</ref>).
**(132 – disputed loss of [[Legio XXII Deiotariana]] or [[Legio IX Hispana]] in the [[Bar Kochva Revolt]]<ref>Peter Schäfer (2003) The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt Against Rome Mohr Siebeck {{ISBN|3-16-148076-7}} p 118</ref>)
**161 – defeat of [[Marcus Sedatius Severianus]] by the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] at [[Elegeia]] in Armenia.<ref>Cassius Dio LXXI.2</ref> Possibly the [[Legio IX Hispana]] or [[Legio XXII Deiotariana]].<ref>Duncan B Campbell, [https://www.academia.edu/856165/The_fate_of_the_Ninth_The_curious_disappearance_of_Legio_VIIII_Hispana The fate of the Ninth: The curious disappearance of Legio VIIII Hispana]", ''Ancient Warfare''</ref>

==Arch of Constantine==
{{wide image|KonstantinsbogenAttika.jpg|1200px|align-cap=center|South attic}}
[[Arch of Constantine]] showing carvings of ''aquila''

== Present == 
In [[1804]], [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] would recover the eagle as a symbol of [[House of Bonaparte|his house]] and emblem of the [[Grande Armée]].<ref name="wise">{{cite book|last=Wise|first=Terence|title=Flags of the Napoleonic Wars (1): Colours, Standards and Guidons of France and her Allies|year=2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=9781780966243|pages=4–6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T3noLir82usC&q=the+distribution+of+the+eagle+standards&pg=PA139|title=Jacques-Louis David: New Perspectives|first=Dorothy|last=Johnson|publisher=University of Delaware Press|year=2006|isbn=978-1611492835}}</ref>

The [[House of Bernadotte]] also has the eagle as its emblem.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.napoleonguide.com/eagles.htm|title=Eagles|access-date=23 June 2018|publisher=Napoleon Guide}}</ref>

The [[Great Seal of the United States]] and several federal agencies ([[CIA]], [[NSA]], etc.) also depict the [[Eagle of Zeus|Eagle of Jove]] but as a [[bald eagle]].

==Ancient imagery==

<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:Emblem of 20th Legion Roof tile, Deva Victrix (Chester, UK), The Grosvenor Museum (8394899150).jpg|{{center|Emblem of the 20th Legion on a roof tile}}
File:Yorkshire Museum, York (Eboracum) (7685208580) 2.jpg|Memorial to Lucius Duccius Rufinus, a standard-bearer of the Ninth Legion, [[Yorkshire Museum]], York
File:Return of the Roman military standards.jpg|Detail of the central breastplate relief on the statue of [[Augustus of Prima Porta]] shows the return of the Aquilae lost to the Parthians. The return of the eagles was one of Augustus's notable diplomatic achievements.
File:Lens - Inauguration du Louvre-Lens le 4 décembre 2012, la Galerie du Temps, n° 058.JPG|The ''[[Praetorians Relief]]'' showing an aquila from the destroyed [[Arch of Claudius]] in Rome.
File:AtticN4Det.jpg|Detail from the [[Arch of Constantine]] in Rome
File:072 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel LXXII.jpg|"The Reliefs of [[Trajan's Column]] by [[Conrad Cichorius]]. Plate number LXXII: Arrival of Roman troops (Scene XCVIII); The emperor sacrifices by the Danube (Scene XCIX); Trajan receives foreign embassies" (aquila at the upper left)
Image:Denarius Mark Anthony-32BC-legIII.jpg|[[Denarius]] minted by [[Mark Antony]] to pay his legions. On the reverse, the ''aquila'' of his [[Legio III Cyrenaica|Third Legion]].
File:Tetradrachm of Pescennius Niger with aquila.jpg|[[Tetradrachm]] minted in 193 by [[Pescennius Niger]] with an aquila on the reverse
File:Aureus of Septimius Severus, AD 193.jpg|[[Aureus]] minted in 193 by [[Septimius Severus]], to celebrate [[Legio XIV Gemina|XIIII ''Gemina Martia Victrix'']], the legion that proclaimed him emperor
File:Augusto, aureo con tempio di marte ultore.JPG|Roman Coin showing the ''aquila'' in the Temple of Mars the Avenger in Rome
File:Germanicus Dupondius 19 2010354.jpg|Coin showing [[Germanicus]] holding an aquila
File:Caligola,_emissione_bronzea,_37-41_ca._adlocui.JPG|Coin of Emperor [[Caligula]] showing several ''aquilae'' at the left.
Image:Sestertius Philip 247-lv lxiii.jpg|[[Sestertius]] minted in 248 by [[Philip the Arab]] to celebrate the province of [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]] and its legions, [[Legio V Macedonica|V ''Macedonica'']] and XIII ''Gemina''. Note the eagle and lion, symbols on the reverse, respectively of Legio V and Legio XIII.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Rome}}
* [[Silchester eagle]]
* [[French Imperial Eagle]], a revival of Roman practice in the [[Napoleonic army]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Signa_Militaria.html Signa Militaria]", by [[James Yates (minister)|James Yates]], in the public domain ''[[A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]]'' (pp.&nbsp;1044&ndash;1046)
* Kai M. Töpfer: ''Signa Militaria. Die römischen Feldzeichen in Republik und Prinzipat'', Mainz, Verlag Schnell + Steiner 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7954-2477-0}}
* ''[[The Eagle of the Ninth]]'', a novel by [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]

==External links==
* [https://www.livius.org/pictures/italy/rome/rome-tre-fontane/tomb-sulpicius-celsus-standards-cm2/ Picture of Aquila on tomb sculpture at Livis.org]
* [https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/12543/ The Roman Eagle: A Symbol and its Evolution]
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Eagle (standard)|display=Eagle. A military standard, adopted by the Romans|short=x}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman military standards]]
[[Category:Eagles in popular culture]]
[[Category:Heraldic eagles]]
[[Category:Imperial Eagle]]
[[Category:Iconography]]