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{{Short description|Korean untouchable caste}}
{{italic title}}
{{Infobox Korean name/auto
|img=백정 Baekjeong, The butcher.jpg
|caption=A masked person acting as a ''baekjeong'' butcher in a play
|hangul=백정
|hanja=白丁
}}
The '''''baekjeong''''' ({{Korean|hangul=백정}}) were an [[Untouchable (social system)|untouchable]] caste in [[Korea]],<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|url=http://www.chakranews.com/castes-in-a-global-perspective-is-caste-only-a-hindu-problem-part-6/3243 |title=Castes in a Global Perspective - Is Caste Only a Hindu Problem? (Part 6) - ChakraNews.com |last=Sudrania |first=OP |date=9 September 2012 |work=ChakraNews.com |access-date=5 May 2018 |language=en-US}}</ref> originating from some minority, nomadic groups of disputed ethnicity. Today, the word simply means a butcher.

In the early part of the [[Goryeo]] period (918–1392), these minorities were largely settled in fixed communities.<ref name=":4" /> However, the [[Mongol]] invasion left Korea in disarray and [[anomie]] and these groups became [[nomad]]ic.<ref name=":4" /> Subgroups of the ''baekjeong'' included the {{lang|ko-latn|[[chaein]]}} ({{lang|ko|才人}} "entertainers") and the {{lang|ko-latn|hwachae}} ({{lang|ko|禾尺}}) or {{lang|ko-latn|suchae}} ({{lang|ko|水尺}}),<ref>{{Cite web|script-title=ko:화척(禾尺)|language=ko |trans-title=Hwacheok (禾尺) - The Encyclopedia of Korean National Culture |url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0064887 |access-date=13 September 2021 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref> who were primarily butchers. The ''baekjeong'' occupied specific professions like butchery, tanning, basket weaving and performing executions.<ref name=":4" />

During the Goryeo period, "baekjeong" was used as a neutral term to refer to the common people.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0022351 |title=Baekjeong(白丁) - Korean National Culture Encyclopedia |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko |access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> From the time of the [[Joseon]] dynasty, it became an insulting title used to refer to the lowest class of society.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=430995 |title=National Korean Language Institute - Standard Language Encyclopedia |website=stdweb2.korean.go.kr |access-date=14 April 2018 |archive-date=20 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520053842/http://stdweb2.korean.go.kr/search/View.jsp?idx=430995 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In addition, since the Joseon dynasty, "baekjeong" has been also used to denigrate a person.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/841090.html |title=Prosecutors alleged the lobby to finish checking two people indicted without detention ... 'anticlimax' |date=18 April 2018 |access-date=28 April 2018 |language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ohmynews.com/nws_web/view/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0001645231 |title=Human Baekjeong, criticism of Sejo of Joseon |author-last=Lee |author-first=Jung Geun |date=25 October 2011 |website=Oh-My-News |access-date=28 April 2018}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=See reliable sources list on [[WP:KO/RS]]|date=March 2025}} In contemporary South Korea, the term is mainly associated with the meaning of a butcher and even used in the restaurants' names.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.baekjeong.co.kr/ |title=Kang Ho Dong BAEKJEONG |website=www.baekjeong.co.kr |language=en-us |access-date=14 June 2018 |archive-date=16 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616081057/http://www.baekjeong.co.kr/ |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author-last=Yoon |author-first=Soon Yong |date=2011 |script-title=ko:벽초『임꺽정』에 나타난 백정의 실체와 문학적 형상화 |trans-title=The Butcher's reality and his literary portrayal in 「Imggeokjeong」|url=http://www.riss.kr/link?id=T12282415 |journal=Master's Thesis(Graduate School of Education, Kongju National University) |language=ko |pages=1}}</ref>

== Origin ==
{{Korean caste system}}
According to [[Jeong Yakyong]], one of the most distinguished scholars on the methodology of historical researches in the reign of [[Jeongjo of Joseon|King Jeongjo]] (1777–1800) and [[Sunjo of Joseon|King Sunjo]] (1801–1834),<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|author-last=Rhim |author-first=Soon Man |date=1974 |title=THE PAEKCHONG: "UNTOUCHABLES" OF KOREA. |url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-12-1-1974/rhim-paekchong%20untouchables%20of%20korea.pdf |journal=Journal of Oriental Studies |volume=12 |pages=30–40}}</ref> one theory holds that they were of "Tatar" origin. The term "Tartar" seems to have been a general term for all northern peoples, [[Mongols]], Manchurians, and so on. In his book, the origin of the ''baekjeong'' is attributed to a nomadic group from the [[Goryeo]] period known as the [[Yangsucheok]] (楊水尺) or [[Mujari]] ({{Korean|hangul=무자리|labels=no}}).<ref name=":5" /> Being an alien people, the [[Yangsuchuk]] were hardly assimilated into the general population.<ref name=":5" /> They were engaged in the making and selling of [[willow]] baskets.<ref name=":5" /> They were also proficient in slaughtering animals and had a liking for hunting.<ref name=":5" />

== History ==
=== During the Goryeo dynasty ===
From the Goryeo Dynasty (918~1392) until the time of [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]] of the [[Joseon]] Dynasty, baekjeong was not used to refer to the lowest class of people.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Joong Seop|date=2013|script-title=ko:"조선시대 백정"의 기원에 대한 역사사회학적 고찰|trans-title=Articles : The Origins of the Outcast, Paekjong, in the Choson Period: The Socio-Historical Perspective Reconsidered|url=http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3197916|journal=동방학지|volume=164|pages=140~141|via=연세대학교 국학연구원(Yonsei Univ. Oriental Institute)}}</ref> The Sino-Korean term {{lang|ko-latn|baekjeong}} ({{lang|ko|白丁}}) originally meant "common people",<ref>{{Cite journal|author-last=Ryu |author-first=Sun Young |date=2001 |title=高麗時代 白丁에 대한 再檢討 |trans-title=Reexamation of Baekchong in Koryo Dynasty |url=http://www.riss.kr/link?id=T9133865 |journal=Thesis (Master)-Dong-A University Graduate School: History Department |volume=3 |pages=1~50 |via=동아대학교 도서관(Dong-A University Library) |language=ko}}</ref> a meaning which it retains in Chinese and Japanese. Based on information in the {{lang|ko-latn|[[Goryeosa]]}}, the chief surviving history of Goryeo, scholars assume that a ''baekjeong'' is "a person who has no burden of duties ({{Korean|hangul=역|hanja=役|labels=no}})". The term is a compound of {{lang|ko-latn|baek}} ({{korean|hangul=백|hanja=白|lit=white/innocent/blank|labels=no}}), and {{lang|ko-latn|jeong}} ({{korean|hangul=정|hanja=丁|lit=person|labels=no}}).<ref name=":2" /> As such, ''baekjeong''  or "blank man" connotes a group of peasants who have not been granted land because they have not received certain duties from the state.<ref name=":2" />

In the Goryeo period, terms for the group which would later be known as ''baekjeong'' were {{lang|ko-latn|[[yangsucheok]]}} (hanja: {{lang|ko|楊水尺}}), {{lang|ko-latn|[[sucheok]]}} (hanja: {{lang|ko|水尺}}), {{lang|ko-latn|[[hwacheok]]}} or {{lang|ko-latn|hwachae}} (hanja: {{lang|ko|禾尺}}), and {{lang|ko-latn|[[mujari]]}} ({{Korean|hangul=무자리|labels=no}}, probably a compound of {{lang|ko|물}} "water" and {{lang|ko|자리}} "seat, place").<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last1=Martin |editor-first1=Samuel Elmo |title=A Korean-English dictionary |editor-last2=Yi |editor-first2=Yang-ha |editor-last3=Chang |editor-first3=Sŏng-ŏn |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1967 |isbn=9780300007534 |location=New Haven}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0035623 |title=Yangsuchuck(楊水尺) - Korean National Culture Encyclopedia |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko |access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> They descended from the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]] or [[Khitan people|Khitans]] dating back to the beginning of Goryeo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://db.history.go.kr/download.do?levelId=nh_015_0020&fileName=nh_015_0020.pdf#page=2 |script-title=ko:신편한국사-고려 전기의 사회와 대외 관계 |language=ko |date=2002 |website=[[National Institute of Korean History]] |trans-title=New Korean History - Society and Foreign Relations in Goryeo Dynasty}}</ref> They enjoyed group life among themselves so they continued to live in temporary residences while moving to various areas.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0064887 |title=Hawchuck(禾尺) - Korean National Culture Encyclopedia |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko |access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> They were distributed nationwide, but were especially concentrated in the provinces of [[Pyongan Province|Pyeongan-do]] and [[Hwanghae Province]].<ref name=":1" /> They were not registered in the national register.<ref name=":1" />

=== Early Joseon Dynasty ===
In the early days of the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]] consolidated the various outcaste groups with ordinary farmers.<ref name=":2" /> This combined group was called "baekjeong", the name of the general peasant group in the Goryeo period.<ref name=":2" /> [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]] also put them on the family register, gave them lands to plant, settled them into fixed communities, and tried to keep them under state control.<ref name=":2" /> However, the common policies of [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]] could not overcome the prejudices of the ordinary people, who continued to discriminate against the descendants of outcastes. Even government officials did not follow the instructions of the king.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Kim|first=Joong Seop|date=2013|script-title=ko:"조선시대 백정"의 기원에 대한 역사사회학적 고찰|trans-title=Articles : The Origins of the Outcast, Paekjong, in the Choson Period: The Socio-Historical Perspective Reconsidered|url=http://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3197916|journal=동방학지|volume=164|pages=154~155|via=Yonsei Univ. Oriental Institute}}</ref>

Moreover, it seems that the ''baekjeong'' did not change their existing lifestyle or occupation easily.<ref name=":3" /> They settled in one area but did not try to farm, instead engaging in the production and sale of [[wicker]] products, slaughtering, singing and dancing.<ref name=":3" /> In this situation, integration of the ''baekjeong'' into the ordinary peasantry was not easy and the practice of discrimination and suppression against them continued.<ref name=":3" /> In particular, the mainstream group regarded the life and customs of the butchers as despicable, antisocial, non-normative, and even potentially criminal.<ref name=":3" />

=== Late Joseon Dynasty ===
Near the end of the Joseon Dynasty, a mutual aid organization for the ''baekjeong'' was established, called [[Seungdongdoga]] ({{Korean|hangul=승동도가|hanja=承洞都家|labels=no}}), with representatives from various communities.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sisapress.com/journal/articlePrint/108966|title='분강나루'서 건져낸 백정 恨|last=Lee|first=Moon Jae|date=August 8, 1991|website=www.sisapress.com|language=ko|trans-title=Baekjeong's Resentment|access-date=2018-05-12}}</ref> The organization was involved in taking action, coordinating improvements, and acting at times as the official representative of the ''baekjeong'' in legal matters.<ref name=":9" /> In 1894, the Korean caste system was legally abolished by the [[Gabo Reform|Gabo reform]]. However, social discrimination against the ''baekjeong'' did not come to an end. The family register of ''baekjeong'' was still separate and, under "occupation", their names were marked by the use of the word 屠漢 ("butcher") or a red dot.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section-005006002/2004/06/005006002200406062131178.html|title=차별과 저항의 역사 '백정'|last=Kim|first=Han Jong|date=Jun 6, 2004|website=legacy.www.hani.co.kr|language=ko|trans-title=The history of discrimination and resistance "Baekjeong"|access-date=2018-05-12}}</ref> During the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution|Donghak Rebellion]], sixth of the 12 demands of the rebels was to no longer require the Baekjeong to self-identify by being forced to wear the Paeraengi Hat, a strat hat. Nonetheless, the Gabo reform ensured that ''baekjeong'' could become officials, scholars, or artists if they had the ability.<ref>{{Cite book|title=인물로 읽는 한국사 시리즈 - 빼앗긴 들에도 봄은 오리니|last=Lee|first=Lee Hwa|publisher=김영사[Gimmyoung]|year=2008|isbn=978-8934953647|language=ko|trans-title=Korean History Series by Humans- Spring is also coming down Take away Field}}</ref> Although they were still largely limited to their traditional occupations, modified regulations in 1896 allowed non-''baekjeong'' to become licensed [[butcher]]s, eventually leading to meat businesses which have pushed many out of one of the few occupations open to them.

However, while improvements to the social status of the ''baekjeong'' came slowly, it was different for the commoners (the lower of the [[yangmin]]), who had economically been little different from slaves. Respect for government officials plunged in the 17th century as they fled from the invading Japanese and Manchurians, leaving the civilians at their mercy. The government also awarded many militiamen [[yangban]] class status in exchange for their voluntary militia activities against these invaders. In time, with the rise of commerce, merchants bought forged family histories and official status documents as well. Eventually, around three fourths of the population were [[yangban]] in name.

=== Modern use===
The term "baekjeong" is still used in modern South Korean society. This is particularly common in occupations dealing with raw meat, which carry a negative social stigma.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=http://news.joins.com/article/22538112|title=스키니진 입고 칼질하는 열아홉 육부장|last=Kim|first=Yun Ho|date=2018-04-16|work=[[JoongAng Ilbo]]|access-date=2018-05-12|language=ko-KR|trans-title=Nineteen Sixteen Meat Directors}}</ref> In spite of this, "baekjeong" is widely used in Korean restaurant names, denoting [[barbecue]] establishments where raw marinated meat is served and cooked at the table.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.eater.com/2017/11/17/16670040/kang-ho-dong-baekjeong-korean-barbecue-nyc|title=Watch: Is Kang Ho Dong Baekjeong the World's Favorite Korean Barbecue?|last=Kang|first=Matthew|date=November 17, 2017|work=Eater Video|access-date=2018-05-12}}</ref> In this context, ''baekjeong'' is descriptive and carries no negative connotation.

==Jobs==
===Executioner===
Throughout much of the Joseon Dynasty, they were also forced to serve as [[executioner]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Everyday life in Joseon-era Korea : economy and society / The Organization of Korean Historians, Seoul ; edited and translated by Michael D. Shin ; co-translated by Edward Park.|last1=Shin|first1=Michael D|last2=Park|first2=Edward|last3=Yŏksa|first3=Yŏn'guhoe|publisher=Leiden|year=2014|isbn=9789004261150|location=Netherlands}}</ref> When the ''baekjeong'' community were called upon to supply an executioner, the job was assigned to some hapless member, sometimes practically an insane person.

===Butcher===
The ''baekjeong'' did jobs that no self-respecting Buddhist Korean would touch, including anything working with animals.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thehistoryofkorea.com/ce-1100-the-baekjeong-medieval-outcasts|title=CE 1100. The Baekjeong: Medieval Outcasts|date=2017-09-11|work=The History of Korea|access-date=2018-05-05|language=en-US}}</ref> Slaughtering animals, leather making--these kinds of unclean duties were avoided by other Koreans, and so were filled [[de facto]] by baekjeong.<ref name=":6" />  In other words, the group was assigned to the most demeaning tasks in Korean society.<ref name=":6" /> They were also considered in moral violation of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] principles, which led Koreans to see work involving meat as polluting and sinful, even if they saw the consumption as acceptable.<ref name=":6" /> By the latter part of the Joseon Dynasty, baekjeong accepted the principles of [[Confucianism]] and did not slaughter for three years when their parents died.<ref>{{Cite book|title=모멸의 조선사: 지배 권력에 맞선 백성의 열 가지 얼굴|last=Jo|first=Yun Min|publisher=글 항아리|year=2017|isbn=9788967354961|trans-title=Anger History of Joseon-Ten faces of the people against the dominant power}}</ref>

==Discrimination==
The group had long suffered severe social [[discrimination]] in [[Culture of Korea|Korean society]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section-005006002/2004/06/005006002200406062131178.html|title=The history of discrimination and resistance 'Baekjeong'|last=Kim|first=Han Jong|date=Jun 6, 2004|website=legacy.www.hani.co.kr|access-date=2018-05-12}}</ref> The ''baekjeong'' were seen as contemptible and polluted people that others feared and avoided meeting.<ref name=":7" /> ''Baekjeong'' could not live in a [[Roof tiles|roof-tiled]] house and were not allowed to wear [[silk]] clothes or leather shoes or a [[Gat (hat)|gat]]<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=민주주의를 향한 역사 : 시대의 건널목, 19세기 한국사의 재발견|last=Kim|first=Jung In|publisher=책과함께|year=2015|isbn=9791186293393|trans-title=History for Democracy: Crossing the Age, Rediscovery of 19th Century History}}</ref> (a traditional Korean horsehair hat). When ''baekjeong'' went outside their houses, they had to wear a bamboo hat.<ref name=":8" /> A ''baekjeong'' had to lower himself in front of a [[yangin]] and was forbidden to smoke or drink in their presence.<ref name=":8" /> ''Baekjeong'' could not ride a [[Litter (vehicle)|litter]] or horse when they married and a married woman could not wear a [[Binyeo|hair stick]].<ref name=":8" /> ''Baekjeong'' were not allowed surnames and were forbidden the use of certain characters in their personal names, such as 仁 "benevolence", 義 "righteousness", 禮 "rites", or 智 "wisdom".<ref name=":8" /> The extent to which they were seen as impure people is well-illustrated in the fact that their bodies were kept in separate [[graveyard]]s so as not to mingle with those of the [[yangmin]].

== Influence of religion ==
[[Donghak Peasant Revolution|Donghak]] and [[Christianity]] had a lot of influence on the ''baekjeong''. These belief systems exposed the ''baekjeong''—and Koreans more generally—to concepts of egalitarianism and social equality. The influence of these religions became linked to the social movement.

=== Donghak ===
Towards the end of the 19th century, there was an increasing impetus towards human dignity and liberalization. Of particular importance was the growth of certain religions supportive of change. Donghak, a Korean nationalist religion, wished to end unfair conventions. Donghak peasants had staged an uprising in 1894 in favor of human rights, especially for those low on the social ladder. Among other things, they demanded that the ''baekjeong'' no longer be forced to wear discriminatory hats and widows be allowed to remarry.<ref>{{Cite book|script-title=ko:한국사 상식 바로잡기|last=Park|first=Eun Hong|publisher=책과함께(Wbooks)|year=2006|isbn=978-8997735853|trans-title=Correcting Korean common sense}}</ref> Although this uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, it was an important impetus behind the [[Gabo Reform]], and helped to abolish the class structure that had placed legal restrictions on certain groups. However, the ''baekjeong'' benefited much less from these changes than other groups, such as the [[Slavery|slaves]].

=== Christianity ===
The other major religious influence on human rights came through Christianity.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book|script-title=ko:근대를 산책하다|last=Kim|first=Jong Rock|publisher=Dasan Books|year=2013|isbn=978-8963709352|pages=126~133|trans-title=Take a walk in the Modern Times}}</ref> Some [[missionary|missionaries]] had converted ''baekjeong'' to [[Christianity]], stating that everyone has equal rights under [[God]].<ref name=":11" /> However, everyone was not equal in Christian congregations and protests erupted when missionaries attempted to integrate the baekjeon into worship services, with non-''baekjeong'' finding such attempts insensitive to traditional notions of social status.<ref name=":11" /> Thus, both Donghak and Christianity exposed the ''baekjeong'', and Koreans more generally, to concepts of egalitarianism and social equality.<ref name=":11" /> Parallel to and supportive of the rise of these ideas were transitions occurring in Korean society as a whole, particularly with regard to social classes.<ref name=":11" />

==Social movements==
Beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the ''baekjeong'' began to resist the open social discrimination that existed against them.<ref>{{cite book|title=Colonial Modernity in Korea|last=Kim|first=Jung-Seop|year=1999|isbn=978-0674005945|editor=Gi-Wook Shin and Michael Robinson|location=Harvard Univ|page=326|chapter=In Search of Human Rights: The Baekjeong Movement in Colonial Korea}}</ref> In 1900, leaders from 16 counties petitioned the mayor of [[Jinju]] to be allowed to wear the same clothes and hats as other people.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|script-title=ko:형평 운동, 3권, 진주 문화 를 찾아서|last=Kim|first=Chung-sŏp|publisher=지식 산업사|year=2001|isbn=978-8942348176|location=University of Michigan|language=Ko}}</ref> When others in the north refused to wear the humiliating garb traditionally expected of them and were jailed, an effort was made to release them.<ref name=":12" /> Growing industrialism in Korea began to erode ''baekjeong'' dominance over certain occupations, particularly as the Japanese began to control slaughterhouses and exploit them as employees.<ref name=":12" />

However, as some ''baekjeong'' fell into financial despair, the loosening of segregation led others to profit from changes, giving them the ability to fund efforts for change.<ref name=":12" /> Beyond financial resources, organization was also strengthened due to the longstanding connections created through segregation and close-knit social networks.<ref name=":12" /> Between these human and financial resources, an emphasis on progressive models, and feelings of social deprivation and discrimination, the conditions were ripe for the ''baekjeong'' to mobilize for change.<ref name=":12" /> One of the earliest of these movements was in 1910 when [[Chang Chip'il]], later an influential member of the [[Hyeongpyeongsa]], unsuccessfully attempted to establish a trade union for butchers.<ref name=":12" /> In 1921, the Jipseong Johap was established by Korean and Japanese entrepreneurs, attempting to provide [[poverty assistance]] for butchers.<ref name=":12" /> However, this effort for improvement of economic conditions was soon overshadowed by an organization with broader goals.<ref name=":12" />

The Hyeongpyeongsa was launched in Jinju on 23 April 1923 through the alliance of wealthy or educated ''baekjeong'' and non-''baekjeong'' proponents of change, advocating for "the abolition of classes and of contemptuous appellations, the enlightenment of members, and the promotion of mutual friendship among members."<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Lee|first=Jeong-eun|date=2013|script-title=ko:근대도시의 소외된 사람들-소수자와 인권의 사회사|trans-title=The Urban Marginalized People in the Modern City : The Social History of Minorities and Human Rights|url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE02394983|journal=Institute for East Asian Studies|volume=10|pages=140–142|via=SungKongHoe University}}</ref> It advocated both for individual civil rights as well as communal fellowship, recognizing that the group must maintain its identity under the strain of changes such as [[urbanization]] and [[industrialization]] which threatened to atomize the community.<ref name=":13" /> Thus, the Hyeongpyeongsa pursued both an equality of human rights and the right to assimilate into the broader public, even as it worked to forge a common identity.<ref name=":13" /> In 1927 a number of members of the Hyeongpyeongsa were arrested for their involvement in the creation of an underground nationalist organization. Their absence was partially responsible for the organization's shift to the socialist left in the late 1920s.<ref name=":13" /> Power within the organization shifted several times, including the shift in 1925 from the original Chinju faction advocating educational reform to a group of Seoul intellectuals more interested in economic reforms based around traditional occupations.<ref name=":13" />

At the 1931 national conference, they stirred controversy within the movement by introducing a dissolution proposal, feeling that the organization had abandoned its original aims in favor of those of the bourgeois [[intellectual]]s directing it.<ref name=":13" /> It was their belief that dissolution would better serve their interests as it was replaced by [[trade union]]s.<ref name=":13" /> The dissolution proposal failed, but not without further alienating more conservative members of the movement, who were already financially strapped from broader economic conditions in Korea.<ref name=":13" /> Even more fatal for the movement was the arrest of a number of young radical members, who were accused of establishing a secret communist organization, the "Hyeongpyeongsa Youth Vanguard", which authorities said demanded struggle against feudalism and the abolishment of private property.<ref name=":13" /> The trial related to this accusation dragged on for four years, before the defendants were found to be innocent. It appears likely that the "organization" was a construction by Japanese authorities to ensure the labor wing of the Hyeongpyeongsa would not interfere with their access to [[leather]] needed for the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|invasion of China]].<ref name=":13" /> As a result, the Hyeongpyeongsa shifted to the right, abandoning progressive ideals and finally disbanding in 1935, claiming the movement's aims had successfully been met.<ref name=":13" />

The growing power of the radical wing divided the movement, and much of the economic support provided by wealthier ''baekjeong'' was pulled, particularly under the strain of the [[Great Depression]], which had negatively impacted the meat and leather trades.<ref name=":14">{{cite book|title=The Korean Baekjeong under Japanese rule: the quest for equality and human rights|last=Kim|first=Joong-Seop|year=2003|page=147}}</ref> The young socialists in the Hyŏngp'yŏngsa forged connections with other movements, attempting to broaden the movement and work towards "the reconstitution of Korea as a whole."<ref name=":14" /> More importantly, they focused on social and economic injustices affecting the ''baekjeong'', hoping to create an [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]] Korean society.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|title=The Korean Paekjŏng under Japanese rule: the quest for equality and human rights|last=Kim|first=Joong-Seop|year=2003|isbn=9781138863460|location=London|pages=147}}</ref> Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by the upper class, authorities, and "commoners" and the use of degrading language against children in public schools.<ref name=":15" />

== See also ==
* [[Jaegaseung]]
* [[Yangban]]
* [[Sangmin]]
* [[Cheonmin]]
* [[Nobi]]
* [[Untouchable (social system)]]
* [[Burakumin]] - The Japanese equivalent of ''baekjeong''.
* [[Cagot]] - Similar historically persecuted people in France and Spain

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Journal ==
* Osgood, Cornelius. 1951. ''The Koreans and Their Culture''. New York: Ronald Press.
* Passin, Herbert. 1957. "The Paekchŏng of Korea: A Brief Social History" ''Monumenta Nipponica''. 12 (3/4): 195&ndash;240.
* Kim, Joong-Seop. 1999. "In Search of Human Rights: The Paekchŏng Movement in Colonial Korea" Pp.&nbsp;311&ndash;335 in ''Colonial Modernity in Korea'', edited by Gi-Wook Shin and Michael Robinson. Cambridge; London: Harvard University Asia Center.
* Kim, Joong-Seop. 2003. ''The Korean Paekjŏng under Japanese rule: the quest for equality and human rights''. London; New York: Routledge.
* {{lang|ja|上原善広}}, 2006. "{{lang|ja|コリアン部落}}". {{lang|ja|ミリオン出版}}.
* 金永大, 1988. {{lang|ja|"朝鮮の被差別民衆}}". {{lang|ja|解放出版社}}.
* {{lang|ko-Hani|金仲燮}}, 2003. "{{lang|ja|衡平運動 朝鮮の被差別民・白丁その歴史とたたかい}}". {{lang|ja|部落解放・人権研究所}}

[[Category:Korean caste system]]
[[Category:Social history of Korea]]
[[Category:Nomadic groups in Eurasia]]