View source for Battle of Kosovo (1448)

{{short description|Part of the Ottoman wars in Europe and Ottoman-Hungarian Wars}}
{{For|other combat operations in the Kosovo region|Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Second Battle of Kosovo
| image             = [[Image:Sueleymanname akinci.png|300 px]]
| caption           = An [[akinji]] defeating a Hungarian knight with a [[lasso]].
| partof            = the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] and [[Hungarian–Ottoman Wars]] and [[Ottoman–Wallachian wars (disambiguation)|Ottoman–Wallachian wars]]
| date              = 17–20 October 1448 ([[Adoption of the Gregorian calendar|O.S.]])<br/>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=10|day1=17|year1=1448|month2=10|day2=20|year2=1448}})
| place             = [[Kosovo Field]], [[Serbian Despotate]]
| result            = [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] victory
| combatant1        = [[Ottoman Empire]]<br>[[Karamanids]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Koçu |first1=Reşad Ekrem |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed |date=2024 |page=39 |isbn=9786050926569}}</ref>
| combatant2        = [[Kingdom of Hungary]]<br>[[Holy Roman Empire]]<br>[[Kingdom of Bohemia]]<br>[[Moldavia]]<br>[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lütfullah Müneccimbaşı |first1=Ahmed B. |title=Osmanlı Devleti'nin Kuruluş Tarihi (1299-1481) |date=2014 |publisher=AKDEM YAYINLARI |isbn=9786054535293}}</ref><br>[[Wallachia]]{{efn|Switched to the Ottoman side on day 3 of the battle{{sfn|Bury|p=1814}}{{sfn | Treadgold | 1997 | p=797}}<ref name="Banlaky">{{Cite book |last=Bánlaky |first=József |title=A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The Military History of the Hungarian Nation |chapter=A rigómezei csata 1448 október 17-től 19-ig |trans-chapter=The Battle of Kosovo at 17–19 October in 1448 |chapter-url=https://mek.oszk.hu/09400/09477/html/0010/779.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mesut Uyar Ph.D. |first=Edward J. Erickson |url=https://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Uyar%20and%20Erickson%20(eds_),%20A%20Military%20Hist%20of%20the%20Ottomans.PDF |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Ataturk |year=2009 |access-date=2022-04-08 |archive-date=2021-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227021709/https://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Uyar%20and%20Erickson%20(eds_),%20A%20Military%20Hist%20of%20the%20Ottomans.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Chalkokondyles |first=Laonikos |title=The Histories of Laonikos Chalkokondyldes, Volume I (Translated by Anthony Kaldellis, 2014) |year=1464}}</ref>}}
| commander1        = '''[[Murad II]]'''<br> [[Mehmed II|Prince Mehmed]]
| commander2        = '''[[John Hunyadi]]'''<br>[[Franko Talovac]]{{KIA}}<br>[[Michael Szilágyi]]
| strength1         = 50,000–60,000<ref name="Muf">Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi 1.cilt Mustafa Cezar</ref><ref name="Babinger21">{{Cite book |last1=Babinger
|first1=Franz |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed ve Zamanı |pages=96-98 |isbn=9786254493607 |date=2021 |publisher=Alfa Yayınevi}}</ref>
| strength2         = 31,000–47,000 (7,000 cavalry , 24,000–40,000 infantry)<ref name="Babinger21" />
| casualties1       = 4,000–34,000{{sfn|Antoche|2017|p=273}}{{sfn | Babinger | Manheim | Hickman | 1978 | p=55}}{{efn|name=casualties}}<br>up to 35,000<ref name="Banlaky"/>
| casualties2       = 6,000–17,000{{sfn|Antoche|2017|p=273}}{{sfn | Babinger | Manheim | Hickman | 1978 | p=55}}{{efn|name=casualties}} 17,000 (9,000 Hungarians, 2,000 Mercenaries, 6,000 Wallachians)<ref name="Banlaky"/>
}}
{{Campaignbox Ottoman-Hungarian War}}

The '''Second Battle of Kosovo''' ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''második rigómezei csata'', [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''İkinci Kosova Muharebesi'') was a land battle between a [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian]]-led Crusader army and the [[Ottoman Empire]] at [[Kosovo field]] that took place from 17&ndash;20 October 1448. It was the culmination of a Hungarian offensive to avenge the [[Battle of Varna|defeat]] at the [[Battle of Varna]] four years earlier. In the three-day battle the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire#Army|Ottoman army]] under the command of [[Sultan]] [[Murad II]] defeated the Crusader army of [[regent]] [[John Hunyadi]].

After the battle, the path was clear for the Turks to conquer Serbia and the other Balkan States; it also ended any hopes of saving [[Constantinople]]. The Hungarian kingdom no longer had the military and financial resources to mount an offensive against the Ottomans. With the end of the half-century-long Crusader threat to their European frontier, Murad's son [[Mehmed II]] was free to lay [[Siege of Constantinople (1453)|siege]] to Constantinople in 1453.

==Background==
In 1444, the Hungarian king, [[Władysław III of Poland]], in breach of a ten-year truce that existed with the [[Ottoman Empire]] following the [[Peace of Szeged]], launched a new crusade.{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|p=373}} Meeting the Ottoman forces at the [[Battle of Varna]], the crusading army was destroyed and the king was killed.{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2011|p=373}} Two years later in 1446, Sultan Murad II returned to the Balkans seeking revenge for the treaty breaking that preceded the battle. That year his army breached the [[Hexamilion wall]] and ravaged the [[Peloponnese]] after which, following the proclamation of a new crusade by [[Pope Nicholas V]], Murad invaded Albania, [[Siege of Svetigrad|conquering]] the fortress of Svetigrad.{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=34}} Meanwhile, four years after his defeat at Varna, [[John Hunyadi]], the richest landowner in Hungary, had joined forces with Albania's forces in an alliance that also included [[Serbian Despotate|Serbia]] and [[Kingdom of Bosnia|Bosnia]].{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=35}}{{sfn|Phillips|Axelrod|2005|p=20}} Resolved to defeat the Ottoman army, [[John Hunyadi|Hunyadi]] raised an army of 24,000 men, including 8,000 [[Wallachia]]ns,{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=34}} his Hungarian cavalry supplemented by German and Bohemian infantry mercenaries.{{sfn|Bradford|2004|p=733}}{{sfn|Sedlar|2013|p=393}} Hunyadi's strategy was based on an expected revolt of the [[Balkan]] peoples, a surprise attack, and the destruction of the main force of the Ottomans in a single battle after linking up with his allies.{{sfn|Turnbull|2012|p=34}}

In September 1448, Hunyadi led his forces across the [[Danube]] and camped them in Serbia next to [[Kovin]], just outside the Serbian capital of [[Smederevo]]. For a full month the Hungarians stayed encamped awaiting their German, Wallachian, Bohemian and Albanian allies.{{sfn|Rogers|Caferro|Reid|2010|p=1-PA471}} The news of the crusader threat forced Murad to abandon his campaign against Albania.<ref>{{Cite book |last=von Hammer-Purgstall |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xluFTDC8vRcC |title=Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches |year=1827 |pages=477 |language=de |trans-title=History of the Ottoman Empire}}</ref> Believing the strength of his army to be inadequate to face the crusaders, Murad retreated back to [[Sofia]] to stockpile resources necessary for the campaign and receive reinforcements.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Kabasakal |first=Hüseyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIppAAAAMAAJ&q=Varna%20(1444),%20%C4%B0kinci%20Kosova%20(1448)%20meydan%20muharebeleri%20ve%20II.%20Murat |title=Varna (1444), İkinci Kosova (1448) Meydan Muharebeleri ve II. Murat |publisher=Genelkurmay Basımevi |year=1986 |pages=75–76 |language=tr |trans-title=Field Battles of Varna (1444) & Second Kosovo (1448) and Murad II |quote=II. Murat, ordusunun yürüyüş hedefini Sofya olarak değiştirdi ve Sırbistan’a istihbarat elemanları gönderildi. Büyük bir sefer süresince ordunun ihtiyaç duyacağı yiyecek ve giyecek ile silah, araç, gereç ve öteki donatım malzemesinin Sofya’da toplanması için emirler verilmiş ve gerekli önlemlere başvurulmuştu. Bu süre içinde Anadolu ve Rumeli kuvvetleri de burada toplanmış olacaktı... Ordunun Sofya’da toplanması sırasında Eflak ordusunun Niğbolu’ya saldırdığı haberi alınmış, gönderilen bir akıncı kuvveti, baskın yaparak Eflaklıları perişan etmişti. Baskın sırasında alınan esirler Sofya’ya gönderilmişti. Bu başarı, orduda büyük sevinç yaratmış ve morali pekiştirmiştir... Sofya’da yığınağını ve hazırlıklarını tamamlayan Türk ordusu, II. Murat tarafından denetlendikten ve gerekli emirler verildikten sonra, Sofya-Köstendil-Palanga-Komanova-Üsküp-Kaçanik-Piriştine istikametinde yürüyüşe geçmiştir. Yürüyüş sırasında keşif birimlerinden alınan raporlardan, Haçlı ordunun Kosova Ovası’nda tahkimatla uğraştığı öğrenilmiştir. Kosova’ya yürüyüş, güvenlik önlemleri alınmış olarak, çok düzenli biçimde sürdürülmüştür.}}</ref> While gathering the necessary provisions in Sofia, news reached the army that a Wallachian force had crossed the Danube and attacked Ottoman positions in [[Sanjak of Nicopolis|Nicopolis]]. A unit of [[Akinji|Akinjis]] was dispatched to respond to the attack, which succeeded in ambushing and dispersing the Wallachians, taking many prisoners in the process.<ref name=":0" /> The [[Prisoner of war|POWs]] captured during the ambush were sent to Sofia, where the news of the victory had increased morale among the Ottoman troops before their march towards the crusader army.<ref name=":0" /> Meanwhile, the Albanian army under Skanderbeg was delayed as it was prevented from linking up with Hunyadi's army by the Ottomans and their allies.{{sfn|Rogers|Caferro|Reid|2010|p=1-PA471}}<ref name="Frashëri2002pp160-161">{{harvnb|Frashëri|2002|pp=160–161}}</ref> It is believed that the Albanian army was delayed by Serbian despot [[Đurađ Branković]], whose army occupied the mountain passes on the Serbian-Albanian border, and by a Venetian attack on northern Albania.{{sfn|Sedlar|2013|p=393}} The Serbs had declined joining [[John Hunyadi|Hunyadi]]'s forces due to an earlier truce with the Turks.{{sfn|Sedlar|2013|p=248}} Branković's exact role is disputed.<ref name="Vaughan1954">{{cite book|last=Vaughan|first=Dorothy Margaret|title=Europe and the Turk: a pattern of alliances, 1350–1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=whkOAQAAMAAJ|page=62|access-date=12 September 2012|date=1954|publisher=AMS Press|isbn=9780404563325|archive-date=2023-04-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409103007/https://books.google.com/books?id=whkOAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Sedlar1994">{{cite book|last=Sedlar|first=Jean W.|title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA393|access-date=12 September 2012|year=1994|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=9780295972909|page=393|archive-date=9 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409103051/https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA393|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Babinger|Manheim|Hickman|1978|p=40}} As a result, [[Skanderbeg]] ravaged and pillaged Branković's domains as punishment for deserting the Christian cause,<ref name="Frashëri2002pp160-161"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Kenneth|first=Setton|title=The papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC&q=ragusa+Kastriot+senate&pg=PA100|access-date=December 8, 2010|volume=II|orig-year=1978|year=1997|publisher=American Philosophical Society|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-87169-127-9|page=100|quote=Scanderbeg intended to go "peronalmente" with an army to assist Hunyadi, but decided to plunder the Serbian land instead, as punishment for the Serbian desertion of the Christian cause.|archive-date=April 9, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409103044/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC&q=ragusa+Kastriot+senate&pg=PA100|url-status=live}}</ref> whereas Hunyadi decided not to wait for Skanderbeg and his reinforcements to open the battle.{{sfn|Bury|p=1814}}

==Battle==
[[File:Depiction of hungarian war wagon, middle of 15th century.jpg|thumb|right|Hungarian [[wagon fort]], middle of 15th century]]
The Crusaders, numbering 22,000–30,000{{sfn|Antoche|2017|p=253}}{{sfn | Sedlar | 2013 | p=393}}{{sfn | Turnbull | 2012 | p=36}}{{sfn | Connolly | Gillingham | Lazenby | 2016 | p=182}} arrived at [[Kosovo Field]] (the site of the first [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389, between Serbs and Ottomans) facing an Ottoman army of 40,000–60,000 men.{{sfn | Connolly | Gillingham | Lazenby | 2016|loc=p. 182: "Hunyadi led 24,000–30,000 men including 10,000 Wallachians, but should have waited to join Scanderbeg's troops before confronting Murad's force of 40,000."}}{{sfn | Sedlar | 2013 | p=393}} Sultan Murad personally commanded a large section of cannoneers and janissaries, while his son and would-be successor, 16-year-old [[Mehmed the Conqueror|Mehmed]], who faced battle for the first time, led the Anatolian troops at the right wing. Hunyadi commanded the center of his army in the battle, while the crusader right wing was made up of Wallachians. The Hungarians had a long barrage cannons. Calculating that he would need more than 40,000 men to defeat the Ottomans, the Hungarian regent sought to join up with anti-Ottoman Albanian forces. The Ottomans in their base at [[Sofia]] received word of the Crusader army's march route and subsequently began readying their men.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

Having failed to locate the main Ottoman army, whom he believed to still be at their capital in [[Edirne]], Hunyadi was caught by surprise on the 17th of October when the Ottoman army appeared in front of his men at Kosovo Field. He constructed a ''tabor'' [[wagon fort]] at Plementina hill from which to fight the Ottomans, who built their own stockade in response. The battle opened when Hunyadi attacked the Ottoman flanks with mixed cavalry (light and heavy). The Turkish flanks, consisting of soldiers from [[Rumelia]] and [[Anatolia]], were losing until the Turkish light cavalry arrived to reinforce them. Cavalry skirmishing on the flanks of the stockades during the first two days and a Crusader night-time attack using their [[wagon]]s and [[gun]]s against the Sultan's central position on the night of 18/19 October produced much bloodshed but no conclusive results. The Christian flanks were subsequently routed and the survivors retreated back to Hunyadi's main force. On 19 October Murad II used his ''[[sipahi]]'' cavalry from [[Thessaly]] to envelop the cavalry on the Crusader left flank, along with a general assault all along the line to distract Hunyadi from the primary effort. The manoeuvre worked and the [[Wallachia]]n, [[Principality of Moldavia|Moldavia]]n, and Hungarian cavalry were cut down by the ''sipahis'', who took no prisoners.{{cn|date=October 2023}} 

When Hunyadi saw the defeat of his flanks, he attacked with his main force, composed of knights and light infantry. The [[janissary]] corps were not successful at stopping the attack; the cavalry made progress through the Turkish centre, but were eventually stopped at the Turkish camp. When the main attack was halted, the Turkish infantry regrouped and successfully drove the Hungarian knights back. The light cavalry, who now lacked the knights' support, were also overcome. Much of the crusader army then retreated to their camp. On the 20th of October, the Wallachians deserted to the Ottoman side after being offered terms from Murad, leaving Hunyadi mostly defenceless.{{sfn|Bury|p=1814}}

With Murad II personally observing the struggle, the [[Janissaries]] attacked and killed everyone left in the stockade. Hunyadi fled, but was later captured by the Serbs. During the night, Turkish infantry fired missiles at the Hungarians, who replied with cannon fire. On the next day, a final assault destroyed the remaining troops of the Hungarian army.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

==Aftermath==
The Christian Balkan states were unable to resist the Ottomans after this defeat, eventually falling one after the other under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Hunyadi was captured by Branković in retaliation for the damage perpetrated by the Hungarian army in Serbia. Hunyadi's release was negotiated against a ransom of 100,000 florins, the return of the domains that Hunyadi had revocated from Branković, and the engagement of Hunyadi's heir to Branković's daughter,{{sfn | Molnár | Miklós | Magyar | 2001 | p=65}} other sources cite the restitution of the despot's estates in Hungary while leaving Hunyadi's elder son László at Smederevo as a hostage.{{sfn | Pálosfalvi | 2018 | p=362}} For the remainder of his reign Hunyadi successfully defended the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] against Ottoman campaigns. As punishment for lending its support to Hunyadi, Murad attacked and submitted Wallachia in 1449, followed by Albania in 1450 where Skanderbeg continued to resist, breaking Murad's siege of the [[Castle of Krujë]] in 1451.{{sfn|Phillips|Axelrod|2005|p=20}} That year Murad died replaced by his 19-year-old son [[Mehmed the Conqueror|Mehmed II]] who, after securing Constantinople in 1453, launched a new military campaign against Serbia in 1454.{{sfn | Àgoston | Masters | 2010 | p=518}}

==Notes==
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=casualties|The losses suffered by the two sides differ in the contemporary accounts.{{sfn | Housley | 2017 | p=264}} According to [[Laonikos Chalkokondyles]] 4,000 Turks dead against 17,000 enemies.{{sfn|Antoche|2017|p=273}} According to [[Franz Babinger]] of the Hungarians around 17,000 died against 34,000 Turks.{{sfn | Babinger | Manheim | Hickman | 1978 | p=55}} [[Antonio Bonfini]] offers the figure of 8,000 crusaders killed against 30,000 Turks.{{sfn|Antoche|2017|p=273}} According to the anonymous of Constantinople the losses of the crusading army, including prisoners, were around 6,000–7,000 men.{{sfn|(PDF) Hunyadi's campaign of 1448}}}}
}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|25em}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book | last1=Àgoston | first1=G.A. | last2=Masters | first2=B.A. | title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=Facts On File, Incorporated | series=Facts on File Library of World History | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC}}
*{{cite book|last1=Phillips|first1=C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O1rYswEACAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of Wars: G–R|last2=Axelrod|first2=A.|publisher=Facts On File|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8160-2853-5|access-date=2022-01-17}}
* {{cite book |last=Antoche |first=E.C. |chapter= Hunyadi's Campaign of 1448 and the Second Battle of Kosovo Polje (October 17–20) |pages=245–285 |title=Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade |editor1-last=Housley |editor1-first=Norman |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-137-46280-0| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C0tDgAAQBAJ&q=Chapter+8+Hunyadi%27s+campaign+of+1448+and+the+second+campaign+of+1448+%28October+17-20%29&pg=PR5}}
* {{cite book | last1=Babinger | first1=F. | last2=Manheim | first2=R. | last3=Hickman | first3=W.C. | title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time | publisher=Princeton University Press | series=Bollingen Series (General) Series | year=1978 | isbn=978-0-691-01078-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=RA1-PA425}}
*{{cite book|last=Bury|first=J.B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9lHeh36S8ooC&pg=PT1814|title=The Cambridge Medieval History volumes 1-5|publisher=Plantagenet Publishing}}
* {{cite book | last=Bradford | first=J.C. | title=International Encyclopedia of Military History | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-135-95034-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELDlCAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | last1=Connolly | first1=P. | last2=Gillingham | first2=J. | last3=Lazenby | first3=J. | title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-135-93681-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LUoDAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Citation|last=Frashëri|first=Kristo |title=Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu: jeta dhe vepra, 1405–1468|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwR3PQAACAAJ&q=kristo+frasheri+skenderbeu|year=2002|publisher=Botimet Toena|language=sq|isbn=99927-1-627-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Housley | first=N. | title=Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-137-46281-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C0tDgAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | last=Mikaberidze | first=A. | title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia &#91;2 volumes&#93;: A Historical Encyclopedia | publisher=ABC-CLIO | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-59884-337-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C}}
* {{cite book | last1=Molnár | first1=M. | last2=Miklós | first2=M. | last3=Magyar | first3=A. | title=A Concise History of Hungary | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-521-66736-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0g4YEp7ZrsC}}
* {{cite book | last=Pálosfalvi | first=T. | title=From Nicopolis to Mohács: A History of Ottoman-Hungarian Warfare, 1389–1526 | publisher=Brill | series=The Ottoman Empire and its Heritage | year=2018 | isbn=978-90-04-37565-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QJByDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book | last1=Rogers | first1=C.J. | last2=Caferro | first2=W. | last3=Reid | first3=S. | title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology | publisher=Oxford University Press | issue=v. 1 | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-19-533403-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&pg=RA1-PA471}}
* {{cite book | last=Sedlar | first=J.W. | title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500 | publisher=University of Washington Press | series=A History of East Central Europe (HECE) | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-295-80064-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA393}}
* {{cite book | last=Treadgold | first=W.T. | title=A History of the Byzantine State and Society | publisher=Stanford University Press | series=History e-book project | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-8047-2630-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC&pg=PA797}}
* {{cite book | last=Turnbull | first=S. | title=The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | series=Essential Histories | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-78200-422-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rDvCwAAQBAJ}}

==External links==
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9046113/Battle-of-Kosovo Second Battle of Kosovo] – ''The Encyclopædia Britannica''
* {{cite journal | title=(FULL PDF) Hunyadi's campaign of 1448 and the second battle of Kosovo polje (17–20 october) – Emanuel Constantin Antoche | journal=Reconfiguring the Fifteenth-Century Crusade (Ed. By Norman Housley), Palgrave Macmillan | date=January 2017 | url=https://www.academia.edu/31753826 | ref={{sfnref | (PDF) Hunyadi's campaign of 1448}}| last1=Antoche | first1=Emanuel Constantin | doi=10.1057/978-1-137-46281-7_8 }}
{{Ottoman battles}}
{{Wars and battles involving Serbs}}

{{Authority control}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Kosovo 1448}}
[[Category:Battles involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving Hungary]]
[[Category:Battles involving Hungary in the Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Battles involving Serbia in the Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Battles involving Wallachia]]
[[Category:Military history of Kosovo]]
[[Category:1448 in Europe]]
[[Category:Battles of the Hungarian–Ottoman Wars]]
[[Category:1440s in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1448]]
[[Category:Battles of Mehmed II]]