View source for Bohemianism

{{Short description|Practice of an unconventional lifestyle}}
{{other uses|Bohemia (disambiguation)|Bohemian (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Czech studies{{!}}Bohemistics|Bohemism}}
[[File:Auguste Renoir - En été - La bohémienne - Google Art ProjectFXD.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], ''[[In Summer (Renoir)|In Summer]]'' (or ''Lise the Bohemian''), 1868, oil on canvas, Berlin, Germany: [[Alte Nationalgalerie]]]]

'''Bohemianism''' is a social and cultural movement that has, at its core, a way of life away from society's conventional norms and expectations. The term originates from the French ''bohème'' and spread to the English-speaking world. It was used to describe mid-19th-century non-traditional lifestyles, especially of artists, writers, journalists, musicians, and actors in major European cities.

Bohemian is a 19th-century historical and [[literary topos]] that places the milieu of young metropolitan artists and intellectuals—particularly those of the [[Latin Quarter in Paris]]—in a context of poverty, hunger, appreciation of friendship, idealization of art and contempt for money. Based on this topos, the most diverse real-world subcultures are often referred to as "bohemian" in a figurative sense, especially (but by no means exclusively) if they show traits of a [[precariat]].

Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or [[anti-establishment]] political or social viewpoints expressed through [[free love]], [[frugality]], and—in some cases—[[simple living]], [[vandwelling|van dwelling]] or [[voluntary poverty]]. A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle is sometimes referred to as ''haute bohème''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seadict.com/en/en/haute%20boh%C3%A8me|title=SeaDict Online Dictionary|access-date=16 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406013058/http://www.seadict.com/en/en/haute%20boh%C3%A8me|archive-date=6 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> (literally "Upper Bohemian").<ref>{{cite news|title=Montgomery County looks to get hip|date=17 February 2013|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/montgomery-county-looks-to-get-hip/2013/02/16/2d477284-7577-11e2-95e4-6148e45d7adb_story.html|last=Turque|first=Bill|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=16 November 2013}}</ref>

The term ''bohemianism'' emerged in France in the early 19th century out of perceived similarities between the urban Bohemians and the [[Romani people]]; ''La bohème'' was a common term for the [[Romani people in France|Romani people of France]], who were thought to have reached France in the 15th century via [[Bohemia]] (the western part of modern [[Czech Republic]]). ''Bohemianism'' and its adjective ''bohemian'' in this specific context are not connected to the native inhabitants of the historical region of Bohemia (the [[Czechs]]).<ref name="etymonline">{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Bohemian|title=''Bohemian'' etymology |access-date=2008-12-27|last=Harper |first=Douglas |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |date=November 2001}}</ref>

==Origins==

===European bohemianism===
Literary and artistic bohemians were associated in the French imagination with the roving [[Romani people|Roma people]], often pejoratively referred to as "gypsies". Romani were called ''bohémiens'' in French because they were believed to have come to France from [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]].<ref name="etymonline" /><ref>[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Bohemian Bohemian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814035941/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Bohemian |date=2018-08-14 }} in ''[[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'', Fifth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company.</ref>

The title character in ''[[Carmen]]'' (1875), a French opera by [[Georges Bizet]] set in the Spanish city of [[Seville]], is referred to as a ''bohémienne'' in Meilhac and Halévy's libretto. Her [[Habanera (aria)|signature aria]] declares love itself to be a "gypsy child" (''enfant de Bohême''), going where it pleases and obeying no laws.

{{blockquote|The term bohemian has come to be very commonly accepted in our day as the description of a certain kind of literary gypsy, no matter in what language he speaks, or what city he inhabits .... A Bohemian is simply an artist or "[[littérateur]]" who, consciously or unconsciously, secedes from conventionality in life and in art.|''Westminster Review'', 1862<ref name="etymonline" />)}}

[[Henri Murger]]'s 1845 collection of short stories, ''[[Scenes of Bohemian Life|Scènes de la vie de bohème]]'' (''Scenes of Bohemian Life''), was written to glorify and legitimize the bohemian lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255/bohem/tscenes.html |title=Scenes de la Vie de Boheme |publisher=www.mtholyoke.edu |access-date=2008-04-22 |archive-date=2010-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029033443/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255/bohem/tscenes.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Murger's collection formed the basis of [[Giacomo Puccini]]'s 1896 [[opera]] ''[[La bohème]]''.

In England, bohemian in this sense initially was popularised in [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]'s 1848 novel ''[[Vanity Fair (novel)|Vanity Fair]]''. Public perceptions of the alternative lifestyles supposedly led by artists were further molded by [[George du Maurier]]'s romanticized best-selling novel of Bohemian culture ''[[Trilby (novel)|Trilby]]'' (1894). The novel outlines the fortunes of three [[expatriate]] English artists, their Irish model, and two colourful [[Central Europe]]an musicians, in the artist quarter of Paris.

In Spanish literature, the Bohemian impulse can be seen in [[Ramón del Valle-Inclán]]'s 1920 play ''[[Luces de Bohemia]]''.

In his song "[[La Bohème (Charles Aznavour song)|La Bohème]]", [[Charles Aznavour]] described the Bohemian lifestyle in [[Montmartre]]. The 2001 film ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'' also imagines the Bohemian lifestyle of actors and artists in Montmartre at the turn of the 20th century.

===American bohemianism===
[[File:Bohemian Grove during the summer Hi-Jinks, circa 1911-16..jpg|thumb|left|[[Bohemian Grove]] during the summer Hi-Jinks, circa 1911–1916]]

In the 1850s, Bohemian culture started to become established in the United States via immigration.<ref>Roy Kotynek, John Cohassey (2008). ''American Cultural Rebels: Avant-Garde and Bohemian Artists, Writers and Musicians from the 1850s through the 1960s''. McFarland</ref> In New York City in 1857, a group of 15 to 20 young, cultured journalists flourished as self-described bohemians until the [[American Civil War]] began in 1861.<ref name=Twain>The Mark Twain Project. [http://www.marktwainproject.org/xtf/view?docId=letters/UCCL00124.xml%3Bstyle=letter Explanatory Notes regarding the letter from Samuel Langhorne Clemens to Charles Warren Stoddard, 23 Apr 1867.] Retrieved on July 26, 2009.</ref> This group gathered at a German bar on Broadway called [[Pfaff's beer cellar]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Bohemians: Mark Twain and the San Francisco Writers Who Reinvented American Literature|last=Tarnoff|first=Benjamin|publisher=Penguin Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1594204739|pages=54–55}}</ref> Members included their leader [[Henry Clapp, Jr.|Henry Clapp Jr.]], [[Ada Clare]], [[Walt Whitman]], [[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]], and actress [[Adah Isaacs Menken]].<ref name=":0" />

Similar groups in other cities were broken up as well by the Civil War and reporters spread out to report on the conflict. During the war, correspondents began to assume the title bohemian, and newspapermen in general took up the moniker. Bohemian became synonymous with newspaper writer.<ref name="Twain" /> In 1866, war correspondent [[Junius Henri Browne]], who wrote for the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' and ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'', described bohemian journalists such as he was, as well as the few carefree women and lighthearted men he encountered during the war years.<ref>Brown, Junius Henri. [https://archive.org/details/fouryearsinsece00unkngoog ''Four Years in Secessia''], O.D. Case and Co., 1866</ref>

San Francisco journalist [[Bret Harte]] first wrote as "The Bohemian" in ''[[The Golden Era]]'' in 1861, with this persona taking part in many satirical doings, the lot published in his book ''Bohemian Papers'' in 1867. Harte wrote, "Bohemia has never been located geographically, but any clear day when the sun is going down, if you mount [[Telegraph Hill, San Francisco|Telegraph Hill]], you shall see its pleasant valleys and cloud-capped hills glittering in the West{{nbsp}}..."<ref name="TheatreWest">Ogden, Dunbar H.; Douglas McDermott; Robert Károly Sarlós [https://books.google.com/books?id=96lCI145-38C&pg=PA20 ''Theatre West: Image and Impact''], Rodopi, 1990, pp. 17–42. {{ISBN|90-5183-125-0}}</ref>

[[Mark Twain]] included himself and [[Charles Warren Stoddard]] in the bohemian category in 1867.<ref name=Twain/> By 1872, when a group of journalists and artists who gathered regularly for cultural pursuits in San Francisco were casting about for a name, the term bohemian became the main choice, and the [[Bohemian Club]] was born.<ref>[[Bohemian Club]] [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PHX5AAAAIAAJ/page/n9 <!-- pg=11 --> ''Constitution, By-laws, and Rules, Officers, Committees, and Members''], Bohemian Club, 1904, p. 11. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OKc_AAAAYAAJ/page/n18 <!-- pg=11 --> Semi-centennial High Jinks in the Grove, Held in Field Circle on the Night of Friday July 28, 1922: Haig Patigian, Sire] Semi-centennial high jinks in the Grove, 1922], Bohemian Club, 1922, pp. 11–22.</ref> Club members who were established and successful, pillars of their community, respectable family men, redefined their own form of bohemianism to include people like them who were [[wikt:bon vivant|bons vivants]], sportsmen, and appreciators of the [[fine art]]s.<ref name=TheatreWest /> Club member and poet [[George Sterling]] responded to this redefinition:

{{blockquote|Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a bohemian. But that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism. The first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the [[Liberal arts|Seven Arts]]; the other is poverty. Other factors suggest themselves: for instance, I like to think of my Bohemians as young, as radical in their outlook on art and life; as unconventional, and, though this is debatable, as dwellers in a city large enough to have the somewhat cruel atmosphere of all great cities.|Parry, 2005<ref name=Parry238>Parry, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ov2dz3Pnea4C&pg=PA238 p. 238.]</ref>)}}

Despite his views, Sterling associated with the Bohemian Club, and caroused with artist and industrialist alike at the [[Bohemian Grove]].<ref name=Parry238/>

Canadian composer [[Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann]] and poet [[George Frederick Cameron]] wrote the song "The Bohemian" in the 1889 opera ''[[Leo, the Royal Cadet]]''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_06551 |title=Leo, the Royal cadet [microform&#93; : Cameron, George Frederick, 1854–1885 : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive |date=2001-03-10 |isbn=9780665065514 |access-date=2011-12-30}}</ref>

The American writer and Bohemian Club member [[Gelett Burgess]], who coined the word ''blurb'', supplied this description of the amorphous place called Bohemia:

[[File:Gelett Burgess - Map of Bohemia 1896.jpg|thumb|[[Gelett Burgess]] drew this fanciful "Map of Bohemia" for ''The Lark'', March 1, 1896 (see also {{slink|The Winter's Tale|The seacoast of Bohemia}})]]

{{blockquote|To take the world as one finds it, the bad with the good, making the best of the present moment—to laugh at Fortune alike whether she be generous or unkind—to spend freely when one has money, and to hope gaily when one has none—to fleet the time carelessly, living for love and art—this is the temper and spirit of the modern Bohemian in his outward and visible aspect. It is a light and graceful philosophy, but it is the Gospel of the Moment, this exoteric phase of the Bohemian religion; and if, in some noble natures, it rises to a bold simplicity and naturalness, it may also lend its butterfly precepts to some very pretty vices and lovable faults, for in Bohemia one may find almost every sin save that of Hypocrisy. ...

His faults are more commonly those of self-indulgence, thoughtlessness, vanity and procrastination, and these usually go hand-in-hand with generosity, love and charity; for it is not enough to be one's self in Bohemia, one must allow others to be themselves, as well. ...

What, then, is it that makes this mystical empire of Bohemia unique, and what is the charm of its mental fairyland? It is this: there are no roads in all Bohemia! One must choose and find one's own path, be one's own self, live one's own life.|Ayloh, 1902<ref>[[Gelett Burgess|Burgess, Gelett]]. "Where is Bohemia?" collected in [https://archive.org/stream/romanceofcommonp00burgiala/romanceofcommonp00burgiala_djvu.txt ''The Romance of the Commonplace'']. San Francisco: Ayloh, 1902. pp. 127–28</ref>)}}

In New York City, the pianist [[Rafael Joseffy]] formed an organization of musicians in 1907 with friends, such as [[Rubin Goldmark]], called "The Bohemians (New York Musicians' Club)".<ref>Krehbiel, Henry Edward. [https://archive.org/stream/bohemiansnewyork00krehuoft#page/8/mode/1up ''The Bohemians (New York Musicians' Club) A historical narrative and record. Written and compiled for the celebration of the fifteenth anniversary of the foundation of the Club (1921)''], pp. 7–11.</ref> Near Times Square, [[Joel Rinaldo]] presided over "Joel's Bohemian Refreshery", where the Bohemian crowd gathered from before the turn of the 20th century until [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] began to bite.<ref>{{cite news|title=SEIZE $75,000 LIQUOR IN BIG 'DRY' DRIVE |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1920/09/02/archives/seize-75000-liquor-in-big-dry-drive-shevlin-agents-150-strong-swoop.html|access-date=March 26, 2011|newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 2, 1920}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|access-date=March 26, 2011|title=You Mustn't Crack Up the Darwinian Theory at Joe's |newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 2, 1913|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1913/11/02/archives/you-mustnt-crack-up-the-darwinian-theory-at-joels-because-the.html}}</ref><ref name="Joel's Cafe">{{cite web|last=Peters|first=Lisa N.|title=Max Weber's Joel's Café: A Forgotten New York Establishment Comes to Light|url=https://spaniermanmodern.wordpress.com/2011/02/18/max-weber-painting-joels-cafe-new-york/|publisher=Spanierman Modern Contemporary and Modern Art Blog|access-date=March 26, 2011|date=February 18, 2011}}</ref><ref>[https://victualling.wordpress.com/2008/07/17/joels-bohemian-restaurant/ "Joel's bohemian refreshery"] Restaurant-ing through history</ref> [[Jonathan Larson]]'s [[Musical theatre|musical]] ''[[Rent (musical)|Rent]]'', and specifically the song "[[La Vie Boheme]]", portrayed the [[postmodern]] Bohemian culture of New York in the late 20th century.

In May 2014, a story on [[NPR]] suggested, after a century and a half, some Bohemian ideal of living in poverty for the sake of art had fallen in popularity among the latest generation of American artists. In the feature, a recent graduate of the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] related "her classmates showed little interest in living in [[garret]]s and eating [[Ramen|ramen noodles]]."<ref>{{Cite episode |publisher=NPR |credits=[[Neda Ulaby]] (Director) |title=In Pricey Cities, Being A Bohemian Starving Artist Gets Old Fast |series=All Things Considered |access-date=2014-05-31 |date=2014-05-15 |url=https://www.npr.org/2014/05/15/312779821/in-pricey-cities-being-a-bohemian-starving-artist-gets-old-fast}}</ref>

==People==
[[File:Bohemian Life (1899) (14785593483).jpg|thumb|upright|An illustration from [[Henri Murger]]'s 1899 book ''[[Bohemian Life]]''.]]
The term has become associated with various artistic or academic communities and is used as a generalized adjective describing such people, environs, or situations: bohemian (''boho''—informal) is defined in ''The American College Dictionary'' as "a person with artistic or intellectual tendencies, who lives and acts with no regard for conventional rules of behavior".

Many prominent European and American figures of the 19th and 20th centuries belonged to the bohemian [[subculture]], and any comprehensive "list of bohemians" would be tediously long. Bohemianism has been approved of by some [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] writers such as [[Honoré de Balzac]],{{citation needed|reason=Where does he state this?|date=April 2016}} but most conservative cultural critics do not condone bohemian lifestyles.{{citation needed|reason=Which conservative cultural critics?|date=April 2016}}

In ''[[Bohemian Manifesto]]: a Field Guide to Living on the Edge'', author Laren Stover breaks down the bohemian into five distinct mind-sets or styles, as follows:
*[[Beatnik|Beat]]: also drifters, but non-materialist and art-focused
*[[Dandy]]: no money, but try to appear as if they have it by buying and displaying expensive or rare items – such as brands of alcohol<ref>{{cite book|author=Stover, Laren|title=Bohemian Manifesto: a Field Guide to Living on the Edge|publisher=Bulfinch Press|isbn=0-8212-2890-0|year=2004}}</ref>
*Gypsy: the expatriate types, they create their own Gypsy ideal of nirvana wherever they go
*Nouveau: bohemians that are rich who attempt to join traditional bohemianism with contemporary culture
*Zen: "post-beat", focus on spirituality rather than art

[[Aimée Crocker]], an American world traveler, adventuress, heiress, and mystic, was dubbed the "queen of Bohemia" in the 1910s by the world press for living an uninhibited, sexually liberated, and aggressively non-conformist life in San Francisco, New York, and Paris. She spent the bulk of her fortune inherited from her father [[Edwin B. Crocker]], a railroad tycoon and art collector, on traveling all over the world (lingering the longest in Hawaii, India, Japan, and China) and partying with famous artists of her time such as [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Mark Twain]], the [[Barrymore family|Barrymores]], [[Enrico Caruso]], [[Isadora Duncan]], [[Henri Matisse]], [[Auguste Rodin]], and [[Rudolph Valentino]]. Crocker had countless affairs and married five times in five different decades of her life, each man being in his twenties. She was famous for her tattoos and pet snakes and was reported to have started the first Buddhist colony in Manhattan. Spiritually inquisitive, Crocker had a ten-year affair with occultist [[Aleister Crowley]] and was a devoted student of Hatha Yoga.{{citation needed|reason=How do you know this?|date=April 2016}}

[[Maxwell Bodenheim]], an American poet and novelist, was known as the king of [[Greenwich Village]] Bohemians during the 1920s and his writing brought him international fame during the [[Jazz Age]].
[[File:Prenzlauer Berg Pfefferberg-001.JPG|thumb|Former brewery turned artist center in Prenzlauer Berg]]

In the 20th-century United States, the bohemian impulse was famously seen in the 1940s [[Hipster (1940s subculture)|hipsters]], the 1950s [[Beat generation]] (exemplified by writers such as [[William S. Burroughs]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[Jack Kerouac]], and [[Lawrence Ferlinghetti]]), the much more widespread [[1960s counterculture]], and 1960s and 1970s [[hippie]]s.

In 2001, political and cultural commentator [[David Brooks (journalist)|David Brooks]] contended that much of the cultural ethos of well-to-do middle-class Americans is Bohemian-derived, coining the [[oxymoron]] "Bourgeois Bohemians" or [[Bobo (socio-economic group)|"Bobos"]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Brooks, David|title=Bobos in Paradise: the New Upper Class and How They Got There|url=https://archive.org/details/bobosinparadise000broo|url-access=registration|publisher=Simon and Schuster|place=New York NY|year=2001|isbn=0-684-85378-7}}</ref> A similar term in Germany is [[Bionade-Biedermeier]], a 2007 German [[neologism]] combining [[Bionade]] (a trendy lemonade brand) and [[Biedermeier]] (an era of introspective Central European culture between 1815 and 1848). The coinage was introduced in 2007 by Henning Sußebach, a German journalist, in an article that appeared in ''Zeitmagazin'' concerning Berlin's [[Berlin-Prenzlauer Berg|Prenzlauer Berg]] lifestyle.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/2007/46/D18-PrenzlauerBerg-46|title=Szene: Bionade-Biedermeier|last=Sußebach|first=Henning|date=2009-01-08|newspaper=Die Zeit|issn=0044-2070|access-date=2016-09-02}}</ref> The hyphenated term gained traction and has been quoted and referred to since. A German [[ARD (broadcaster)|ARD]] TV broadcaster used the title ''Boheme and Biedermeier'' in a 2009 documentary about Berlin's [[Prenzlauer Berg]].<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=http://www.news.de/tv/855022426/boheme-und-biedermeier/1/|title=ARD-Doku 'Berlin-Prenzlauer Berg': Boheme und Biedermeier|access-date=2015-09-27|author=News.de-Redaktion|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928160430/http://www.news.de/tv/855022426/boheme-und-biedermeier/1/|archive-date=2015-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref> The main focus was on protagonists, that contributed to the image of a paradise for the (organic and child-raising) well-to-do, depicting cafés where "Bionade-Biedermeier sips from [[Fair Trade|Fair-Trade]]".<ref name=":4" />

==See also==
{{col-begin|width=auto}}
{{col-break}}
'''Related terms'''
*[[Art colony]]
*[[Avant-garde]]
*[[Bohemian Club]]
*[[Bohemian Rhapsody]]
*[[Bohemian style]]
*[[La Boheme Magazine]]
*[[Boho-chic]]
*[[Counterculture]]
*[[Counterculture of the 1960s]]
*[[Gentrification]]
*[[History of modern Western subcultures]] 
*[[Lumpenproletariat]]
*[[Precariat]]
*[[Simple living]]
*[[Slummers|Slumming]]
*[[Spiral of silence]]
*[[Youth culture]]
*[[Youth subculture]]
{{col-break|gap=4em}}

'''Related cultures or movements'''
*[[Beat Generation]]
*[[Beatnik]]
*[[Bloomsbury Group]]
*[[Crusties]]
*[[Dandy]]
*[[Diggers]]
*[[Folk culture]]
*[[Freetown Christiania]]
*[[Freighthopping]]
*[[Goth subculture|Goth]]
*[[Grunge]]
*[[Gutter punk]]
*[[Hippie]]
*[[Hipster (1940s subculture)]]
*[[Hipster (contemporary subculture)]]
*[[Libertine]]
*[[Merry Pranksters]]
*[[Nomads]]
*[[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood]]
*[[Punk subculture|Punk]]
*[[Sydney Push]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|author=Easton, Malcolm|title=Artists and Writers in Paris. The Bohemian Idea, 1803–1867|location=London|publisher=Arnold|year=1964|edition=ASIN B0016A7CJA}}
*{{cite book|author=Graña, César|title=Bohemian versus Bourgeois: French Society and the French Man of Letters in the Nineteenth Century|location=New York|publisher=Basic Books|year=1964|isbn=0-465-00736-8}}
*Parry, Albert. (2005.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ov2dz3Pnea4C ''Garretts & Pretenders: A History of Bohemianism in America''], Cosimo, Inc. {{ISBN|1-59605-090-X}}
*{{cite book|author=Stansell, Christine|author-link=Christine Stansell|title=American Moderns: Bohemian New York and the Creation of a New Century|publisher=Henry Holt & Company|year=2000|isbn=0-8050-4847-2|url=https://archive.org/details/americanmodernsb00stan}}
*{{cite book|author=Wilson, Elizabeth|title=Bohemians: The Glamorous Outcasts|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|year=2002|isbn=1-86064-782-0}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author=Levin, Joanna|title=Bohemia in America, 1858–1920|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8047-6083-6}}
*[[Joanna Richardson|Richardson, Joanna]] (1969). ''The Bohemians: La Vie de Boheme in Paris 1830–1914''. London: Macmillan
*{{cite book|author=Siegel, Jerrold|title=Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830–1930|publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8018-6063-8}}
*{{cite book|author=Smith, Lemuel Douglas|title=The Real Bohemia: A Sociological and Psychological Study of the Beats|publisher=Literary Licensing, LLC|year=1961|isbn=978-1258382728}} A study of the [[Beat Generation|beat lifestyle]] of the 1950s and 1960s
*Tarnoff, Benjamin (2014) ''The Bohemians: Mark Twain and the San Francisco Writers Who Reinvented American Literature.'' Penguin Books. {{ISBN|978-1594204739}}.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120221193456/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255-s01/boheme/evolution.html Bohemianism and Counter-Culture] (Archived from the [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255-s01/boheme/evolution.html original])
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005491s Bohemianism], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Hermione Lee, Virginia Nicholson and Graham Robb (''In Our Time'', Oct. 9, 2003)

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[[Category:Bohemianism| ]]
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