View source for Book of Job

{{short description|Book of the Bible}}
{{for|the Indian film|Iyobinte Pusthakam{{!}}''Iyobinte Pusthakam''}}

{{Tanakh OT |Ketuvim |WP}}
[[File:POxy n3522.jpg|thumb|[[Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522]] (dated to the 1st century CE) contains a partial translation of Job 42 into [[Koine Greek]].]]
The '''Book of Job''' ({{langx|hbo|אִיּוֹב|ʾĪyyōḇ}}), or simply '''Job''', is a book found in the [[Ketuvim]] ("Writings") section of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the first of the [[Poetic Books]] in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Christian Bible]].{{sfn|Hartley|1988|p=3}} The language of the Book of Job, combining post-Babylonian Hebrew and [[Aramaic]] influences, indicates it was composed during the [[Persian period]] (540–330 BCE), with the poet using Hebrew in a learned, literary manner.<ref>{{cite book |title=Job: A New Translation |author-first1=Edward L. |author-last1=Greenstein |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2019 |isbn=9780300163766 |page=xxvii |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8KmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR27 |quote=Determining the time and place of the book's composition is bound up with the nature of the book's language. The Hebrew prose of the frame tale, notwithstanding many classic features, shows that it was composed in the post-Babylonian era (after 540 BCE). The poetic core of the book is written in a highly literate and literary Hebrew, the eccentricities and occasional clumsiness of which suggest that Hebrew was a learned and not native language of the poet. The numerous words and grammatical shadings of Aramaic spread throughout the mainly Hebrew text of Job make a setting in the Persian era (approximately 540–330) fairly certain, for it was only in that period that Aramaic became a major language throughout the Levant. The poet depends on an audience that will pick up on subtle signs of Aramaic.}}</ref> It addresses the [[problem of evil]], providing a [[theodicy]] through the experiences of the [[eponym]]ous protagonist.{{sfn|Lawson|2004|p=11}} [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]] is a wealthy God-fearing man with a comfortable life and a large family. God discusses Job's piety with [[Satan]] ({{langx|hbo|הַשָּׂטָן|haśśāṭān|label=none}}, {{lit|the adversary}}). Satan rebukes God, stating that Job would turn away from God if he were to lose everything within his possession. God decides to test that theory by allowing Satan to inflict pain on Job. The rest of the book deals with Job's suffering and him successfully defending himself against his unsympathetic friends, whom God admonishes, and God's sovereignty over nature.

==Structure==
[[File:Job Scroll (cropped).jpg|thumb|A scroll of the Book of Job, in Hebrew]]
The Book of Job consists of a prose prologue and epilogue narrative framing poetic dialogues and monologues.{{sfn|Bullock|2007|p=87}} It is common to view the narrative frame as the original core of the book, enlarged later by the poetic dialogues and discourses, and sections of the book such as the Elihu speeches and the wisdom poem of [[Job 28|chapter 28]] as late insertions, but recent trends have tended to concentrate on the book's underlying editorial unity.{{sfn|Walton|2008|p=343}}

# {{em|Prologue}}: in two scenes, the first on Earth, the second in Heaven<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|1–2}}</ref>
# {{em|Job's opening monologue}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|3}}</ref> – seen by some scholars as a bridge between the prologue and the dialogues and by others as the beginning of the dialogues{{sfn|Walton|2008|p=333}} – and {{em|three cycles of dialogues}} between Job and his three friends;<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|4–27}}</ref> the third cycle is not complete, the expected speech of Zophar being replaced by the wisdom poem of chapter 28.{{sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=191}}{{pb}}{{bulleted list|{{em|First cycle:}}|[[Eliphaz (Job)|Eliphaz]] and Job's response<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|4–7}}</ref>|[[Bildad]] and Job<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|8–10}}</ref>|[[Zophar]] and Job<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|11–14}}</ref>|{{em|Second cycle:}}|Eliphaz and Job<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|15–17}}</ref>|Bildad and Job<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|18–19}}</ref>|Zophar and Job<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|20-21}}</ref>|{{em|Third cycle:}}|Eliphaz and Job<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|22–24}}</ref>|Bildad and Job<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|25–27}}</ref>}}
# {{em|Three monologues}}:{{pb}}{{bulleted list|A {{em|Poem to Wisdom}}{{efn|Chapter 28,<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|28}}</ref> previously read as part of the speech of Job, is now regarded by most scholars as a separate interlude in the narrator's voice.}}{{sfn|Walton|2008|p=333}}|{{em|Job's closing monologue}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|29–31}}</ref>|and {{em|[[Elihu (Job)|Elihu]]'s speeches}}<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|32–37}}</ref>}}
# {{em|Three speeches by God}},<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|38:1–40:2}}, {{bibleverse|Job|40:6–41:34}}, and {{bibleverse|Job|42:7–8}}</ref> with Job's responses
# {{em|Epilogue}} – Job's restoration<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|42:9–17}}</ref>

==Contents==
[[File:Blake 1793 Job's Tormentors (cropped).jpg|thumb|''Job's Tormentors'' from [[William Blake]]'s [[William Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job|Illustrations for the Book of Job]]]]

===Prologue on Earth and in Heaven===
In [[Job 1|chapter 1]], the prologue on Earth introduces [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]] as a righteous man, blessed with wealth, sons, and daughters, who lives in the [[land of Uz]]. The scene then shifts to Heaven, where God asks [[Satan]] ({{langx|hbo|הַשָּׂטָן|haśśāṭān|the adversary}}) for his opinion of Job's piety. Satan accuses Job of being pious only because he believes God is responsible for his happiness; if God were to take away everything that Job has, then he would surely curse God.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|1:21}}</ref>

God gives Satan permission to strip Job of his wealth and kill his children and servants, but Job nonetheless praises God:
: Naked I came from my mother's womb, and naked shall I return there; the Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Job|1:21}}</ref>

In [[Job 2|chapter 2]], God further allows Satan to afflict Job's body with disfiguring and painful [[boil]]s. As Job sits in the [[ash]]es of his former estate, his wife prompts him to "curse God, and die", but Job answers:
: Shall we receive good from God and shall we not receive evil?<ref>{{Bibleverse|Job|2:9–10|9}}</ref>

=== Job's opening monologue and dialogues between Job and his three friends ===
In [[Job 3|chapter 3]], "instead of cursing God",<ref>{{cite book |author-link=James Crenshaw |last=Crenshaw |first=J.L. |year=2001 |section=17.&nbsp;Job |editor1-last=Barton |editor1-first=J. |editor2-last=Muddiman |editor2-first=J. |title=The Oxford Bible Commentary |page=335 |section-url=https://b-ok.org/dl/946961/8f5f43 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122193211/http://b-ok.org/dl/946961/8f5f43 |archive-date=22 November 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Job laments the night of his conception and the day of his birth; he longs for death, "but it does not come".<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|3:21|NKJV}}</ref>

His three friends, [[Eliphaz (Job)|Eliphaz the Temanite]], [[Bildad|Bildad the Shuhite]], and [[Zophar|Zophar the Naamathite]], visit him, accuse him of sinning, and tell him that his suffering was deserved. Job responds with scorn, calling his visitors "miserable comforters".<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|16:2|NKJV}}</ref> Job asserts that since a ''just'' God would not treat him so harshly, patience in suffering is impossible, and the Creator should not take his creatures so lightly, to come against them with such force.{{sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=190}}

Job's responses represent one of the most radical restatements of Israelite [[theology]] in the Hebrew Bible.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clines |first=David J.A. |date=2004 |title=Job's God |journal=Concilium |volume=2004 |issue=4 |pages=39–51}}</ref> He moves away from the pious attitude shown in the prologue and begins to berate God for the disproportionate wrath against him. He sees God as, among others,
{{div col begin|colwidth=15em}}
* intrusive and suffocating<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|7:17–19}}</ref>
* unforgiving and obsessed with destroying a human target<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|7:20–21}}</ref>
* angry<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|9:13}}; {{bibleverse|Job|14:13}}; {{bibleverse|Job|16:9}}; {{bibleverse|Job|19:11}}</ref>
* fixated on punishment<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|10:13–14}}</ref>
* hostile and destructive<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|16:11–14}}</ref>
{{div col end}}
Job then shifts his focus from the injustice that he himself suffers to God's governance of the world. He suggests that God does nothing to punish the wicked, who have taken advantage of the needy and the helpless, who, in turn, have been left to suffer the significant hardships inflicted on them.<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|24:1–12}}</ref>

=== Three monologues: Poem to Wisdom, Job's closing monologue ===
[[File:Job and his friends.jpg|thumbnail|upright=1.3|''Job and His Friends'' by [[Ilya Repin]] (1869)]]
The dialogues of Job and his friends are followed by a poem (the "hymn to wisdom") on the inaccessibility of wisdom: "Where is wisdom to be found?" it asks; it concludes in chapter 28 that wisdom has been hidden from humankind.{{sfn|Seow|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA33-34 33–34]}} Job contrasts his previous fortune with his present plight as an outcast, mocked and in pain. He protests his innocence, lists the principles he has lived by, and demands that God answer him.{{sfn|Sawyer|2013|p=27}}

=== Elihu's speeches ===
A character not previously mentioned, [[Elihu (Job)|Elihu]], intrudes into the story and occupies chapters&nbsp;32–37. The narrative describes him as stepping out of a crowd of bystanders irate. He intervenes to state that wisdom comes from God, who reveals it through dreams and visions to those who will then declare their knowledge.{{sfn|Seow|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA33-34 33–34]}}

===Two speeches by God===
From chapter&nbsp;[[Job 38|38]], God speaks from a [[whirlwind]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|38:1}}</ref> God's speeches do not explain Job's suffering, defend divine justice, enter into the courtroom of confrontation that Job has demanded, or respond to his oath of innocence of which the narrative prologue shows God is well aware.{{sfn|Walton|2008|p=339}}

Instead, God changes the subject to human frailty and contrasts Job's weakness with divine wisdom and [[omnipotence]]: "Where were you when I laid the foundations of the earth?" Job responds briefly, but God's monologue resumes, never addressing Job directly.{{sfn|Sawyer|2013|p=28}}

In [[Job 42]]:1–6, Job makes his final response, confessing God's power and his own lack of knowledge "of things beyond me which I did not know". Previously, he has only heard God, but now his eyes have seen God, and therefore, he declares, "I retract and repent in dust and ashes".{{sfn|Habel|1985|p=575}}

===Epilogue===
God tells Eliphaz that he and the two other friends "have not spoken of me what is right as my servant Job has done".

The three are told to make [[Burnt offering (Judaism)|a burnt offering]] with Job as their intercessor, "for only to him will I show favour". Elihu, the critic of Job and his friends, is notably omitted from this part of the narrative.

The epilogue describes Job's health being restored, his riches and family being remade, and Job living to see the new children born into his family produce grandchildren up to the fourth generation.{{sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=33}}

=== Additions to Job===
Among other alterations to the Book of Job, the Septuagint features an extended epilogue. Continuing from the end of 42:17, the Greek edition confirms that Job will be resurrected with the righteous. The addition further identifies Job with Jobab in Genesis, the great grandson of Esau and a king of Edom. Furthermore, Eliphaz in the story of Job is identified as Esau’s firstborn son, Eliphaz, and the king of Taiman; Baldad is noted as the ruler of the Sauchites, and Sophar is noted as the king of the Minneans.

The addition contains several parallels with the writings of Aristeas the Exegete, quoted by Alexander Polyhistor who in turn was quoted in Eusebius in ''Praeparatio Evangelica'' 9.25.1-4.{{sfn|Charlesworth|1985|p=855}}

==Composition==
[[File:LB100fol165.JPG|thumb|Anonymous Byzantine illustration; the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|pre-incarnate]] Christ speaks to Job]]

===Authorship, language, texts===
The character Job appears in the 6th-century BCE [[Book of Ezekiel]] as an exemplary righteous man of antiquity, and the author of the Book of Job has apparently chosen this legendary hero for his [[parable]].{{sfn|Fokkelman|2012|p=20}} The language of the Book of Job, combining post-Babylonian [[Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]] influences, indicates it was composed during the [[Persian period]] (540–330 BCE), with the poet using Hebrew in a learned, literary manner.<ref>{{cite book
 | title        = Job: A New Translation
 | translator   = Edward L. Greenstein
 | publisher    = Yale University Press
 | year         = 2019
 | isbn         = 9780300163766
 | page         = xxvii
 | url          = https://books.google.com/books?id=W8KmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR27
 | quote        = Determining the time and place of the book's composition is bound up with the nature of the book's language. The Hebrew prose of the frame tale, notwithstanding many classic features, shows that it was composed in the post-Babylonian era (after 540 BC). The poetic core of the book is written in a highly literate and literary Hebrew, the eccentricities and occasional clumsiness of which suggest that Hebrew was a learned and not native language of the poet. The numerous words and grammatical shadings of Aramaic spread throughout the mainly Hebrew text of Job make a setting in the Persian era (approximately 540–330) fairly certain, for it was only in that period that Aramaic became a major language throughout the Levant. The poet depends on an audience that will pick up on subtle signs of Aramaic.
}}</ref> The anonymous author was almost certainly an [[Israelites|Israelite]]—although the story is set outside Israel, in southern [[Edom]] or northern Arabia—and alludes to places as far apart as [[Mesopotamia]] and Egypt.{{sfn|Seow|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA24 24]}} Despite the Israelite origins, it appears that the Book of Job was composed in a time in which [[wisdom literature]] was common but not acceptable to Judean sensibilities (i.e., during the [[Babylonian exile]] and shortly thereafter).{{sfn|Kugel|2012}}

The speeches of Elihu differ in style from the rest of the book, and neither God nor Job appear to take any note of what he has said; as a result, it is widely believed that Elihu's speeches are a later addition by another author.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elihu |title=Elihu (Biblical figure) |date=2009-10-20 |website=Encyclopedia Brittanica |access-date=2025-05-18}}</ref>{{sfn|Alter|2018}}

The language of Job stands out for its conservative spelling and exceptionally large number of words and word forms not found elsewhere in the Bible.{{sfn|Seow|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA17 17-20]}} Many later scholars, down to the 20th century, have looked for an [[Aramaic]], [[Arabic]], or [[Edomite language|Edomite]] origin, but a close analysis suggests that the foreign words and foreign-looking forms are literary affectations designed to lend authenticity to the book's distant setting and give it a foreign flavor.{{sfn|Seow|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA24 24]}}{{sfn|Kugel|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iyjzHjnEJ8AC&dq=%22give+the+work+a+foreign+flavor%22&pg=PA641 641]}}

===Modern revisions===

Job exists in a number of forms: the Hebrew [[Masoretic Text]], which underlies many modern Bible translations; the Greek [[Septuagint]] made in Egypt in the last centuries BCE; and Aramaic and Hebrew manuscripts found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]].{{sfn|Seow|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA1-16 1–16]}}

In the Latin [[Vulgate]], the [[New Revised Standard Version]], and in [[Protestant Bible]]s, it is placed after the [[Book of Esther]] as the first of the [[poetic books]].{{sfn|Hartley|1988|p=3}} In the Hebrew Bible, it is located within the [[Ketuvim]]. John Hartley notes that in [[Sephardic]] manuscripts, the texts are ordered as [[Psalms]], Job, and [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], but in [[Ashkenazic]] texts, the order is Psalms, Proverbs, and then Job.{{sfn|Hartley|1988|p=3}} In the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Jerusalem Bible]], it is described as the first of the "wisdom books" and follows the two [[books of the Maccabees]].<ref>Jerusalem Bible (1966), ''Introduction to the Wisdom Books'', p. 723</ref>

===Job and the wisdom tradition===
Job, [[Ecclesiastes]], and the [[Book of Proverbs]] belong to the genre of wisdom literature, sharing a perspective that they themselves call the "way of wisdom".{{sfn|Farmer|1998|p=129}} ''Wisdom'' means both a way of thinking and a body of knowledge gained through such thinking, as well as the ability to apply it to life. In its Biblical application in wisdom literature, it is seen as attainable in part through human effort and in part as a gift from God, but never in its entirety—except by God.{{sfn|Farmer|1998|pp=129–30}}

The three books of wisdom literature share attitudes and assumptions but differ in their conclusions: Proverbs makes confident statements about the world and its workings that Job and Ecclesiastes flatly contradict.{{sfn|Farmer|1998|pp=130–31}} Wisdom literature from Sumeria and Babylonia can be dated to the third millennium BCE.{{sfn|Bullock|2007|p=84}} Several texts from ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt offer parallels to Job,{{sfn|Hartley|2008|p=346}} and while it is impossible to tell whether any of them influenced the author of Job, their existence suggests that the author was the recipient of a long tradition of reflection on the existence of inexplicable suffering.{{sfn|Hartley|2008|p=360}}

==Themes==
[[File:Destruction of Leviathan.png|thumb|''The Destruction of Leviathan'' by [[Gustave Doré]] (1865)]]
The Book of Job is an investigation of the problem of divine justice.{{sfn|Bullock|2007|p=82}} This problem, known in theology as the [[problem of evil]] or [[theodicy]], can be rephrased as a question: "Why do the righteous suffer?"{{sfn|Lawson|2004|p=11}} The conventional answer in ancient Israel was that God rewards virtue and punishes sin (the principle known as "[[retributive justice]]").{{sfn|Hooks|2006|p=58}} According to this view the moral status of human choices and actions is consequential, but experience demonstrates that suffering is experienced by those who are good.{{sfn|Brueggemann|2002|p=201}}

The biblical concept of righteousness was rooted in the [[Covenant (religion)|covenant]]-making God who had ordered creation for communal well-being, and the righteous were those who invested in the community, showing special concern for the poor and needy (see Job's description of his life in chapter 31). Their antithesis were the wicked, who were selfish and greedy.{{sfn|Brueggemann|2002|pp=177–78}} The Satan (or the Adversary) raises the question of whether there is such a thing as disinterested righteousness: if God rewards righteousness with prosperity, will men not act righteously from selfish motives? He asks God to test this by removing the prosperity of Job, the most righteous of all God's servants.{{sfn|Walton|2008|pp=336–37}}

The book begins with the frame narrative, giving the reader an omniscient "God's eye perspective" which introduces Job as a man of exemplary faith and piety, "blameless and upright", who "fears God" and "shuns evil".{{sfn|Hooks|2006|p=57}}{{sfn|O'Dowd|2008|pp=242–43}} The contrast between the frame and the poetic dialogues and monologues, in which Job never learns of the opening scenes in heaven or of the reason for his suffering, creates a sense of dramatic irony between the divine view of the Adversary's wager, and the human view of Job's suffering "without any reason" (2:3).{{sfn|O'Dowd|2008|pp=242–43}}

In the poetic dialogues Job's friends see his suffering and assume he must be guilty, since God is just. Job, knowing he is innocent, concludes that God must be unjust.{{sfn|Seow|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA97-98 97–98]}} He retains his piety throughout the story (contradicting the Adversary's suspicion that his righteousness is due to the expectation of reward), but makes clear from his first speech that he agrees with his friends that God should and does reward righteousness.{{sfn|Kugler|Hartin|2009|p=194}}

The intruder, Elihu, rejects the arguments of both parties:
* Job is wrong to accuse God of injustice, as God is greater than human beings, and
* the visitors are not correct either; for suffering, far from being a punishment, may "rescue the afflicted from their affliction".
That is, suffering can make those afflicted more amenable to revelation – literally, "open their ears" (Job 36:15).<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|36:15}}</ref>{{sfn|Seow|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA97-98 97–98]}}

Chapter&nbsp;28, the Poem (or Hymn) to Wisdom, introduces another theme: Divine wisdom. The hymn does not place any emphasis on retributive justice, stressing instead the inaccessibility of wisdom.{{sfn|Dell|2003|p=356}} Wisdom cannot be invented or purchased, it says; God alone knows the meaning of the world, and he grants it only to those who live in reverence before him.{{sfn|Hooks|2006|pp=329–30}} God possesses wisdom because he grasps the complexities of the world (Job 28:24–26)<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|28:24–26}}</ref> – a theme which anticipates God's speech in chapters&nbsp;38–41, with its repeated refrain "Where were you when&nbsp;...?"{{sfn|Fiddes|1996|p=174}}

When God finally speaks he neither explains the reason for Job's suffering (known to the reader to be unjust, from the prologue set in heaven) nor defends his justice. The first speech focuses on his role in maintaining order in the universe: The list of things that God does and Job cannot do demonstrates divine wisdom because order is the heart of wisdom. Job then confesses his lack of wisdom, meaning his lack of understanding of the workings of the cosmos and of the ability to maintain it. The second speech concerns God's role in controlling the formidable '[[behemoth]]' and '[[leviathan]]'.{{sfn|Walton|2008|p=338}}{{efn|
The [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] words ''[[behemoth]]'' and ''[[leviathan]]'' are sometimes naturalistically translated as the 'hippopotamus' and 'crocodile', but more probably representing more ominous primeval cosmic monsters or chaotic forces, in either case demonstrating God's wisdom and power.{{sfn|Walton|2008|p=338}}
}}

Job's reply to God's final speech is longer than his first and more complicated. The usual view is that he admits to being wrong to challenge God and now repents "in dust and ashes" (Job 42:6),<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|42:6}}</ref> but the Hebrew is difficult: An alternative reading is that Job says he was wrong to repent and mourn, and does ''not'' retract any of his arguments.{{sfn|Sawyer|2013|p=34}}

In the concluding part of the frame narrative God restores and increases Job's prosperity, indicating that the divine policy on retributive justice remains unchanged.{{sfn|Walton|2008|pp=338–39}}

==Influence and interpretation==

===History of interpretation===
[[File:Carved wooden figure of Job. Probably from Germany, 1750-1850 CE. The Wellcome Collection, London.jpg|thumb|A carved wooden figure of Job. Probably from Germany, 1750–1850 CE. The Wellcome Collection, London]]
In the [[Second Temple]] period (500 BCE–70 CE), the character of Job began to be transformed into something more patient and steadfast, with his suffering a test of virtue and a vindication of righteousness for the glory of God.{{sfn|Seow|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC&pg=PA111 111]}} The process of "sanctifying" Job began with the Greek [[Septuagint]] translation ({{c.|200 BCE}}) and was furthered in the apocryphal [[Testament of Job]] (1st century BCE–1st century CE), which makes him the hero of patience.{{sfn|Allen|2008|pp=362–63}} This reading pays little attention to the Job of the dialogue sections of the book,{{sfn|Dell|1991|pp=6–7}} but it was the tradition taken up by the [[Epistle of James]] in the [[New Testament]], which presents Job as one whose patience and endurance should be emulated by believers ([[James 5]]:7–11).<ref>{{bibleverse|James|5:7–11}}</ref>{{sfn|Allen|2008|p=362}}

When Christians began interpreting Job 19:23–29<ref>{{bibleverse|Job|19:23–29}}</ref> (verses concerning a "redeemer" who Job hopes can save him from God) as a prophecy of Christ,{{sfn|Simonetti|Conti|Oden|2006|pp=105–06}} the predominant Jewish view became "Job the blasphemer", with some rabbis even saying that he was rightly punished by God because he had stood by while Pharaoh massacred the innocent Jewish infants.{{sfn|Allen|2008|pp=361–62}}{{sfn|Noegel|Wheeler|2010|p=171}}

[[Augustine of Hippo]] recorded that Job had prophesied the coming of Christ, and [[Pope Gregory I]] offered him as a model of right living worthy of respect. The medieval Jewish scholar [[Maimonides]] declared his story a parable, and the medieval Christian [[Thomas Aquinas]] wrote a detailed commentary declaring it true history. In the [[Protestant Reformation]], [[Martin Luther]] explained how Job's confession of sinfulness and worthlessness underlay his saintliness, and [[John Calvin]]'s interpretation of Job demonstrated the doctrine of the resurrection and the ultimate certainty of divine justice.{{sfn|Allen|2008|pp=368–71}}

The contemporary movement known as creation theology, an [[Environmental theology|ecological theology]] valuing the needs of all creation, interprets God's speeches in Job 38–41 to imply that his interests and actions are not exclusively focused on humankind.{{sfn|Farmer|1998|p=150}}

===Liturgical use===
Jewish liturgy does not use readings from the Book of Job in the manner of the [[Torah|Pentateuch]], [[Nevi'im|Prophets]], or [[Five Megillot]], although it is quoted at funerals and times of mourning. However, there are some Jews, particularly the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]], who do hold public readings of Job on the [[Tisha B'Av]] fast (a day of mourning over the destruction of the [[Solomon's Temple|First]] and [[Second Temple|Second]] [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temples]] and other tragedies).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ou.org/holidays/tisha_bav_and_sefer_iyov/|title=The Connection Between Tisha B'Av and Sefer Iyov (Job)|publisher=Orthodox Union|date=2011-07-19}}</ref> The [[Hebrew cantillation|cantillation]] signs for the large poetic section in the middle of the Book of Job differ from those of most of the biblical books, using a system shared with it only by [[Psalms]] and [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]].

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] reads from Job and Exodus during [[Holy Week]]; Exodus prepares for the understanding of Christ's exodus to His Father and his fulfillment of the whole history of salvation, while Job, the sufferer, is viewed as the Old Testament icon of Christ.<ref>{{cite web |title=With the beginning of the Holy Week they are replaced by Exodus and Job |date=2 April 2015 |url=https://omhksea.org/archives/5755 |publisher=OMHKSEA (Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia) |access-date=August 29, 2025}}</ref>

The [[Roman Catholic Church]] reads from Job during [[Matins]] in the first two weeks of September and in the Office of the Dead,{{sfn|Dell|1991|p=26}} and in the revised [[Liturgy of the Hours]] Job is read during the Fifth, Twelfth, and Twenty Sixth Week in [[Ordinary Time]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bergsma |first1=John Sietze |title=A Catholic introduction to the Bible. Volume 1, The Old Testament |date=2018 |first2=Brant James|last2=Pitre|publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=978-1-58617-722-5 |location=San Francisco |pages=556–558 |oclc=950745091}}</ref>

In the modern [[Roman Rite]], the Book of Job is read during:
* 5th and 12th Sunday in Ordinary Time – ''Year B''
* Weekday Reading for the 26th Week in Ordinary Time – ''Year II Cycle''
* Ritual Masses for the Anointing of the Sick and Viaticum – ''First Reading'' options
* Masses for the Dead – ''First Reading'' options

===In music, art, literature, and film===
[[File:Georges de La Tour 044.jpg|thumb|[[Georges de La Tour]], ''Job Mocked by his Wife'']]
The Book of Job has been deeply influential in Western culture, to such an extent that no list could be more than representative. Musical settings from Job include [[Orlande de Lassus]]'s 1565 cycle of [[Motet|motets]], the {{lang|la|Sacrae Lectiones Novem ex Propheta Iob}}, and [[George Frideric Handel]]'s use of Job 19:25 ("I know that my redeemer liveth") as an aria in his 1741 oratorio ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]''.

Modern works based on the book include [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]]'s ''[[Job: A Masque for Dancing]]''; French composer [[Darius Milhaud]]'s ''Cantata From Job''; and Joseph Stein's Broadway interpretation ''[[Fiddler on the Roof]]'', based on the [[Tevye the Dairyman]] stories by [[Sholem Aleichem]]. Neil Simon wrote ''[[God's Favorite]]'', which is a modern retelling of the Book of Job. Breughel and [[Georges de La Tour]] depicted Job visited by his wife. [[William Blake]] produced an entire cycle of [[William Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job|illustrations for the book]]. It was [[Job (radio play)|adapted for Australian radio in 1939]].

Archibald MacLeish's drama ''[[J.B. (play)|JB]]'', one of the most prominent uses of the Book of Job in modern literature, was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1959. Verses from the Book of Job {{bibleverse-nb|Job|3:14|9}} figure prominently in the plot of the film ''[[Mission: Impossible (film)|Mission: Impossible]]'' (1996).<ref>{{ cite book| title= The Bible in Motion: A Handbook of the Bible and Its Reception in Film|volume=2 |series= Handbooks of the Bible and Its Reception (HBR) | editor-first=	Rhonda | editor-last= Burnette-Bletsch | publisher= Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG | year= 2016 | isbn= 9781614513261 | page= 372}}</ref> Job's influence can also be seen in the [[Coen brothers]]' 2009 film, ''[[A Serious Man]]'', which was nominated for two [[Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tollerton | first1 = David | author-link1 = David Tollerton | title = Job of Suburbia? A Serious Man and Viewer Perceptions of the Biblical Biblical | journal = Journal of Religion & Film | volume = 15 | issue = 2, Article 7 | pages = 1–11 | publisher = University of Nebraska | location = Omaha | date = October 2011 | url =  https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/jrf/vol15/iss2/7}}</ref>

[[Terrence Malick]]'s 2011 film ''[[The Tree of Life (film)|The Tree of Life]]'', which won the [[Palme d'Or]], is heavily influenced by the themes of the Book of Job, with the film starting with a quote from the beginning of God's speech to Job.{{sfn|McCracken|2012}}

The Russian film ''[[Leviathan (2014 film)|Leviathan]]'' also draws themes from the Book of Job.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Moss |first1=Walter G. |title=What Does the Film Leviathan Tell Us about Putin's Russia and Its Past? |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/159579 |website=History News Network|date=16 June 2015 }}</ref>

The 2014 Indian [[Malayalam]]-language film ''[[Iyobinte Pusthakam]]'' ({{lit|Book of Job}}) by [[Amal Neerad]] tells the story of a man who is losing everything in his life. 

"The Sire of Sorrow (Job's Sad Song)" is the final track on Joni Mitchell's 15th studio album, ''[[Turbulent Indigo]]''.

In 2015 two Ukrainian composers Roman Grygoriv and Illia Razumeiko created the opera-requiem ''[[IYOV]]''. The premiere of the opera was held on 21 September 2015 on the main stage of the international multidisciplinary festival [[Gogolfest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2015.gogolfest.org/eng/programm/1247/|title=Program 2015|author=GogolFest|access-date=25 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202102315/http://2015.gogolfest.org/eng/programm/1247/|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the 3rd episode of the 15th season of ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'', the lines of Job 3:23 are quoted by doctor Abby Lockhart shortly before she and her husband (Dr. Luka Covac) leave the series forever.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ER: Season 15 Episode 3 Transcript |url=https://subslikescript.com/series/ER-108757/season-15/episode-3-The_Book_of_Abby |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323135319/https://subslikescript.com/series/ER-108757/season-15/episode-3-The_Book_of_Abby |archive-date=2022-03-23 |access-date=2022-03-23}}</ref>

In season two of ''Good Omens'', the tale of Job and his struggles with good and evil are demonstrated and debated as the demon Crowley is sent to plague Job and his family by destroying his property and children, and the angel Aziraphale struggles with the implications of the actions of God.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rogerebert.com/streaming/good-omens-2-tv-review | title=David Tennant, Michael Sheen Continue to Elevate Quality of Good Omens 2 |website=Roger Ebert | date=26 July 2023|author-first1=Max |author-last1=Covill |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241224213928/https://www.rogerebert.com/streaming/good-omens-2-tv-review|archive-date=24 December 2024}}</ref>

In the ''[[South Park]]'' episode ''[[Cartmanland]]'', [[Kyle Broflovski]], who is [[Judaism|Jewish]], experiences a major crisis of faith. [[Gerald and Sheila Broflovski|His parents]] try to cheer him up by reading from the Book of Job, which only serves to demoralize Kyle even more, who despairs at Job's horrific trials by God to prove a point to Satan.<ref>[[South Park]], Season 5, Episode 6, "[[Cartmanland]]". Directed and written by [[Trey Parker]].</ref>

In a series of (now deleted) cryptic [[Tweet (social media)|tweets]] detailing the story of an unconfirmed meeting with [[Bob Dylan]], comedian [[Norm Macdonald]] makes allusions and references to The Book of Job, calling it his favorite book of the Bible. Dylan allegedly preferred [[Ecclesiastes]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Loofbourow |first=Lili |date=2021-09-16 |title=Norm Macdonald Never Stopped Bulls–tting |url=https://slate.com/culture/2021/09/norm-macdonald-death-anti-confessional-comic.html |access-date=2024-04-26 |work=Slate |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author-first1=Ben |author-last1=Yakas |date=2015-01-22 |title=Here's Norm Macdonald's Magical Twitter Story About Meeting Bob Dylan |url=https://gothamist.com/arts-entertainment/heres-norm-macdonalds-magical-twitter-story-about-meeting-bob-dylan |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=Gothamist |publisher=New York Public Radio |language=en}}</ref>

===In Islam and Arab folk tradition===
{{Main|Job in Islam}}
Job ({{langx|ar|ايوب|Ayyub}}) is one of the 25 prophets mentioned by name in the [[Quran]], where he is lauded as a steadfast and upright worshipper ([[Q.38:44]]). His story has the same basic outline as in the Bible, although the three friends are replaced by his brothers, and his wife stays by his side.{{sfn|Noegel|Wheeler|2010|p=171}}{{sfn|Wheeler|2002|p=8}}

In Lebanon, the Muwahideen (or [[Druze]]) community maintain a shrine in the Shouf area that is traditionally believed to contain the tomb of Job.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prophet Job in Lebanon |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/variety/2012/04/13/Prophet-Job-s-resting-place-in-Lebanon- |website=Al Arabiya |date=13 April 2012 |access-date=3 September 2025}}</ref> In [[Turkey]], Job is known as {{lang|tr|Eyüp}}, and he is venerated in [[Şanlıurfa]], where local tradition holds that he lived and suffered.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Cave of Prophet Job (Eyüp Peygamber) |url=https://goturkiye.com/destination/sanliurfa |website=GoTürkiye |publisher=Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism |access-date=3 September 2025}}</ref> There is also a tomb of Job located outside the city of [[Salalah]] in Oman.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sacredsites.com/middle_east/oman/tomb_of_prophet_job_salalah.html |title=Tomb of Prophet Job, Salalah |last=Gray |first=Martin |publisher=World Pilgrimage Guide |access-date=3 August 2021}}</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Answer to Job]]'' by Carl Jung
* [[Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts]]
* ''[[Moralia in Job]]''
* {{transliteration|akk|[[Ludlul bēl nēmeqi]]}}, the "Babylonian Job"
* ''[[Testament of Job]]''
* ''[[God's Favorite]]'', a play by [[Neil Simon]], loosely based on the Book of Job

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|25em}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Allen | first = J. | chapter = Job III: History of Interpretation |editor1-last=Longman III| editor1-first = Tremper | editor2-last = Enns | editor2-first = Peter | title = Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings | publisher = InterVarsity Press | year = 2008 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kE2k36XAkv4C&pg=PA361 | isbn = 978-0-83081783-2 }}
*{{cite book |last=Alter |first=Robert |year=2018 |title=The Hebrew Bible: A Translation with Commentary|volume= 3 |publisher=W. W. Nortion & Company |isbn=978-0393292497}}
* {{Cite book | last = Blenkinsopp | first = Joseph | title = A History of Prophecy in Israel | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | year = 1996 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6P9YEd9lXeAC&pg=PA166 | isbn = 978-0-66425639-5 }}
* {{Cite book | last = Brueggemann | first = Walter | title = Reverberations of Faith: A Theological Handbook of Old Testament Themes | publisher = Westminster John Knox | year = 2002 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dBJQ71RIpdMC | isbn = 978-0-66422231-4 }}
* {{Cite book | last = Bullock | first = C. Hassell | title = An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books | publisher = Moody Publishers | year = 2007 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QSGZbt7isfQC | isbn = 978-1-57567450-6 }}
* {{cite journal |author-last= Burnight |author-first=John | date= September 2021 |title=Is Eliphaz a false prophet? The vision in Job 4.12–21 |editor1-last= Shepherd |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Tiemeyer |editor2-first=Lena-Sofia |journal=[[Journal for the Study of the Old Testament]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=96–116 |doi= 10.1177/03090892211001404 |s2cid=238412522 |issn=1476-6728}}
* {{Cite book | last = Dell | first = Katharine J. | chapter = Job | editor1-last = Dunn | editor1-first = James D. G. | editor2-last = Rogerson | editor2-first = John William | title = Eerdmans Bible Commentary | publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company| year = 2003 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA337 | isbn = 978-0-80283711-0 }}
* {{Cite book | last = Dell | first = Katherine J. | title = The Book of Job as Sceptical Literature | publisher = Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin | year = 1991 |oclc=857769510 |isbn=978-3-11-085873-0}}
* {{Cite book | last = Farmer | first = Kathleen A. | chapter = The Wisdom Books | editor1-last = McKenzie | editor1-first = Steven L. | editor2-last = Graham | editor2-first = Matt Patrick | title = The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | year = 1998 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=owwhpmIVgSAC | isbn = 9780664256524 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/hebrewbibletoday0000unse }}
* {{Cite book | last = Fiddes | first = Paul | author-link = Paul Fiddes | title = After the Exile: Essays in Honour of Rex Mason | editor1-last = Barton | editor1-first = John | editor1-link = John Barton (theologian) | editor2-last = Reimer | editor2-first = David | publisher = Mercer University Press | year = 1996 | chapter = 'Where Shall Wisdom be Found?' Job 28 as a Riddle for Ancient and Modern Readers | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sUb7EDXODOwC | isbn = 978-0-86554524-3 }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Fokkelman
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| title = The Book of Job in Form: A Literary Translation with Commentary
| publisher = BRILL
| year = 2012
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LImUbvrCysoC
| isbn = 978-9-0042-3158-0
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Hartley
| first = John E.
| title = The Book of Job
| publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
| year = 1988
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=f-m5GnRjDckC
| isbn = 978-0-8028-2528-5
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Hartley
| first = John E.
| chapter = Job II: Ancient Near Eastern Background
| editor1-last = Longman
| editor1-first = Tremper
| editor2-last = Enns
| editor2-first = Peter
| title = Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings
| publisher = InterVarsity Press
| year = 2008
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kE2k36XAkv4C&pg=PA346
| isbn = 978-0-8308-1783-2
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Habel
| first = Norman C
| author-link = Norman Habel
| title = The Book of Job: A Commentary
| publisher = Westminster John Knox Press
| year = 1985
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=N9F1hkMuN0gC
| isbn = 978-0-6642-2218-5
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Hooks
| first = Stephen M.
| title = Job
| publisher = College Press
| year = 2006
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aJDCpR9qvuoC
| isbn = 978-0-8990-0886-8
}}
*{{Cite book
| last      = Joyce
| first      = Paul M.
| title      = Ezekiel: A Commentary
| publisher      = Continuum
| year      = 2009
| url      = https://books.google.com/books?id=LRepfsso2p0C&q=commentary+Ezekiel
| isbn      = 9780567483614
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Kugel
| first = James L.
| title = How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| year = 2012
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iyjzHjnEJ8AC
| isbn = 978-1-4516-8909-9
}}
* {{Cite book
| last1 = Kugler
| first1 = Robert
| last2 = Hartin
| first2 = Patrick J.
| title = An Introduction to the Bible
| publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
| year = 2009
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=L8WbXbPjxpoC
| isbn = 978-0-8028-4636-5
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Lawson
| first = Steven J.
| title = Job
| publisher = B&H Publishing Group
| year = 2004
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x5lkMJ92gNwC
| isbn = 978-0-8054-9470-9
}}
* {{Cite web
| author-last1 = McCracken
| author-first1 = Brett
| url =https://www.brettmccracken.com/blog/2012/05/21/the-divine-guide-in-terrence-malicks-tree-of-life
| date = 21 May 2012
| title = The Divine Guide in Terrence Malick's "Tree of Life"
| access-date = 3 August 2025
| url-status = live
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20250113091157/https://www.brettmccracken.com/blog/2012/05/21/the-divine-guide-in-terrence-malicks-tree-of-life
| archive-date = 13 January 2025
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Murphy
| first = Roland Edmund
| title = The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature
| publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
| year = 2002
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zKykx-9zf9EC
| isbn = 978-0-8028-3965-7
}}
* {{Cite book
| last1 = Noegel
| first1 = Scott B.
| last2 = Wheeler
| first2 = Brannon M.
| title = The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism
| publisher = Scarecrow Press
| year = 2010
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lNAWAgAAQBAJ
| isbn = 978-1-4617-1895-6
}}
* {{Cite book | last = O'Dowd | first = R. | chapter = Frame Narrative | editor1-last = Longman | editor1-first = Tremper | editor2-last = Enns | editor2-first = Peter | title = Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings | publisher = InterVarsity Press | year = 2008 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kE2k36XAkv4C&pg=PA242 | isbn = 978-0-8308-1783-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Pihlström | first = Sami | chapter = Chapter 5. The Problem of Evil and Pragmatic Recognition | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9KCXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 | editor-last = Skowroński | editor-first = Krzysztof Piotr | title = Practicing Philosophy as Experiencing Life. Essays on American Pragmatism | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9KCXCgAAQBAJ | year = 2015 | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Brill]] | location = [[Leiden]] | isbn = 978-9-0043-0199-3 | doi = 10.1163/9789004301993_006 | hdl = 10138/176976 | pages = 77–101 }}. [https://tuhat.helsinki.fi/portal/files/56023856/THE_PROBLEM_OF_EVIL_AND_PRAGMATIC_RECOGNITION.docx Docx extract]{{Dead link|date=July 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.
* {{Cite book
| last = Sawyer
| first = John F.A.
| chapter = Job
| editor1-last = Lieb
| editor1-first = Michael
| editor2-last = Mason
| editor2-first = Emma
| editor3-last = Roberts
| editor3-first = Jonathan
| title = The Oxford Handbook of the Reception History of the Bible
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2013
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iePi5FO-bxAC&pg=PA25
| isbn = 978-0-1992-0454-0
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Seow
| first = C.L.
| title = Job 1–21: Interpretation and Commentary
| publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
| year = 2013
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOn3ZK2n0UUC
| isbn = 978-0-8028-4895-6
}}
* {{Cite book
| last1 = Simonetti
| first1 = Manlio
| last2 = Conti
| first2 = Marco
| last3 = Oden
| first3 = Thomas C.
| title = Job
| publisher = InterVarsity Press
| year = 2006
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PW_FPxKr9t4C
| isbn = 9780830814763
}}
* {{Cite book | last = Vicchio | first = Stephen J. | title = The Book of Job: A History of Interpretation and a Commentary | publisher = Wipf & Stock | year = 2020 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Piv4DwAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-1-7252-5726-9 }}
* {{Cite book
| last = Walsh
| first = Jerome T
| title = Style and structure in Biblical Hebrew narrative
| publisher = Liturgical Press
| year = 2001
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hGeXrcQTZ2kC
| isbn = 9780814658970
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Walton
| first = J.H.
| chapter = Job I: Book of
| editor1-last = Longman
| editor1-first = Tremper
| editor2-last = Enns
| editor2-first = Peter
| title = Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings
| publisher = InterVarsity Press
| year = 2008
| isbn = 9780830817832
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kE2k36XAkv4C&pg=PA333
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wheeler |first1=Brannon M. |title=Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis |date=18 June 2002 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-8264-4957-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qIDZIep-GIQC |language=en }}
* {{Cite book | last = Wilson | first = Gerald H. | author-link = Gerald H. Wilson | title = Job | publisher = Baker Books | year = 2012 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Od8mk7QIO4AC | isbn = 978-1-44123839-9 }}
* {{Cite book | last = Wollaston | first = Isabell | chapter = Post-Holocaust Interpretations of Job | editor1-last = Lieb | editor1-first = Michael | editor2-last = Mason | editor2-first = Emma | editor3-last = Roberts | editor3-first = Jonathan | title = The Oxford Handbook of the Reception History of the Bible | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-0-19967039-0 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iePi5FO-bxAC&pg=PA488 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|translator-first1=Michael|translator-last1=Wise|translator-first2=Martin|translator-last2=Abegg Jr|translator-first3=Edward|translator-last3=Cook|year=1996|title=The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation|publisher=Harper |location=San Francisco|edition=paperback|isbn=0-06-069201-4}} (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls)
* {{cite book|first1=Stella |last1=Papadaki-Oekland|title=Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts of the Book of Job|isbn=978-2-503-53232-5|publisher=Brepols|year=2009}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote|Book of Job}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pizmonim.org/taamim.php|title=Sephardic Cantillations for the Book of Job|first1=David M. |last1=Betesh|publisher=Sephardic Pizmonim Project}}
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Job+1&version=NIV Translations of The Book of Job] at [[BibleGateway.com]]
* {{cite web|url=http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt2701.htm|title=Hebrew and English Parallel and Complete Text of the Book of Job|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016133348/http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt2701.htm |archive-date=16 October 2011|url-status=live|via=Mechon Mamre}} English Translation is the 1917 [[Jewish Publication Society of America Version|Old JPS]]
* {{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906131613/http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/download_group10629_id432547.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live |date=6 September 2015 |title=Introduction to the Book of Job|url=http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/download_group10629_id432547.pdf}}{{dead link|date=April 2025}}
* {{librivox book | dtitle = Bible: Job | stitle = 18: Job }}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou | [[Wisdom literature]] }}
{{S-bef | before = [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] }}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] }}
{{S-aft | after  = [[Song of Songs]] }}
{{S-bef | before = [[Book of Esther|Esther]] }}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[Protestant]]<br>[[Old Testament]] }}
{{S-aft | after  = [[Psalms]] | rows = 3 }}
{{S-bef | before = [[2 Maccabees]] }}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]<br>[[Old Testament]] }}
{{S-bef | before = [[3 Maccabees]] }}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]<br>[[Old Testament]] }}
{{S-end}}
{{Book of Job}}
{{Books of the Bible}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Job, Book Of}}
[[Category:Book of Job| ]]
[[Category:6th-century BC books]]
[[Category:Job (biblical figure)]]
[[Category:Ketuvim| 03]]
[[Category:Poetic Books]]
[[Category:Satan in religious literature]]
[[Category:Tisha B'Av]]