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{{Short description|Type of heavy cavalry originating in Persia and used throughout Eurasia and Northern Africa}}

[[File:Ancient Sasanid Cataphract Uther Oxford 2003 06 2(1).jpg|thumb|[[Historical reenactment]] of a [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian-era]] cataphract, complete with a full set of [[scale armour]] for the horse. The rider is covered by extensive [[chain mail|mail armour]].]]

A '''cataphract''' was a form of [[body armour|armoured]] [[heavy cavalry]] that originated in [[Sasanian Empire|Persia]] and was fielded in [[ancient warfare]] throughout [[Eurasia]] and [[Northern Africa]].

Historically, the cataphract was a very heavily armoured horseman, with both the rider and mount almost completely covered in [[scale armour|scale]] or [[lamellar armour]] over [[chain mail]], and typically wielding a [[kontos (weapon)|kontos]] ([[lance]]) as his primary weapon.

Cataphracts served as the elite cavalry force for most empires and nations that fielded them, primarily used for [[Charge (warfare)#Cavalry charges|charges]] to break through opposing heavy cavalry and [[infantry]] formations. Chronicled by many historians from the earliest days of [[classical antiquity|antiquity]] up until the [[High Middle Ages]], they may have influenced the later European [[knights]], through contact with the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]].<ref name="Nell, Grant S. 1995">Nell, Grant S. (1995) ''The Savaran: The Original Knights''. University of Oklahoma Press.</ref>

Peoples and states deploying cataphracts at some point in their history included: the [[Scythians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Alans]], [[Medes]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]], [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]], [[Saka]]s, [[Indian people|Indians]], [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenians]], [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]], [[Attalid kingdom|Attalid]], [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]], [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom|Greco-Bactrian]], [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanids]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Goths]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgians]], [[Imperial China|Chinese]], [[Goguryeo|Koreans]], [[Jurchen people|Jurchens]], [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]], [[Tangut people|Tangut]]s and [[Songhai Empire|Songhai]].

In Europe, the fashion for heavily armoured [[Roman cavalry]] seems to have been a response to the Eastern campaigns of the Parthians and Sasanians in [[Anatolia]], as well as numerous defeats at the hands of Iranian cataphracts across the steppes of Eurasia, most notably in the [[Battle of Carrhae]] (53 BC) in upper [[Mesopotamia]]. Traditionally, Roman cavalry was neither heavily-armoured nor decisive in effect; the Roman [[equites]] corps comprised mainly lightly-armoured horsemen bearing spears and swords and using [[light cavalry]] tactics to [[skirmisher|skirmish]] before and during battles, and then to pursue retreating enemies after a victory. The adoption of cataphract-like cavalry formations took hold among the [[late Roman army]] during the late 3rd and 4th centuries. The Emperor [[Gallienus]] ({{reign | 253 | 268&nbsp;AD}}) and his general and putative [[usurper]] [[Aureolus]] (died 268) arguably contributed much to the institution of Roman cataphract contingents in the [[Late Roman army]].

==Etymology==
[[File:Orlat plaque (right, cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Close combat between soldiers in cataphract. [[Orlat plaques]], 1st century BCE.]]
[[File:Kalchayan Prince (armour).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Saka]]/[[Kangju]] cataphract armour with neck-guard. 1st century BCE. [[Khalchayan]]. [[Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan]], nb 40.<ref>{{cite book |title=KHALCHAYAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica |page=Figure 1 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/khalchayan#prettyPhoto[content]/0/}}</ref>]]
The origin of the word is Greek. {{lang|grc|Κατάφρακτος}} ({{transliteration|grc|kataphraktos}}, {{transliteration|grc|cataphraktos}}, {{transliteration|grc|cataphractos}}, or {{transliteration|grc|katafraktos}}) is composed of the Greek root words, {{lang|grc|κατά}}, a preposition, and {{lang|grc|φρακτός}} ("covered, protected"), which is interpreted along the lines of "fully armoured" or "closed from all sides". The term first appears substantively in [[Latin]], in the writings of [[Lucius Cornelius Sisenna]]: "{{lang|la|loricatos, quos cataphractos vocant}}", meaning "the armoured, whom they call cataphract".<ref>{{cite conference|last=Nikonorov|first=Valerii P.|date=2–5 September 1998|title=Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii: Another Look at the old problem of their Identifications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxMhAQAAIAAJ&q=%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8|conference=Военная археология: оружие и военное дело в исторической и социальной перспективе. Материалы Международной конференции [Military Archeology: Weapons and Military Affairs from a Historical and Social Perspective. Proceedings of the International Conference]|location=St. Petersburg|pages=131–138}}<!-- Original title sourced from author's bibliography at http://www.archeo.ru/struktura-1/otdel-arheologii-centralnoi-azii-i-kavkaza/nikonorov-valerii-pavlovich - appears to be originally in English, though the conference title is Russian --></ref>

There appears to be some confusion about the term in the [[Late Antiquity|late Roman period]], as armoured cavalrymen of any sort that were traditionally referred to as {{lang|la|[[Equites]]}} in the [[Roman Republic|Republican period]] later became exclusively designated as "cataphracts". [[Vegetius]], writing in the fourth century, described armour of any sort as "cataphracts" – which at the time of writing would have been either {{lang|la|[[lorica segmentata]]}} or {{lang|la|[[lorica hamata]]}}. [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], Roman soldier and historian of the fourth century, mentions the "{{lang|la|cataphracti equites (quos clibanarios dictitant)}}" – the "cataphract cavalry which they regularly call [[clibanarii]]" (implying that clibanarii is a foreign term, not used in [[Classical Latin]]).

''Clibanarii'' is a Latin word for "mail-clad riders", itself a derivative of the Greek {{lang|grc|κλιβανοφόροι}} ({{transliteration|grc|klibanophoroi}}), meaning "camp oven bearers" from the Greek word {{lang|grc|κλίβανος}}, meaning "camp oven" or "metallic furnace"; the word has also been tentatively linked to the [[Middle Persian|Persian]] word for a warrior, {{lang|pal|grivpan}}. However, it appears with more frequency in Latin sources than in Greek throughout antiquity. A twofold origin of the Greek term has been proposed: either that it was a humorous reference to the heavily armoured cataphracts as men encased in armour who would heat up very quickly much like in an oven; or that it was further derived from the [[Old Persian]] word ''*griwbanar'' (or ''*[[grivpanvar]]''), itself composed of the [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] roots ''griva-pana-bara'', which translates into "neck-guard wearer".<ref name="Nicolle, David 1992">[[Nicolle, David]] (1992) ''Romano-Byzantine Armies, 4th–9th Centuries''. Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN|1-8553-2224-2|978-1-8553-2224-0}}</ref>

Roman chroniclers and historians [[Arrian]], [[Aelianus Tacticus|Aelian]] and [[Asclepiodotus (philosopher)|Asclepiodotus]] use the term "cataphract" in their military treatises to describe any type of cavalry with either partial or full horse and rider armour. The [[Byzantine]] historian [[Leo the Deacon|Leo Diaconis]] calls them {{lang|grc|πανσιδήρους ἱππότας}} ({{transliteration|grc|pansidearoos ippotas}}), which would translate as "fully iron-clad knights".<ref>Leo Diaconis, ''Historiae'' 4.3, 5.2, 8.9</ref>

There is, therefore, some doubt as to what exactly cataphracts were in late antiquity, and whether or not they were distinct from {{lang|la|[[clibanarii]]}}. Some historians theorise that cataphracts and {{lang|la|clibanarii}} were one and the same type of cavalry, designated differently simply as a result of their divided geographical locations and local linguistic preferences. Cataphract-like cavalry under the command of the [[Western Roman Empire]], where Latin was the official tongue, always bore the [[Latinization (literature)|Latinized]] variant of the original Greek name, {{lang|la|cataphractarii}}. The cataphract-like cavalry stationed in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] had no exclusive term ascribed to them, with both the Latin variant and the Greek innovation {{lang|la|clibanarii}} being used in historical sources, largely because of the [[Byzantine]]s' heavy Greek influence (especially after the 7th century, when Latin ceased to be the official language). Contemporary sources, however, sometimes imply that {{lang|la|clibanarii}} were in fact a heavier type of cavalryman, or formed special-purpose units (such as the late {{lang|la|Equites [[Sagittarii]] Clibanarii}}, a Roman equivalent of [[horse archer]]s, first mentioned in the ''{{lang|la|[[Notitia Dignitatum]]}}''). Given that "cataphract" was used for more than a millennium by various cultures, it appears that different types of fully armoured cavalry in the armies of different nations were assigned this name by Greek and Roman scholars not familiar with the native terms for such cavalry.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

==Iranian origins==
[[File:Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png|thumb|The spread of Iranic peoples in Eurasia during the Iron Age highlighted in green.]]
[[File:Taq-e Bostan - equestrian statue.jpg|thumb|Sculpture of a Sasanian cataphract in [[Taq-e Bostan]], Iran, 4th century CE.]]
The reliance on cavalry as a means of warfare in general lies with the ancient Indo-European inhabitants of the [[Central Asia]]n [[steppes]] in [[Ancient Near East|early antiquity]], who were one of the first peoples to [[Domestication of the horse|domesticate the horse]] and pioneered the development of the [[chariot]].<ref>Mielczarek, Mariusz (1993)'' Cataphracti and Clibanarii. Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World'', p. 14</ref> Some of these nomadic tribes and wandering pastoralists {{Circa|2000 BC}}([[Bronze Age|Bronze-Age]]), the [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]], migrated from the steppes of Central Asia into the [[Iranian Plateau]] and [[Greater Iran]] from around 1000 BC to 800 BC. Two of these tribes are attested based upon archaeological evidence: the [[Mitanni]] and the [[Kassites]]. Although evidence is scant, they are believed to have raised and bred horses for specific purposes, as is evidenced by the large archaeological record of their use of the chariot and several treatises on the training of chariot horses.<ref>[[Robert Drews]], "The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East.", Princeton University Press, Chariot Warfare. p. 61.</ref> The one founding prerequisite towards the development of cataphract cavalry in the [[Ancient Near East]], apart from advanced [[History of ferrous metallurgy|metalworking]] techniques and the necessary grazing pastures for raising horses, was the development of [[Horse breeding|selective breeding]] and [[animal husbandry]]. Cataphract cavalry needed immensely strong and endurant horses, and without selectively breeding horses for muscular strength and hardiness, they would have surely not been able to bear the immense loads of armor and a rider during the strain of battle.<ref>Perevalov, S. M. (translated by M. E. Sharpe) (Spring 2002). "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture". ''Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia'' 41 (4): 7–21.</ref> The [[Near East]] is generally believed to have been the focal point for where this first occurred.

The previously mentioned early [[Indo-Iranians|Indo-Iranian]] kingdoms and statehoods were to a large degree the ancestors of the north-eastern Iranian tribes and the [[Medians]], who would found the [[Median Empire|first Iranian Empire]] in 625 BC. It was the Median Empire that left the first written proof of horse breeding around the 7th century BC, being the first to propagate a specific [[horse breed]], known as the [[Nisean horse|Nisean]], which originated in the [[Zagros Mountains]] for use as heavy cavalry.<ref name="Farrokh, Kaveh 2005">Farrokh, Kaveh (2005). ''Sassanian Elite Cavalry, AD 224–642''. Osprey Publishing.</ref> The Nisean would become renowned in the Ancient World and particularly in [[Ancient Persia]] as the mount of nobility. These warhorses, sometimes referred to as "Nisean chargers",<ref>{{cite book |last=Farrokh |first=Kaveh |title=Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224–642 |year=2005 |publisher=Osprey |location=Oxford |isbn=9781841767130 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WEfDCwAAQBAJ&q=Sassanian%20Elite%20Cavalry%2C%20AD%20224%E2%80%93642&pg=PT5 |access-date=20 January 2014}}</ref> were highly sought after by the [[Archaic Greece|Greeks]], and are believed to have influenced many modern horse breeds. With the growing aggressiveness of cavalry in warfare, protection of the rider and the horse became paramount. This was especially true of peoples who treated cavalry as the basic arm of their military, such as the [[Military history of Iran|Ancient Persians]], including the Medes and the successive [[Persian Empire|Persian dynasties]]. To a larger extent, the same can be said of all the [[Ancient Iranian peoples]]: second only to perhaps the bow, horses were held in reverence and importance in these societies as their preferred and mastered medium of warfare, due to an intrinsic link throughout history with the domestication and evolution of the horse.

These early riding traditions, which were strongly tied to the ruling [[caste]] of nobility (as only those of noble birth or caste could become cavalry warriors), now spread throughout the [[Eurasian steppe]]s and [[Iranian plateau]] from around 600 BC and onwards due to contact with the [[Median Empire]]'s vast expanse across Central Asia, which was the native homeland of the early, north-eastern Iranian ethnic groups such as the [[Massagetae]], Scythians, [[Sakas]], and [[Dahae]].<ref name="Farrokh, Kaveh 2005"/> The successive Persian Empires that followed the Medes after their downfall in 550 BC took these already long-standing military tactics and horse-breeding traditions and infused their centuries of experience and veterancy from conflicts against the [[Greek city-states]], [[Babylonia]]ns, [[ancient Assyrians|Assyrians]], Scythians, and [[Arabia|North Arabian]] tribes with the significant role cavalry played not only in warfare but everyday life to form a military reliant almost entirely upon armored horses for battle.

==Spread to Central Asia and the Near East==
[[File:北燕馬鎧 01.png|thumb|Chanfron, [[Northern Yan]]]]
The evolution of the heavily armored horseman was not isolated to one focal point during a specific era (such as the [[Iranian plateau]]), but rather developed simultaneously in different parts of [[Central Asia]] (especially among the peoples inhabiting the [[Silk Road]]) as well as within [[Greater Iran]]. [[Assyrian Empire|Assyria]] and the [[Khwarezm]] region were also significant to the development of cataphract-like cavalry during the 1st millennium BC. Reliefs discovered in the ancient ruins of [[Nimrud]] (the ancient Assyrian city founded by king [[Shalmaneser I]] during the 13th century BC) are the earliest known depictions of riders wearing [[Plated mail|plated-mail shirts]] composed of metal scales, presumably deployed to provide the Assyrians with a tactical advantage over the unprotected [[Mounted archery|mounted archers]] of their nomadic enemies, primarily the [[Aramaeans]], [[Mushki]], [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|North Arabian tribes]] and the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylonians]]. The [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (745–727 BC) period, under which the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] was formed and reached its military peak, is believed to have been the first context within which the Assyrian kingdom formed crude regiments of cataphract-like cavalry. Even when armed only with [[Pike (weapon)|pikes]], these early horsemen were effective mounted cavalrymen, but when provided with bows under [[Sennacherib]] (705–681 BC), they eventually became capable both of long-range and hand-to-hand combat, mirroring the development of dual-purpose cataphract archers by the Parthian Empire during the 1st century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Eadie|1967|pp=161f.}}</ref>

Archaeological excavations also indicate that, by the 6th century BC, similar experimentation had taken place among the [[Ancient Iranian peoples#List|Iranian peoples]] inhabiting the [[Khwarezm]] region and [[Aral Sea]] basin, such as the [[Massagetae]], [[Dahae]] and Saka. While the offensive weapons of these prototype cataphracts were identical to those of the Assyrians, they differed in that not only the rider but also the head and flanks of the horse were protected by armor. Whether this development was influenced by the Assyrians, as Rubin postulates,<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|1955|p=266}}</ref> or perhaps the Achaemenid Empire, or whether they occurred spontaneously and entirely unrelated to the advances in heavily armored cavalry made in the Ancient Near East, cannot be discerned by the archaeological records left by these mounted nomads.<ref>{{harvnb|Eadie|1967|p=162}}</ref>

The further evolution of these early forms of heavy cavalry in Western Eurasia is not entirely clear. Heavily armored riders on large horses appear in 4th century BC frescoes in the northern [[Black Sea]] region, notably at a time when the Scythians, who relied on light horse archers, were superseded by the Sarmatians.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|1955|pp=269–270}}</ref> By the 3rd century BC, light cavalry units were used in most eastern armies, but still only "relatively few states in the East or West attempted to imitate the Assyrian and Chorasmian experiments with mailed cavalry".<ref>{{harvnb|Eadie|1967|p=163}}</ref>

==Hellenistic and Roman adoption==
[[File:ParthianCataphract.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A stone-etched relief depicting a Parthian cataphract fighting against a lion. Housed in the [[British Museum]].]]
The [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] first encountered cataphracts during the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] of the 5th century BC with the Achaemenid Empire. The [[Ionian Revolt]], an uprising against Persian rule in Asia Minor which preluded the [[First Persian invasion of Greece]], is very likely the first Western encounter of cataphract cavalry, and to a degree heavy cavalry in general. The cataphract was widely adopted by the [[Seleucid Empire]], the Hellenistic successors of [[Alexander the Great]]'s kingdom who reigned over conquered Persia and Asia Minor after his death in 323 BC. The Parthians, who wrested control over their native Persia from the last [[Diadochi|Seleucid]] Kingdom in the East in 147 BC, were also noted for their reliance upon cataphracts as well as horse archers in battle.

Besides the Seleucids it is possible that also the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] adopted some cataphracts. Pergamese reliefs show cavalry similarly armed and equipped as Seleucid cataphracts, indicating an adoption. Yet these were probably equipped from trophies taken from the Seleucids,<ref>{{cite book|first=Duncan|last=Head|page=237|title=Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars 359 BC to 146 BC|year=2016 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9781326256562}}</ref> which would suggest limited numbers.

The Romans came to know cataphracts during their frequent wars in the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic East]]. Cataphracts had varying levels of success against Roman military tactics more so at the Battle of Carrhae and less so at [[Battle of Tigranocerta|the battle]] of [[Lucullus]] with [[Tigranes the Great]] near [[Tigranocerta]] in 69 BC.<ref name="Eadie 1967 163f">{{harvnb|Eadie|1967|pp=163f.}}</ref><ref name="Perevalov 2002, 10">{{harvnb|Perevalov|2002|p=10}}</ref> In 38 BC, the Roman general [[Publius Ventidius Bassus]], by making extensive use of [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]], whose long-range weapons proved very effective, defeated the uphill-storming Parthian armored cavalry.<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1987|p=25}}</ref>

At the time of [[Augustus]], the Greek geographer [[Strabo]] considered cataphracts with horse armor to be typical of [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenian]], [[Caucasian Albania]]n, and [[Military history of Iran|Persian]] armies, but, according to [[Plutarch]], they were still held in rather low esteem in the [[Hellenistic world]] due to their poor tactical abilities against disciplined infantry as well as against more mobile, light cavalry.<ref name="Perevalov 2002, 10"/> However, the lingering period of exposure to cataphracts at the eastern frontier as well as the growing military pressure of the [[Sarmatia]]n [[lancer]]s on the [[Danube]] frontier led to a gradual integration of cataphracts into the Roman army.<ref name="Perevalov 2002 10ff">{{harvnb|Perevalov|2002|pp=10ff.}}</ref><ref name="Eadie 1967 166">{{harvnb|Eadie|1967|p=166}}</ref> Thus, although cavalrymen with armor were deployed in the [[Roman army]] as early as the 2nd century BC ([[Polybios]], VI, 25, 3),<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|1955|p=276, fn. 2}}</ref> the first recorded deployment and use of cataphracts (''[[equites cataphractarii]]'') by the Roman Empire comes in the 2nd century AD, during the reign of Emperor [[Hadrian]] (117–138 AD), who created the first, regular unit of auxiliary, mailed cavalry called the ''ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum catafractata''.<ref>Eadie, John W. (1967). "The Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry". ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 57, No. 1/2 (1967), pp. 161–173.</ref>  A key architect in the process was evidently the Roman emperor [[Gallienus]], who created a highly mobile force in response to the multiple threats along the northern and eastern frontier.<ref>{{harvnb|Eadie|1967|p=168}}</ref> However, as late as 272 AD, [[Aurelian]]'s army, completely composed of light cavalry, defeated [[Zenobia]] at the [[Battle of Immae]], proving the continuing importance of mobility on the battlefield.<ref>{{harvnb|Eadie|1967|pp=170f.}}</ref>

The Romans fought a prolonged and indecisive campaign in the East against the Parthians beginning in 53 BC, commencing with the defeat of [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] (close benefactor of [[Julius Caesar]]) and his 35,000 [[Legionary|legionaries]] at Carrhae. This initially unexpected and humiliating defeat for Rome was followed by numerous campaigns over the next two centuries entailing many notable engagements such as: the [[Battle of Cilician Gates]], [[Battle of Mount Gindarus|Mount Gindarus]], [[Antony's Parthian War|Mark Antony's Parthian Campaign]] and finally culminating in the bloody [[Battle of Nisibis (217)|Battle of Nisibis]] in 217 AD, which resulted in a slight Parthian victory, and [[Macrinus|Emperor Macrinus]] being forced to concede peace with Parthia.<ref name="Eadie 1967 163f"/><ref name="Perevalov 2002, 10"/> As a result of this lingering period of exposure to cataphracts, by the 4th century, the Roman Empire had adopted a number of [[vexillation]]s of mercenary cataphract cavalry (see the [[Notitia Dignitatum]]), such as the [[Sarmatian]] [[Auxiliaries]].<ref name="Perevalov 2002 10ff"/><ref name="Eadie 1967 166"/> The Romans deployed both native and mercenary units of cataphracts throughout the Empire, from Asia Minor all the way to Britain, where a contingent of 5,500 Sarmatians (including cataphracts, infantry, and non-combatants) were posted in the 2nd century by Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] (see [[End of Roman rule in Britain]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=D'Amato |first1=Raffaele |last2=Negin |first2=Andrey Evgenevich |date=20 November 2018 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |title=Roman Heavy Cavalry (1): Cataphractarii & Clibanarii, 1st Century BC–5th |pages=11–12 |series=Elite |volume=225 |isbn=978-1-4728-3004-3}}</ref>

This tradition was later paralleled by the rise of [[feudalism]] in Christian Europe in the [[Early Middle Ages]] and the establishment of the [[knighthood]] particularly during the [[Crusades]], while the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Romans]] continued to maintain a very active corps of cataphracts long after their [[Decline of the Roman Empire|Western counterparts fell]] in 476 AD.

==Appearance and equipment==
[[File:Exemple de lacage De Cataphracte.JPG|thumb|300px|Three examples of the various styles of interweaving and wire threading that were commonly employed in the creation of cataphract scale armor to form a stiffened, "armored shell" with which to protect the horse.]]
[[File:Diagram of Horse Armament (14177505363).jpg|thumb|Breakdown of a fully armoured Chinese cataphract]]

{{Blockquote|text=But no sooner had the first light of day appeared, than the glittering coats of mail, girt with bands of steel, and the gleaming cuirasses, seen from afar, showed that the king's forces were at hand.|sign=[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], late [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] historian and soldier, describing the sight of [[Sassanid Empire|Persian]] cataphracts approaching [[Roman legion|Roman infantry]] in Asia Minor, circa fourth century.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, (353&nbsp;AD) ''Roman Antiquities'', Book&nbsp;XXV pp. 477</ref>}}

Cataphracts were almost universally clad in some form of scale armor ({{langx|el|φολιδωτός}} ''Folidotos'', equivalent to the Roman [[Lorica squamata]]) that was flexible enough to give the rider and horse a good degree of motion, but strong enough to resist the immense impact of a thunderous charge into infantry formations. Scale armor was made from overlapping, rounded plates of bronze or iron (most being around one to two millimeters thick), which had two or four holes drilled into the sides, to be threaded with a bronze wire that was then sewn onto an undergarment of leather or animal [[Hide (skin)|hide]], worn by the horse. A full set of cataphract armor consisted of approximately 1,300 or so "scales" and could weigh an astonishing 40 kilograms or 88 pounds (not inclusive of the rider's body weight). Less commonly, [[plated mail]] or [[lamellar armor]] (which is similar in appearance but divergent in design, as it has no backing) was substituted for scale armor, while for the most part the rider wore [[chain mail]]. Specifically, the horse armor was usually sectional (not joined together as a cohesive "suit"), with large plates of scales tied together around the animal's waist, flank, shoulders, neck and head (especially along the [[Breastplate (tack)|breastplate]] of the saddle) independently to give a further degree of movement for the horse and to allow the armor to be affixed to the horse reasonably tightly so that it should not loosen too much during movement. Usually but not always, a close-fitting helmet that covered the head and neck was worn by the rider; the Persian variants extended this even further and encased the wearer's entire head in metal, leaving only minute slits for the nose and eyes as openings. Ammianus Marcellinus, a noted Roman historian and general who served in the army of [[Constantius II]] in [[Gaul]] and [[Persia]] and fought against the [[Sassanid army]] under [[Julian the Apostate]], described the sight of a contingent of massed Persian cataphracts in the 4th century:

<blockquote>...all the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these some, who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would think them held fast by clamps of bronze.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, (353 AD) ''Roman Antiquities'', Boox XXV pp. 481</ref></blockquote>

The primary weapon of practically all cataphract forces throughout history was the lance.  Cataphract lances (known in [[Greek language|Greek]] as a ''Kontos'' ("oar") or in [[Latin]] as a ''Contus'') appeared much like the [[Hellenistic armies]]' ''[[sarissa]]e'' used by the famed [[Phalanx formation|Greek phalanxes]] as an anti-cavalry weapon. They were roughly four meters in length, with a capped point made of iron, bronze, or even animal bone and usually wielded with both hands. Most had a chain attached to the horse's neck and at the end by a fastening attached to the horse's hind leg, which supported the use of the lance by transferring the full momentum of a horse's gallop to the thrust of the charge. Though they lacked stirrups, the traditional Roman saddle had four horns with which to secure the rider;<ref>Driel-Murray, C. van; Connolly, P. (1991). ''The Roman cavalry saddle''. ''Britannia'' '''22''', pp. 33–50.</ref> enabling a soldier to stay seated upon the full impact. During the Sassanid era, the [[Military History of Iran|Persian military]] developed ever more secure [[saddle]]s to "fasten" the rider to the horse's body, much like the later knightly saddles of Medieval Europe. These saddles had a cantle at the back of the saddle and two guard clamps that curved across the top of the rider's thighs and fastened to the saddle, thereby enabling the rider to stay properly seated, especially during violent contact in battle.<ref>Shahbazi, A. Sh. (2009). ''Sassanian Army''.</ref>

The penetrating power of the cataphract's lance was recognized as being fearful by Roman writers, described as being capable of transfixing two men at once, as well as inflicting deep and mortal wounds even on opposing cavalries' mounts, and were definitely more potent than the regular one-handed spear used by most other cavalries of the period. Accounts of [[Furusiyya|later period Middle Eastern cavalrymen]] wielding them told of occasions when it was capable of bursting through two layers of [[Mail (armor)|chain mail]].<ref>Usamah Ibn-Munquidh, ''An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah Ibn-Munquidh'', Philip K. Hitti (trans.) (New Jersey: Princeton), 1978. p. 69.</ref> There are also reliefs in Iran at [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]] showing Persian kings doing battle in a fashion not dissimilar to later depictions of jousts and mounted combat from the Medieval era.<ref name="test">[https://www.livius.org/fa-fn/firuzabad/firuzabad_relief1.html "Equestrian battle reliefs from Firuozabad"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003023123/http://www.livius.org/fa-fn/firuzabad/firuzabad_relief1.html |date=2016-10-03 }} Battle scenes showing combat between Parthian and Sassanian cataphracts on horses with barding using lances.</ref>

[[File:Ardachir relief Firuzabad 1.jpg|thumb|center|800px|Equestrian relief at [[Firuzabad, Fars|Firuzabad]], [[Iran]] showing Cataphracts dueling with lances]]

Cataphracts would often be equipped with an additional [[weapon|side-arm]] such as a [[sword]] or [[mace (bludgeon)|mace]], for use in the melee that often followed a charge. Some wore armor that was primarily frontal: providing protection for a charge and against missiles yet offering relief from the weight and encumbrance of a full suit. In yet another variation, cataphracts in some field armies were not equipped with shields at all, particularly if they had heavy body armor, as having both hands occupied with a shield and lance left no room to effectively steer the horse. Eastern and Persian cataphracts, particularly those of the [[Sassanid Empire]], carried bows as well as blunt-force weapons, to soften up enemy formations before an eventual attack, reflecting upon the longstanding Persian tradition of [[horse archery]] and its use in battle by successive [[Persian Empire]]s.

==Tactics and deployment==
[[File:Issyk Golden Cataphract Warrior.jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|The cataphract-style parade armor of a Saka (Scythian) royal from the [[Issyk kurgan]], dubbed "Golden Man". The overlapping golden scales are typical of cataphract armor.]]
While they varied in design and appearance, cataphracts were universally the heavy assault force of most nations that deployed them, acting as "shock troops" to deliver the bulk of an offensive manoeuvre, while being supported by various forms of infantry and [[archery|archers]] (both [[Mounted archer|mounted]] and unmounted). While their roles in military history often seem to overlap with [[lancers]] or generic heavy cavalry, they should not be considered analogous to these forms of cavalry, and instead represent the separate evolution of a very distinct class of heavy cavalry in the [[Near East]] that had certain connotations of prestige, nobility, and ''esprit de corps'' attached to them. In many armies, this reflected upon [[social stratification]] or a [[castes|caste system]], as only the wealthiest men of noble birth could afford the panoply of the cataphract, not to mention the costs of supporting several war horses and ample amounts of weaponry and armor.

[[Fire support]] was deemed particularly important for the proper deployment of cataphracts. The Parthian army that defeated the Romans at Carrhae in 53 BC operated primarily as a [[combined arms]] team of cataphracts and [[horse archer]]s against the Roman heavy infantry. The Parthian horse archers encircled the Roman formation and bombarded it with arrows from all sides, forcing the legionaries to form the [[testudo formation|Testudo or "tortoise" formation]] to shield themselves from the huge numbers of incoming arrows. This made them fatally susceptible to a massed cataphract charge, since the testudo made the legionaries immobile and incapable of attacking or defending themselves in close combat against the long reach of the Parthian cataphracts' ''[[Kontos (weapon)|Kontos]]'', a type of [[lance]]. The end result was a far smaller force of Parthian cataphracts and horse archers wiping out a Roman army four times their number, due to a combination of [[fire and movement]], which pinned the enemy down, wore them out and left them vulnerable to a deathblow.

[[File:Tabriz Sasanian Plate 3.jpg|thumb|left|Two heavily armored noblemen dueling on horseback with [[Kontos (weapon)|kontos]]; Sasanian era silver plate with gold coating, Azerbaijan Museum, Tabriz, Iran]]

The cataphract charge was very effective due to the disciplined riders and the large numbers of horses deployed. As early as the 1st century BC, especially during the expansionist campaigns of the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, Eastern [[Iran]]ian cataphracts employed by the [[Scythians]], Sarmatians, Parthians, and Sassanids presented a grievous problem for the traditionally less mobile, infantry-dependent Roman Empire. Roman writers throughout imperial history made much of the terror of facing cataphracts, let alone receiving their charge. Parthian armies repeatedly clashed with the Roman legions in a series of wars, featuring the heavy usage of cataphracts. Although initially successful, the Romans soon developed ways to crush the charges of heavy horsemen, through use of terrain and maintained discipline.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}}

[[Persia]]n cataphracts were a contiguous division known as the ''[[Savārān cavalry|Savaran]]'' ([[Farsi|Persian]]: ''سواران'', literally meaning "riders") during the era of the Sassanid army and remained a formidable force from the 3rd to 7th centuries until the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|collapse of the Sassanid Empire]].<ref name="Nell, Grant S. 1995"/> Initially the [[Sassanid dynasty]] continued the cavalry traditions of the Parthians, fielding units of super-heavy cavalry. This gradually fell out of favour, and a "universal" cavalryman was developed during the later 3rd century, able to fight as a [[Mounted archery|mounted archer]] as well as a cataphract. This was perhaps in response to the harassing, nomadic combat style used by the Sassanids' northern neighbours who frequently raided their borders, such as the [[Hun]]s, [[Hephthalites]], [[Xiongnu]], Scythians, and [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]]s, all of which favoured [[hit and run tactics]] and relied almost solely upon horse archers for combat. However, as the [[Roman-Persian wars]] intensified to the West, sweeping military reforms were again re-established. During the 4th century, [[Shapur II of Persia]] attempted to reinstate the super-heavy cataphracts of previous Persian dynasties to counter the formation of the new, Roman [[Comitatenses]], the dedicated, front-line legionaries who were the [[heavy infantry]] of the late Roman Empire. The elite of the Persian cataphracts, known as the [[Pushtigban Body Guards]], were sourced from the very best of the ''Savaran'' divisions and were akin in their deployment and military role to their Roman counterparts, the [[Praetorian Guard]], used exclusively by Roman emperors. Ammianus Marcellinus remarked in his memoirs that members of the Pushtigban were able to impale two Roman soldiers on their spears at once with a single furious charge. Persian cataphract archery also seems to have been again revived in [[late antiquity]], perhaps as a response (or even a stimulus) to an emerging trend of the late Roman army towards mobility and versatility in their means of warfare.

In an ironic twist, the elite of the [[East Roman army]] by the 6th century had become the cataphract, modelled after the very force that had fought them in the east for more than 500 years earlier. During the [[Iberian War|Iberian]] and [[Lazic War|Lazic]] wars initiated in the [[Caucasus]] by [[Justinian I]], it was noted by [[Procopius]]{{citation needed|date=November 2012}} that Persian cataphract archers were adept at firing their arrows in very quick succession and saturating enemy positions but with little hitting power, resulting in mostly non-incapacitating limb wounds for the enemy. The Roman cataphracts, on the other hand, released their shots with far more power, able to launch arrows with lethal kinetic energy behind them, albeit at a slower pace.

==Later history and usage in the early Middle Ages==
[[File:028 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel XXVIII (Ausschnitt 01).jpg|thumb|200px|A depiction of [[Sarmatian]] cataphracts fleeing from Roman cavalry during the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Dacian wars]] circa 101 AD, at [[Trajan's Column]] in [[Rome]]]]
Some cataphracts fielded by the later Roman Empire were also equipped with heavy, lead-weight [[dart (missile)|darts]] called ''Martiobarbuli'', akin to the [[plumbata]] used by late Roman infantry. These were to be hurled at the enemy lines during or just before a charge, to disorder the defensive formation immediately before the impact of the lances. With or without darts, a cataphract charge would usually be supported by some kind of missile troops (mounted or unmounted) placed on either flank of the enemy formation. Some armies formalised this tactic by deploying separate types of cataphract, the conventional, very heavily armored, bowless lancer for the primary charge and a dual purpose, lance-and-bow cataphract for supporting units.

References to Eastern Roman cataphracts seemed to have disappeared in the late 6th century, as the manual of war known as ''[[Strategikon of Maurice]]'', published during the same period, made no mention of cataphracts or their tactical employment.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} This absence persisted through most of the Thematic period, until the cataphracts reappeared in Emperor [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]]'s ''Sylloge Taktikon'', probably reflecting a revival that paralleled the transformation of the Eastern Roman army from a largely defensive force into a largely offensive force. The cataphracts deployed by the Eastern Roman Empire (most noticeably after the 7th century, when [[Late Latin]] ceased to be the official language of the empire) were exclusively referred to as ''Kataphraktoi'', due to the Empire's strong Greek influence, as opposed to the [[Romanization|Romanized]] term ''Cataphractarii'', which subsequently fell out of use.

These later Roman cataphracts were a much feared force in their heyday. The army of Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas reconstituted Kataphraktoi during the tenth century and included a complex and highly developed composition of an offensive, blunt-nosed wedge formation. Made up of roughly five hundred cavalrymen, this unit was clearly designed with a single decisive charge in mind as the centre of the unit was composed of mounted archers. These would release volleys of arrows into the enemy as the unit advanced at a trot, with the first four rows of mace-armed Kataphraktoi then penetrating the enemy formation through the resulting disruption (contrary to popular representations, Byzantine Kataphraktoi did not charge, they advanced at a steady medium-pace trot and were designed to roll over an enemy already softened by the archers).{{citation needed|date=February 2018}}

This formation is the only method prescribed for Kataphraktoi in the Praecepta Militaria of Emperor Nikephoros which was designed as a decisive hammer-blow which would break the enemy. Due to the rigidity of the formation, it was not possible for it to re-form and execute a second charge in instances where the first blow did not smash the enemy (no feigned flight or repeated charges were possible due to the formation employed). It is for this reason that Byzantine military manuals (Praecepta Militaria and the Taktika) advise where possible, for the use of a second wedge of Kataphraktoi  which could be hurled at the enemy in the event that they resisted the initial charge.

Contemporary depictions, however, imply that Byzantine cataphracts were not as completely armored as the earlier Roman and Sassanid incarnation. The horse armor was noticeably lighter than earlier examples, being made of leather scales or quilted cloth rather than metal at all. Byzantine cataphracts of the 10th century were drawn from the ranks of the middle-class landowners through the ''theme'' system, providing the Byzantine Empire with a motivated and professional force that could support its own wartime expenditures. The previously mentioned term ''Clibanarii'' (possibly representing a distinct class of cavalry from the cataphract) was brought to the fore in the 10th and 11th centuries of the Byzantine Empire, known in Byzantine Greek as ''Klibanophoros'', which appeared to be a throwback to the super-heavy cavalry of earlier antiquity. These cataphracts specialised in forming a [[Flying wedge|wedge formation]] and penetrating enemy formations to create gaps, enabling lighter troops to make a breakthrough. Alternatively, they were used to target the head of the enemy force, typically a foreign emperor.

As with the original cataphracts, the Leonian/Nikephorian units seemed to have fallen out of favour and use with their handlers, making their last, recorded appearance in battle in 970 and the last record of their existence in 1001, referred to as being posted to garrison duty. If they had indeed disappeared, then it is possible that they were revived once again during the [[Komnenian restoration]], a period of thorough financial, territorial and military reform that changed the [[Byzantine army]] of previous ages, which is referred to separately as the [[Komnenian army]] after the 12th century.<ref>J. Birkenmeier in "The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081-1180"</ref> Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] (1081–1118) established a new military force from the ground up, which was directly responsible for transforming the aging Byzantine Empire from one of the [[Byzantine Empire#Crisis and fragmentation|weakest periods]] in its existence into a major economic and military power, akin to its existence during the golden age of [[Justinian I]]. However, even in this case, it seems that the cataphract was eventually superseded by other types of heavy cavalry.

It is difficult to determine when exactly the cataphract saw his final day. After all, cataphracts and knights fulfilled a roughly similar role on the medieval battlefield, and the armored knight survived well into the [[Early modern Europe|early modern era]] of Europe. The Byzantine army maintained units of heavily armored cavalrymen up until its final years, mostly in the form of Western European ''Latinikon'' mercenaries, while neighbouring [[Bulgarians|Bulgars]], [[Serbs]], [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]], [[Alans]], [[Lithuania]]ns, [[Khazars]], and other Eurasian peoples emulated Byzantine military equipment. During medieval times, the [[Draco (military standard)|Draco banner]] and [[Tamga]] of Sarmatian cataphracts belonging to the tribe of Royal Sarmatians, was used by the [[Clan of Ostoja]] and become [[Ostoja coat of arms]].<ref>"The Sarmatians 600 BC - AD 450", Brzezinski & Mielczarek, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, {{ISBN|1 84176 485 X}}</ref><ref>"The Sarmatians", T. Sulimirski, {{ISBN|9780500020715}}</ref><ref>Helmut Nickel, Tamga and Runes, Magic Numbers and Magic Symbols, The Metropolitan Art Museum 1973</ref>

As Western European metalwork became increasingly sophisticated, the traditional image of the cataphract's awe-inspiring might and presence quickly evaporated. From the 15th century and onwards, [[chain mail]], [[lamellar armor]], and [[scale armor]] seemed to fall out of favour with Eastern noble cavalrymen as elaborate and robust plate [[cuirass]]es arrived from the West; this, in combination with the advent of [[Arquebus|early firearms]], [[cannon]], and [[gunpowder]], rendered the relatively thin and flexible armor of cataphracts obsolete. Despite these advances, the Byzantine army, often unable to afford newer equipment ''en masse'', was left ill-equipped and forced to rely on its increasingly archaic military technology. The cataphract finally passed into the pages of history with the [[Fall of Constantinople]] on 29 May 1453, when the last nation to refer to its cavalrymen as cataphracts fell (see [[Decline of the Byzantine Empire]]).

===Cataphracts in East Asia===
{{Main|Horses in East Asian warfare}}
{{multiple image| align = right | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer =  | footer_align = left | image1 = Cernuschi Museum 20060812 128.jpg | width1 = 200 | caption1  = A Chinese [[terracotta]] figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, created during the [[Northern Wei Dynasty]] (386–534 AD) | image2 = Dinastia qi del nord, guerriero a cavallo da un corredo funebre, 550-577 ca..JPG | width2 = 160| caption2  = A Chinese ceramic figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, from the [[Northern Qi]] (550–577 AD) period | image3 =  | width3 = 350| caption3  = Limestone horse armor imitating horse armor of the Warring States period.}}

Horses covered with scale armor are alluded to in the ancient Chinese book of poetry, the ''[[Classic of Poetry|Shi Jing]]'' dating between the 7th to 10th centuries BC—however, this armor did not cover the entire horse and was likely made of [[hide (skin)|hide]], not metal as traditionally believed (e.g. by [[Zhu Xi]], [[Séraphin Couvreur]], [[James Legge]], etc.).<ref>[[Berthold Laufer]] (1913), ''Notes on Turquois in the East'', Volume 13, Issues 1–2, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uu0SAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA306 p. 306-307]</ref><ref>''Classic of Poetry'' "Airs of [[Qin (state)|Qin]]: [https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/xiao-rong/zh Little War-Chariot]" quote: "'''俴駟'''孔羣" translation: "The '''thinly-armoured horse-quartet''' are very harmonious".</ref><ref>[[Zhu Xi]] ''Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry'', "volume 3" [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=5579&page=68 p. 68 of 163]. quote: "'''俴駟'''，四馬皆以淺薄之金為甲。欲其輕而易於馬之旋習也。" translation: "'''thinly armoured horse-quartet''': all four horses are armoured by thin metal plates. Horses need to be light as well as easily steered and trained."</ref><ref>''Classic of Poetry'' "Airs of [[Zheng (state)|Zheng]]: [https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/qing-ren/zh Men of Qing]" quote: "'''駟介'''旁旁... '''駟介'''麃麃... '''駟介'''陶陶..." translation: "'''The armoured horse-quartet''' strutted strong... '''The armoured horse-quartet''' pranced proud... '''The armoured horse-quartet''' jaunted with joy..."</ref><ref>[[Zhu Xi]] ''Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry'', "volume 4" [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=5579&page=8 p. 8 of 163]. quote: "駟介，四馬而被'''甲'''也。" translation: "'''armoured horse-quartet''', four forses covered by armours."</ref> According to a surviving record from 13 BC, "The Military Storehouse of [[Emperor Cheng of Han|YongShi's]] 4th Year Equipment Account Book", the [[Western Han Dynasty]] had 5,330 sets of horse armor at the Donghai Armory.<ref>{{Cite web |last=HackneyedScribe |date=July 23, 2012 |title=Han Dynasty Donghai Military Inventory |url=https://historum.com/t/han-dynasty-donghai-military-inventory.45323/ |access-date=June 28, 2025 |website=historum.com}}</ref> Comprehensive full-body armor for horses made of organic materials such as rawhide may have existed as early as the Qin Dynasty according to archaeological discoveries of stone lamellar armor for horses. Comprehensive armor for horses made of metal might have been used in China as early as the [[Three Kingdoms]] period, but the usage wasn't widely adapted as most cavalry formation requires maneuverability. It was not until the early 4th century, however, that cataphracts came into widespread use among with the [[Xianbei]] tribes of [[Inner Mongolia]] and [[Liaoning]], which led to the readoption of cataphracts en masse by Chinese armies during the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)]] and [[Northern and Southern Dynasties]] era. Numerous burial seals, military figurines, murals, and official reliefs from this period testify to the great importance of armored cavalry in warfare. The later [[Sui Empire]] continued the use of cataphracts. During the [[Tang dynasty|Tang Empire]] it was illegal for private citizens to possess horse armor.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tang Code(唐律疏議)|location=Vol.16 擅興, Code 243 .}}</ref> Production of horse armor was controlled by the government.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tang Liu Dian (唐六典)|location=Vol.22. 右尚署}}</ref> However, the use of cataphracts was mentioned in many records and literature.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Old Book of Tang 舊唐書 Vol.2 Emperor Taizong 太宗上|last=Liu 劉|first=Xu 昫|year=945|location=Official state history recorded Li Shimin (Emperor Taizong of Tang) commanding his Black Armor Cavalry Force to break and penetrate Dou Jiande's formation in Battle of Hulao (621 AD). On the ceremony of this triumph, the later emperor led a force of 10000 cataphracts and 30000 armored infantry.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol. 352 河西破蕃賊露布|location=This military report recorded a border battle between Tang and Tibetan Armies in the middle 8th Century. Among the 5000 Tang cavalry troops, 1200 were cataphracts.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol. 827 責南詔蠻書|location=In this official call to arms, the Tang military leader threatened the Nanzhao leaders by stating that he had 4 units of cataphracts, 500 in each unit.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Cefu Yuangui 冊府元龜 Vol.1 帝王部·修武備|last=Wang 王|first=Qinruo 欽若|year=1013|location=The book recorded that the Tang arsenal once distributed 150 Modao glaives and 100 catapharact horse armors to border troops in Yanzhou in 8th century.}}</ref> Cataphracts were also used in warfare from the [[An Lushan Rebellion|Anlushan Rebellion]] to the fall of the Tang Dynasty. During the Five Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms era, cataphracts were important units in this civil war.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol.103 曉諭梁將王檀書|last=Li 李|first=Cunxu 存勖|location=In this call for surrender, Li Cunxu (Emperor Zhuang of the later Tang) boasted that his soldiers captured 5000 cataphracts of the Later Liang Dynasty victory in the Battle of Baixiang (910 AD).}}</ref> In the same period, cataphracts were also popular among nomadic empires, such as the [[Liao dynasty|Liao]], [[Western Xia]], and [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] dynasties—the heavy cataphracts of the Xia and Jin were especially effective and were known as "Iron Sparrowhawks" and "Iron Pagodas" respectively. The [[Song Empire]] also developed cataphract units to counter those of the Liao, Xia, and Jin, but the shortage of suitable grazing lands and horse pastures in Song territory made the effective breeding and maintenance of Song cavalry far more difficult. This added to the Song's vulnerability to continual raids by the emerging [[Mongol Empire]] for over two decades, which eventually vanquished them in 1279 at the hands of [[Kublai Khan]]. The [[Yuan dynasty]], successors to the Song, were a continuation of the Mongol Empire, and seem to have all but forgotten the cataphract traditions of their predecessors. The last remaining traces of cataphracts in [[East Asia]] seems to have faded with the downfall of the Yuan in 1368 and later heavy cavalry never reached the levels of armor and protection for the horses as these earlier cataphracts.

Other East Asian cultures were also known to have used cataphracts during a similar time period to the Chinese. Meanwhile, the [[History of Tibet#Tibetan Empire|Tibetan Empire]] used cataphracts as the elite assault force of its armies for much of its history.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tongdian 通典 Vol.4 Border defense·Tibet 邊防典·吐蕃|last=Du 杜|first=You 佑|year=801}}</ref> The Gokturk Khaganates might also have had cataphracts, as the Orkhon inscriptions mentioned [[Second Turkic Khaganate|Latter Göktürk]] general Kul-Tegin exchanged armored horses in battle.<ref>[https://bitig.kz/?lang=e&mod=1&tid=1&oid=15&m=1 "The Kültegin inscription"] lines 33-34 at ''Türk Bitig''</ref>

== See also ==

* {{anl|Horses in warfare}}
* {{anl|Lancer}}
* {{anl|Komnenian army}}
* {{anl|Ostoja coat of arms}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

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* Soria Molina, D. (2013) "''Cataphracti'' y ''clibanarii'' (y III). La caballería pesada del ejército romano-bizantino, de Justiniano a Alejo Comneno", ''Aquila Legionis'', 16, 75-123.
* {{cite book|last=Warry|first=John Gibson|title=Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors, and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome|year=1980|publisher=St. Martin's Press|location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last=Macdowall|first=Simon|title=Late Roman Cavalryman, 236–565 AD|year=1995|publisher=[[Osprey Publishing]]}}
* Mielczarek, M. (1993) Cataphracti and Clibanari. Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World. Lodz: Oficyna Naukowa MS.
* {{cite book|last=Farrokh|first=Kaveh|title=Sassanian Elite Cavalry, AD 224–642|year=2005|publisher=Osprey Publishing}}
* {{cite book|last=Nell|first=Grant S.|title=The Savaran: The Original Knights|year=1995|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}}
* {{cite book|last=Marcellinus|first=Ammianus|title=Roman Antiquities, Book XXV|page=481}}
* José J. Vicente Sánchez (1999). Los regimientos de catafractos y clibanarios en la tardo antigüedad.
Antigüedad y cristianismo: Monografías históricas sobre la Antigüedad tardía, Nº 16, pages 397-418.ISSN 0214-7165.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [https://www.academia.edu/6339742/Cataphracts_and_Siegecraft_Adapting_to_the_Enemy_in_the_Sassanid_Wars Cataphracts and Siegecraft]—Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060519011743/http://cheiron.humanities.mcmaster.ca/trajan/images/hi/5.40.h.jpg Image of Sarmatian armored horse detail on the Trajan's column project] at [[McMaster University]]
* [http://parthia.com/images/heavyhorse.gif Third century AD graffito of Parthian Cataphractus]
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/home.html The historical works of Ammianus Marcellinus]

[[Category:Ancient Greek military terminology]]
[[Category:Cavalry]]
[[Category:Cavalry units and formations of the Sassanian Empire]]
[[Category:Ancient Armenia]]
[[Category:Late Roman military units]]
[[Category:Military history of China]]
[[Category:Military history of Japan]]
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[[Category:Military history of the Parthian Empire]]
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[[Category:Military units and formations of antiquity]]
[[Category:Sarmatians]]
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[[Category:Types of cavalry unit in the army of ancient Rome]]