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{{Short description|Medieval narrative in poetic form}}
{{Italic title}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2021}}

[[File:Grandes chroniques Roland.jpg|thumb|400px|The eight phases of ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' in one picture.]]
The {{langnf|fro|'''chanson de geste'''|song of [[hero]]ic deeds|paren=left}},{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|UK|ˌ|ʃ|ɒ̃|s|ɒ̃|_|d|ə|_|ˈ|ʒ|ɛ|s|t}}, {{IPAc-en|US|ʃ|ɑː|n|ˌ|s|ɔː|n|_|d|ə|_|ˈ|ʒ|ɛ|s|t}}, {{IPA|fro|tʃãnˈtsõn də ˈdʒɛstə|lang}}, <small>Modern</small> {{IPA|fr|ʃɑ̃sɔ̃ d(ə) ʒɛst|lang}}.}} from {{langx|la|gesta}} 'deeds, actions accomplished'<ref>Crosland, 1.</ref>) is a [[medieval]] narrative, a type of [[epic poetry|epic poem]] that appears at the dawn of [[French literature]].<ref name="pfrance">{{Cite book |title=The new Oxford companion to literature in French |author=France, Peter |isbn=0198661258 |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |year=1995 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newoxfordcompani00fran }}</ref> The earliest known poems of this genre date from the late 11th and early 12th centuries, shortly before the emergence of the [[lyric poetry]] of the [[troubadour]]s and [[trouvère]]s, and the earliest verse [[Romance (heroic literature)|romances]]. They reached their highest point of acceptance in the period 1150–1250.<ref name="Hasenohr, 242">Hasenohr, 242.</ref>

Composed in verse, these narrative poems of moderate length (averaging 4000 lines<ref>Holmes, 66.</ref>) were originally sung, or (later) recited, by [[minstrels]] or jongleurs. More than one hundred ''chansons de geste'' have survived in approximately three hundred manuscripts<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 12">''La Chanson de Roland,'' 12.</ref> that date from the 12th to the 15th  century.

==Origins==
Since the 19th century, much critical debate has centered on the origins of the ''chansons de geste'', and particularly on explaining the length of time between the composition of the ''chansons'' and the actual historical events which they reference.<ref name="Hasenohr, 239">Hasenohr, 239.</ref> The historical events the ''chansons'' allude to occur in the 8th through 10th centuries, yet the earliest ''chansons'' that have survived were probably composed at the end of the 11th century: only three ''chansons de geste'' have a composition that incontestably dates from before 1150: the ''[[Chanson de Guillaume]]'', ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' and ''[[Gormont et Isembart]]'':<ref name="Hasenohr, 239"/> the first half of the ''Chanson de Guillaume'' may date from as early as the 11th century;<ref>Hasenohr, 520–522.</ref><ref>Holmes, 102–104.</ref> ''Gormont et Isembart'' may date from as early as 1068, according to one expert;<ref>Holmes, 90–92.</ref> and ''The Song of Roland'' probably dates from after 1086<ref>''La Chanson de Roland'', 10.</ref> to c.1100.<ref name="Hasenohr, 239"/><ref>Hasenohr, 1300.</ref>

Three early theories of the origin of ''chansons de geste'' believe in the continued existence of epic material (either as lyric poems, epic poems or prose narrations) in these intervening two or three centuries.<ref name="Holmes, 68">Holmes, 68.</ref>  Critics like [[Claude Charles Fauriel]], [[François Raynouard]] and [[German Romanticism|German Romanticists]] like [[Jacob Grimm]] posited the spontaneous creation of lyric poems by the people as a whole at the time of the historic battles, which were later put together to form the epics.<ref>Holmes, 66–67.</ref>  This was the basis for the "[[cantilena]]" theory of epic origin, which was elaborated by [[Gaston Paris]], although he maintained that single authors, rather than the multitude, were responsible for the songs.<ref name="Holmes, 67">Holmes, 67.</ref>

This theory was also supported by Robert Fawtier and by [[Léon Gautier (historian)|Léon Gautier]] (although Gautier thought the ''cantilenae'' were composed in [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] languages).<ref name="Holmes, 67"/>  At the end of the 19th century, [[Pio Rajna]], seeing similarities between the ''chansons de geste'' and old Germanic/[[Merovingian]] tales, posited a Germanic origin for the French poems.<ref name="Holmes, 67"/> A different theory, introduced by the medievalist [[Paul Meyer (philologist)|Paul Meyer]], suggested the poems were based on old prose narrations of the original events.<ref name="Holmes, 68"/><ref name="see also Hasenohr, 239">see also Hasenohr, 239.</ref>

Another theory (largely discredited today<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 11">''La Chanson de Roland'', 11.</ref>), developed by [[Joseph Bédier]], posited that the early ''chansons'' were recent creations, not earlier than the year 1000, developed by singers who, emulating the songs of "saints' lives" sung in front of churches (and collaborating with the church clerics<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 11"/>), created epic stories based on the heroes whose shrines and tombs dotted the great [[pilgrimage]] routes, as a way of drawing pilgrims to these churches.<ref name="Holmes, 68-9">Holmes, 68-9.</ref> Critics have also suggested that knowledge by clerics of ancient [[Latin]] epics may have played a role in their composition.<ref name="see also Hasenohr, 239"/><ref name="Holmes, 68-9"/>

Subsequent criticism has vacillated between "traditionalists" (''chansons'' created as part of a popular tradition) and "individualists" (''chansons'' created by a unique author),<ref name="see also Hasenohr, 239"/> but more recent historical research has done much to fill in gaps in the literary record and complicate the question of origins. Critics have discovered manuscripts, texts and other traces of the legendary heroes, and further explored the continued existence of a Latin literary tradition (cf. the scholarship of [[Ernst Robert Curtius]]) in the intervening centuries.<ref>see also Hasenohr, 240.</ref> The work of Jean Rychner on the art of the minstrels<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 11"/> and the work of [[Milman Parry|Parry]] and [[Albert Bates Lord|Lord]] on [[Yugoslavia]]n oral traditional poetry, [[Homeric]] verse and [[Oral-Formulaic Composition|oral composition]] have also been suggested to shed light on the ''oral'' composition of the ''chansons'', although this view is not without its critics<ref name="Hasenohr, 240">Hasenohr, 240.</ref> who maintain the importance of ''writing'' not only in the preservation of the texts, but also in their composition, especially for the more sophisticated poems.<ref name="Hasenohr, 240"/>

==Subject matter and structure==
Composed in [[Old French]] and apparently intended for oral performance by [[minstrel|jongleurs]], the ''chansons de geste'' narrate legendary incidents (sometimes based on real events) in the history of [[France]] during the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries, the age of [[Charles Martel]], [[Charlemagne]] and [[Louis the Pious]], with emphasis on their conflicts with the [[Moors]] and [[Saracen]]s, and also disputes between kings and their vassals.

The traditional subject matter of the ''chansons de geste'' became known as the [[Matter of France]]. This distinguished them from [[Romance (heroic literature)|romances]] concerned with the [[Matter of Britain]], that is, [[King Arthur]] and his [[knight]]s; and with the so-called [[Matter of Rome]], covering the [[Trojan War]], the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], the life of [[Julius Caesar|Julius Cæsar]] and some of his [[Roman Empire|Imperial]] successors, who were given medieval makeovers as exemplars of [[chivalry]].<ref>This three-way classification of [[mythology]] is set out by the twelfth-century poet [[Jean Bodel]] in the ''[[Chanson de Saisnes]]'': for details see [[Matter of France]].</ref>

A key theme of the ''chansons de geste'', which set them off from the romances (which tended to explore the role of the "individual"), is their critique and celebration of community/collectivity (their epic heroes are portrayed as figures in the destiny of the nation and Christianity)<ref>''La Chanson de Roland'', 16–17.</ref> and their representation of the complexities of [[Feudalism|feudal]] relations and service.

The subject matter of the ''chansons'' evolved over time, according to public taste. Alongside the great battles and scenes of historic prowess of the early ''chansons'' there began to appear other themes. Realistic elements (money, urban scenes) and elements from the new court culture (female characters, the role of love) began to appear.<ref name="Hasenohr, 242"/>  Other [[fantasy]] and adventure elements, derived from the romances, were gradually added:<ref name="Hasenohr, 242"/> [[giant (mythology)|giants]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], and [[monster]]s increasingly appear among the foes along with [[Islam|Muslims]]. There is also an increasing dose of Eastern adventure, drawing on contemporary experiences in the [[Crusades]]; in addition, one series of ''chansons'' retells the events of the [[First Crusade]] and the first years of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. The conflicts of the 14th century ([[Hundred Years' War]]) brought a renewed epic spirit and nationalistic (or propagandistic<ref>Hasenohr, 242</ref>) fervor to some ''chansons de geste'' (such as ''La Chanson de [[Hugues Capet]]'').<ref name="Adam, 45">Adam, 45.</ref>

The poems contain an assortment of character types; the repertoire of valiant hero, brave traitor, shifty or cowardly traitor, [[Saracen]] giant, beautiful Saracen princess, and so forth. As the genre matured, fantasy elements were introduced. Some of the characters that were devised by the poets in this genre include the [[fairy]] [[Oberon (Fairy King)|Oberon]], who made his literary debut in ''[[Huon de Bordeaux]]''; and the magic [[horse]] [[Bayard (legend)|Bayard]], who first appears in ''[[Renaud de Montauban]]''. Quite soon an element of self-[[parody]] appears; even the august Charlemagne was not above gentle mockery in the ''[[Pèlerinage de Charlemagne]]''.

The [[narrative structure]] of the {{Lang|fro|chanson de geste}} has been compared to the one in the [[Nibelungenlied]] and in [[creole language|creole]] [[legend]]s by [[Henri Wittmann]]<ref>Wittmann, Henri. 1995. "La structure de base de la syntaxe narrative dans les contes et légendes du créole haïtien." ''Poétiques et imaginaires: francopolyphonie littéraire des Amériques''. Edited by Pierre Laurette & Hans-George Ruprecht. Paris: L'Harmattan, pp. 207–218.[http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1995b-narr.pdf]</ref> on the basis of common [[narreme]] structure as first developed in the work of [[Eugene Dorfman]]<ref>Dorfman,  Eugène.  1969. ''The narreme in the medieval romance epic: An introduction to narrative structures''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.</ref> and [[Jean-Pierre Tusseau]]<ref>*Tusseau, Jean-Pierre & Henri Wittmann. 1975. "Règles de narration dans les chansons de geste et le roman courtois".  ''Folia linguistica'' 7.401-12.[http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1975e-narremesOF.pdf]</ref>

==Versification==
Early ''chansons de geste'' were typically composed in [[decasyllable|ten-syllable]] lines grouped in [[assonance]]d (meaning that the last stressed vowel is the same in each line throughout the stanza, but the last consonant differs from line to line) [[stanza]]s (called ''[[laisse]]s''). These stanzas are of variable length.

An example from the ''[[Chanson de Roland]]'' illustrates the technique of the ten-syllable assonanced form. The assonance in this stanza is on '''e''':
{{Verse translation|
{{lang|fr|Desuz un pin, delez un eglanter
Un faldestoed i unt, fait tout d'or mer:
La siet li reis ki dulce France tient.
Blanche ad la barbe et tut flurit le chef,
Gent ad le cors et le cuntenant fier.
S'est kil demandet, ne l'estoet enseigner.}}
|
Under a pine tree, by a rosebush,
there is a throne made entirely of gold.
There sits the king who rules sweet France;
his beard is white, with a full head of hair.
He is noble in carriage, and proud of bearing.
If anyone is looking for the King, he doesn't need to be pointed out.}}

Later ''chansons'' were composed in [[monorhyme]] stanzas, in which the last syllable of each line rhymes fully throughout the stanza. Later ''chansons'' also tended to be composed using [[French alexandrine|alexandrine]]s (twelve-syllable) lines, instead of ten-syllable lines (some early ''chansons'', such as ''[[Girart de Vienne]]'', were even adapted into a twelve-syllable version).

The following example of the twelve-syllable rhymed form is from the opening lines of ''[[Les Chétifs]]'', a ''chanson'' in the [[Crusade cycle]]. The rhyme is on '''ie''':
{{Verse translation|
{{lang|fr|Or s'en fuit Corbarans tos les plains de Surie,
N'enmaine que .ii. rois ens en sa conpaignie.
S'enporte Brohadas, fis Soudan de Persie;
En l'estor l'avoit mort a l'espee forbie
Li bons dus Godefrois a le chiere hardie
Tres devant Anthioce ens en la prairie.}}
|
So Corbaran escaped across the plains of Syria;
He took only two kings in his company.
He carried away Brohadas, son of the Sultan of Persia,
Who had been killed in the battle by the clean sword
Of the brave-spirited good duke Godfrey
Right in front of Antioch, down in the meadow.}}

These forms of versification were substantially different than the forms found in the [[Old French]] verse [[Romance (heroic literature)|romances]] (''romans'') which were written in [[octosyllable|octosyllabic]] [[rhyme]]d [[couplet]]s.

==Composition and performance==
The public of the ''chansons de geste''—the lay (secular) public of the 11th to the 13th centuries—was largely [[literacy|illiterate]],<ref name="ReferenceA">''La Chanson de Roland'', 12.</ref> except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and (in the south) smaller noble families.<ref>Bumke, 429.</ref>  Thus, the ''chansons'' were primarily an oral medium.

Opinions vary greatly on whether the early ''chansons'' were first written down and then read from manuscripts (although [[parchment]] was quite expensive<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 14">''La Chanson de Roland'', 14.</ref>) or memorized for performance,<ref name="Bumke, 521-2">Bumke, 521-2.</ref> or whether portions were improvised,<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 14"/> or whether they were entirely the product of spontaneous [[Oral-Formulaic Composition|oral composition]] and later written down. Similarly, scholars differ greatly on the social condition and literacy of the poets themselves; were they cultured [[cleric]]s or illiterate jongleurs working within an oral tradition? As an indication of the role played by orality in the tradition of the ''chanson de geste'', lines and sometimes whole stanzas, especially in the earlier examples, are noticeably [[Oral poetry|formulaic]] in nature, making it possible both for the poet to construct a poem in performance and for the audience to grasp a new theme with ease.

Scholarly opinions differ on the exact manner of recitation, but it is generally believed that the ''chansons de geste'' were originally sung (whereas the medieval romances were probably spoken)<ref name="Bumke, 521-2"/> by poets, [[minstrel]]s or jongleurs, who would sometimes accompany themselves, or be accompanied, on the ''[[vielle]]'', a mediæval [[fiddle]] played with a bow. Several manuscript texts include lines in which the jongleur demands attention, threatens to stop singing, promises to continue the next day, and asks for money or gifts.<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 14"/> By the middle of the 13th century, singing had probably given way to recitation.<ref name="Hasenohr, 242"/>

It has been calculated that a reciter could sing about a thousand verses an hour<ref name="Bumke, 522">Bumke, 522.</ref> and probably limited himself to 1000–1300 verses by performance,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> making it likely that the performance of works extended over several days.<ref name="Bumke, 522"/> Given that many ''chansons'' from the late 12th century on extended to over 10,000 verses or more (for example, ''[[Aspremont (chanson de geste)|Aspremont]]'' comprises 11,376 verses, while ''[[Quatre Fils Aymon]]'' comprises 18,489 verses), it is conceivable that few spectators heard the longest works in their entirety.<ref>see Bumke, 522.</ref>

While poems like ''The Song of Roland'' were sometimes heard in public squares and were no doubt warmly received by a broad public,<ref>Brault, 28.</ref> some critics caution that the ''chansons'' should probably not be characterized as popular literature<ref>Brault, 353 (note 166).</ref> and some ''chansons'' appear particularly tailored for an audience of aristocratic, privileged or warrior classes.<ref>see Brault, 28.</ref>

==List of ''chansons''==
More than one hundred ''chansons de geste'' have survived in around three hundred manuscripts<ref name="La Chanson de Roland, 12"/> that date from the 12th to the 15th  century. Several popular ''chansons'' were written down more than once in varying forms. The earliest ''chansons'' are all (more or less) anonymous; many later ones have named authors.

By the middle of the 12th century, the corpus of works was being expanded principally by "cyclisation", that is to say by the formation of "cycles" of ''chansons'' attached to a character or group of characters—with new ''chansons'' being added to the ensemble by singing of the earlier or later adventures of the hero, of his youthful exploits ("enfances"), the great deeds of his ancestors or descendants, or his retreat from the world to a [[convent]] ("moniage") – or attached to an event (like the Crusades).<ref>Adam, 10.</ref>

About 1215 [[Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube]], in the introductory lines to his ''Girart de Vienne'', subdivided the Matter of France, the usual subject area of the ''chansons de geste'', into three [[literature cycle|cycle]]s, which revolved around three main characters (see quotation at [[Matter of France]]). There are several other less formal lists of ''chansons'', or of the legends they incorporate. One can be found in the [[fabliau]] entitled ''Des Deux Bordeors Ribauz'', a humorous tale of the second half of the 13th century, in which a jongleur lists the stories he knows.<ref>''Recueil général et complet des fabliaux'' ed. A. de Montaiglon (1872) vol. 1 p. 3</ref> Another is included by the [[Catalans|Catalan]] troubadour [[Guiraut de Cabrera]] in his humorous ''[[ensenhamen]]'' ''Cabra juglar'': this is addressed to a ''juglar'' (jongleur) and purports to instruct him on the poems he ought to know but does not.<ref>Martín de Riquer, Los cantares de gesta franceses (1952) pp. 390–404</ref>

The listing below is arranged according to Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube's cycles, extended with two additional groupings and with a final list of ''chansons'' that fit into no cycle. There are numerous differences of opinion about the categorization of individual ''chansons''.

===''Geste du roi''===
{{Main|Geste du roi}}
The chief character is usually Charlemagne or one of his immediate successors. A pervasive theme is the King's role as champion of [[Christianity]]. This cycle contains the first of the ''chansons'' to be written down, the ''Chanson de Roland'' or "[[The Song of Roland]]".

* ''[[The Song of Roland|Chanson de Roland]]'' (c. 1100 for the Oxford text, the earliest written version); several other versions exist, including the [[Occitan language|Occitan]] ''[[Ronsasvals]]<ref>''Le Roland occitan'' ed. and tr. Gérard Gouiran, Robert Lafont (1991)</ref>'', the [[Middle High German]] ''[[Ruolandes liet]]'' and the Latin ''[[Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis]]''.
* ''[[Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne]]'' (''Voyage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople'') dealing with a fictional expedition by Charlemagne and his knights (c. 1140; two 15th century reworkings)
* ''[[Fierabras]]'' (c. 1170)<ref>''La geste de Fierabras, le jeu du réel et de l'invraissemblable'' ed. André de Mandach. Geneva, 1987.</ref><ref>"[https://www.amazon.com/Fierabras-Floripas-French-Epic-Allegory/dp/1599101572/ Fierabras and Floripas: A French Epic Allegory]" ed. and trans. by Michael A.H. Newth. New York: Italica Press, 2010.</ref>
* ''[[Aspremont (chanson de geste)|Aspremont]]'' (c. 1190); a later version formed the basis of ''Aspramonte'' by [[Andrea da Barberino]]
* ''[[Anseïs de Carthage]]'' (c. 1200)
* ''[[Chanson de Saisnes]]'' or "Song of the Saxons", by [[Jean Bodel]] (c. 1200)
* ''[[Huon de Bordeaux]]'' originally c. 1215–1240, known from slightly later manuscripts. A "prequel" and four sequels were later added:
**''[[Auberon (Chanson de geste)|Auberon]]''
** ''[[Chanson d'Esclarmonde]]''
** ''[[Clarisse et Florent]]''
** ''[[Yde et Olive]]''
** ''[[Godin (Chanson de geste)|Godin]]''
* ''[[Gaydon (Chanson de geste)|Gaydon]]'' (c. 1230)<ref>Ed. F. Guessard, S. Luce. Paris: Vieweg, 1862.</ref>
* ''[[Jehan de Lanson]]'' (before 1239)<ref>''Jehan de Lanson, chanson de geste of the 13th Century'' ed. J. Vernon Myers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965.</ref>
* ''[[Berthe aux Grands Pieds]]'' by [[Adenes le Roi|Adenet le Roi]] (c. 1275), and a later [[Franco-Italian literature|Franco-Italian]] reworking
* ''[[Les Enfances Ogier]]'' by Adenet le Roi (c. 1275) | to [[Ogier the Dane]].
* ''[[Entrée d'Espagne]]'' (c. 1320)<ref>Ed. A. Thomas. Paris: [[Société des anciens textes français]], 1913.</ref>
* ''[[Hugues Capet (chanson)|Hugues Capet]]'' (c. 1360)
* ''[[Galiens li Restorés]]'' known from a single manuscript of about 1490<ref>''Galiens li Restorés'' ed. [[Edmund Stengel]] (1890); ''Le Galien de Cheltenham'' ed. D. M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1981.</ref>
* ''[[Aiquin]]'' or ''Acquin''<ref>''Aiquin ou la conquête de la Bretagne par le roi Charlemagne'' ed. F. Jacques. Aix-en-Provence: Publications du CUER MA, 1977.</ref>
* ''[[Otuel]]'' or ''Otinel''
* ''[[Mainet]]''
* ''[[Basin (chanson de geste)|Basin]]''
* ''[[Ogier the Dane|Ogier le Danois]]'' by Raimbert de Paris<ref>Raimbert de Paris, ''La Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche'' ed. J. Barrois (1842)</ref>
* ''[[Gui de Bourgogne (chanson de geste)|Gui de Bourgogne]]''<ref>Ed. François Guessard, Henri Michelant. Paris, 1859.</ref>
* ''[[Macaire]]'' or ''La Chanson de la Reine Sebile''
* ''[[Huon d'Auvergne]]'', a ''chanson'' extant in four versions from Italy ([http://Huondauvergne.org Huondauvergne.org]), dating from 1341 to 1441. Whether or not there was ever a French version is debated.<ref>Michela Scattolini, "Ricerche sulla tradizione dell'Huon d'Auvergne." Tesi di dottorato. Siena, Scuola di dottorato europea in filologia romanza, 2010, pp. 6-7.</ref> The hero is mentioned among epic heroes in the ''Ensenhamen'' of Guiraut de Cabrera, and figures as a character in ''Mainet''.

===''Geste de Garin de Monglane''===
{{main|La Geste de Garin de Monglane}}
The central character is not [[Garin de Monglane]] but his supposed great-grandson, [[William of Gellone|Guillaume d'Orange]]. These ''chansons'' deal with knights who were typically younger sons, not [[heir]]s, who seek land and glory through combat with the Infidel (in practice, [[Muslim]]) enemy.

* ''[[Chanson de Guillaume]]'' (c. 1100)
* ''[[Couronnement de Louis]]'' (c. 1130)
* ''[[Le Charroi de Nîmes]]'' (c. 1140)
* ''[[La Prise d'Orange]]'' (c. 1150), reworking of a lost version from before 1122
* ''[[Aliscans]]'' (c. 1180), with several later versions
* ''[[La Bataille Loquifer]]'' by [[Graindor de Brie]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 1170)
* ''[[Le Moniage Rainouart]]'' by [[Graindor de Brie]] (fl. 1170)
* ''[[Foulques de Candie]]'', by Herbert le Duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170)
* ''[[Simon de Pouille]]'' or "Simon of Apulia", fictional eastern adventures; the hero is said to be a grandson of Garin de Monglane<ref>''Simon de Pouille'' ed. Jeanne Baroin (1968)</ref>
* ''[[Floovant]]'' (late 12th); the hero is a son of Merovingian King [[Clovis I]]
* ''[[Aymeri de Narbonne]]'' by [[Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube]] (late 12th/early 13th)
* ''[[Girart de Vienne]]'' by [[Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube]] (late 12th/early 13th); also found in a later shorter version alongside ''Hernaut de Beaulande'' and ''Renier de Gennes''<ref name="Beaulande' 1966">''La geste de Beaulande'' ed. David M. Dougherty, E. B. Barnes (1966)</ref>
* ''[[Les Enfances Garin de Monglane]]'' (15th century)
* ''[[Garin de Monglane]]'' (13th century)
* ''[[Hernaut de Beaulande]]''; a fragment of the 14th century and a later version<ref name="Beaulande' 1966" />
* ''[[Renier de Gennes]]''<ref name="Beaulande' 1966" />
* ''[[Les Enfances Guillaume]]'' (before 1250)
* ''[[Les Narbonnais]]'' (c. 1205), in two parts, known as ''Le département des enfants Aymeri'', ''Le siège de Narbonne''
* ''[[Les Enfances Vivien]]'' (c. 1205)<ref>Ed. C. Wahlund, H. von Feilitzen. Upsala and Paris, 1895.</ref>
* ''[[Le Covenant Vivien]]'' or ''La Chevalerie Vivien''
* ''[[Le Siège de Barbastre]]'' (c. 1180)
* ''[[Bovon de Commarchis]]'' (c. 1275), reworking by Adenet le Roi of the ''Siege de Barbastre''
* ''[[Guibert d'Andrenas]]'' (13th century)
* ''[[La Prise de Cordres]]'' (13th century)
* ''[[La Mort Aymeri de Narbonne]]'' (c. 1180)
* ''[[Les Enfances Renier]]''
* ''[[Le Moniage Guillaume]]'' (1160–1180)<ref>Ed. W. Cloetta. Paris, 1906–13.</ref>

===''Geste de Doon de Mayence''===
{{main|Doon de Mayence}}
This cycle concerns [[traitor]]s and rebels against royal authority. In each case the revolt ends with the defeat of the rebels and their eventual repentance.

* ''[[Gormond et Isembart]]''
* ''[[Girart de Roussillon]]'' (1160–1170). The hero Girart de Roussillon also figures in ''Girart de Vienne'', in which he is identified as a son of Garin de Monglane. There is a later sequel:
** ''[[Auberi le Bourgoing]]''
* ''[[Renaud de Montauban]]'' or ''[[Les Quatre Fils Aymon]]'' (end of the 12th century)
* ''[[Raoul de Cambrai]]'', apparently begun by Bertholais; existing version from end of the 12th century
* ''[[Doon de Mayence|Doön de Mayence]]'' (mid-13th century)
* ''[[Doon de Nanteuil]]'' current in the second half of the 12th century, now known only in fragments which derive from a 13th-century version.<ref>"La chanson de Doon de Nanteuil: fragments inédits" ed. Paul Meyer in Romania vol. 13 (1884)</ref> To this several sequels were attached:
** ''[[Aye d'Avignon]]'', probably composed between 1195 and 1205. The fictional heroine is first married to Garnier de Nanteuil, who is the son of Doon de Nanteuil and grandson of Doon de Mayence. After Garnier's death she marries the Saracen Ganor
** ''[[Gui de Nanteuil]]'', evidently popular around 1207 when the troubadour [[Raimbaut de Vaqueiras]] mentions the story. The fictional hero is son of the heroine of ''Aye d'Avignon'' (to which ''Gui de Nanteuil'' forms a sequel)
** ''[[Tristan de Nanteuil]]''. The fictional hero is son of the hero of ''Gui de Nanteuil''
** ''[[Parise la Duchesse]]''. The fictional heroine is daughter of the heroine of Aye d'Avignon. Exiled from France, she gives birth to a son, Hugues, who becomes king of [[Hungary]]<ref>''Parise la Duchesse'' ed. G. F. de Martonne (1836); ''Parise la Duchesse'' ed. F. Guessard, L. Larchey (1860)</ref>
* ''[[Maugis d'Aigremont]]''
* ''[[Vivien l'Amachour de Monbranc]]''

===Lorraine cycle===
{{main|Lorraine cycle}}
This local cycle of epics of [[Lorraine]] traditional history, in the late form in which it is now known, includes details evidently drawn from ''Huon de Bordeaux'' and ''Ogier le Danois''.

* ''{{ill|Hervis de Metz|fr}}'', prequel, early 13th century
* ''{{ill|Garin le Loherain|fr}}'', initial epic, 12th century
* ''{{ill|Girbert de Metz|fr}}'', initial epic, end of 12th–early 13th century
* ''{{ill|Yonnet de Metz|fr}}'', sequel, 13th century, containing the only logical ending to the core story. Its original version is lost, only the narrative being preserved in the prose adaptation by [[Philippe de Vigneulles]] (1471–1528).
* ''{{ill|Anseÿs de Gascogne|fr}}'', sequel, end of 12th–early 13th century
* ''Yon'', later known as ''{{ill|La Vengeance Fromondin|fr}}'', sequel, 13th century

===Crusade Cycle===
{{Main|Crusade Cycle}}
Not listed by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, this cycle deals with the [[First Crusade]] and its immediate aftermath.

* ''[[Chanson d'Antioche]]'', apparently begun by Richard le Pèlerin c. 1100; earliest surviving text by [[Graindor de Douai]] c. 1180; expanded version 14th century
* ''[[Les Chétifs]]'' telling the adventures (mostly fictional) of the poor crusaders led by [[Peter the Hermit]]; the hero is Harpin de Bourges. The episode was eventually incorporated, c. 1180, by Graindor de Douai in his reworking of the ''Chanson d'Antioche''
* ''[[Matabrune]]'' tells the story of old Matabrune and of the great-grandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon
* ''[[Le Chevalier au Cigne]]'' tells the story of Elias, grandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon. Originally composed around 1192, it was afterwards extended and divided into several ''branches''
* ''[[Les Enfances Godefroi]]'' or "Childhood exploits of Godefroi" tells the story of the youth of Godefroi de Bouillon and his three brothers
* ''[[Chanson de Jérusalem]]''
* ''[[La Mort de Godefroi de Bouillon]]'', quite unhistorical, narrates Godefroi's poisoning by the Patriarch of Jerusalem
* ''[[Baudouin de Sebourc]]'' (mid-14th century)
* ''[[Bâtard de Bouillon]]'' (early 14th century)

===Others===
* ''[[Gormont et Isembart]]''<ref>''Gormont et Isembart'' ed. Alphonse Bayot (1931)</ref>
* ''[[Amis et Amiles|Ami et Amile]]'', followed by a sequel:
** ''[[Jourdain de Blaye]]''
* ''[[Beuve de Hanstonne]]'', and a related poem:
** ''[[Daurel et Beton]]'', whose putative Old French version is lost; the story is known from an [[Occitan language|Occitan]] version of c. 1200
* ''[[Aigar et Maurin]]''
* ''[[Aïmer le Chétif]]'', a lost ''chanson''<ref>R. Weeks, "Aïmer le chétif" in ''PMLA'' vol. 17 (1902) pp. 411–434.</ref>
* ''[[Aiol]]'' (13th century)<ref>Ed. Jacques Normand and Gaston Raynaud. Paris, 1877.</ref>
* ''[[Théséus de Cologne]]'', possibly a romance
* ''[[Siège d'Antioche]]''

The ''chansons de geste'' reached their apogee in the period 1150–1250.<ref name="Hasenohr, 242"/> By the middle of the 13th century, public taste in France had begun to abandon these epics, preferring, rather, the romances.<ref name="Adam, 38">Adam, 38.</ref> As the genre progressed in the middle of the 13th century, only certain traits (like versification, ''laisse'' structure, formulaic forms, setting, and other clichés of the genre) remained to set the ''chansons'' apart from the romances.<ref name="Adam, 38"/>  The 15th century saw the cycles of ''chansons'' (along with other chronicles) converted into large prose compilations (such as the compilation made by [[David Aubert]]).<ref name="Adam, 45"/><ref name="Haseonohr, 243">Haseonohr, 243.</ref> Yet, the themes of the epics continued to exert an influence through the 16th century.<ref name="Haseonohr, 243"/>

==Legacy and adaptations==
The ''chansons de geste'' created a body of [[mythology]] that lived on well after they ceased to be produced in France.

The French ''chanson'' gave rise to the [[Old Spanish]] tradition of the ''[[cantar de gesta]]''.

The ''chanson de geste'' was also adapted in southern ([[Occitan language|Occitan-speaking]]) France. One of the three surviving manuscripts of the ''chanson'' [[Girart de Roussillon]] (12th century) is in Occitan,<ref>Hasenohr, 547.</ref> as are two works based on the story of Charlemagne and Roland, ''[[Rollan a Saragossa]]''<ref>Hasenohr, 1305.</ref> and ''[[Ronsasvals]]'' (early 12th century).<ref>Hasenohr, 1320.</ref> The ''chanson de geste'' form was also used in such Occitan texts as ''[[Canso d'Antioca]]'' (late 12th century), ''[[Daurel e Betó]]'' (first half of the 13th century), and ''[[Song of the Albigensian Crusade]]'' (c.1275) (cf [[Occitan literature]]).

In medieval [[Germany]], the ''chansons de geste'' elicited little interest from the German courtly audience, unlike the romances which were much appreciated. While ''The Song of Roland'' was among the first French epics to be translated into German (by [[Konrad der Pfaffe]] as the ''[[Rolandslied]]'', c.1170), and the German poet [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]] based his (incomplete) 13th century epic ''[[Willehalm]]'' (consisting of seventy-eight manuscripts) on the ''[[Aliscans]]'', a work in the cycle of [[William of Gellone|William of Orange]] (Eschenbach's work had a great success in Germany), these remained isolated examples. Other than a few other works translated from the cycle of Charlemagne in the 13th century, the ''chansons de geste'' were not adapted into German, and it is believed that this was because the epic poems lacked what the romances specialized in portraying: scenes of idealized knighthood, love and courtly society.<ref>Bumke, 92–93.</ref>

In the late 13th century, certain French ''chansons de geste'' were adapted into the [[Old Norse]] ''[[Karlamagnús saga]]''.

In [[Italy]], there exist several 14th-century texts in verse or prose which recount the feats of Charlemagne in [[Spain]], including a ''chanson de geste'' in [[Franco-Venetian]], the ''[[Entrée d'Espagne]]'' (c.1320)<ref>Hasenohr. Article: "Entrée d'Espagne", pp. 412–3.</ref> (notable for transforming the character of Roland into a [[knight errant]], similar to heroes from the [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian romances]]<ref>Brand, 168.</ref>), and a similar Italian epic ''[[La Spagna]]'' (1350–1360) in [[ottava rima]]. Through such works, the "Matter of France" became an important source of material (albeit significantly transformed) in Italian romantic epics.  ''[[Morgante]]'' (c.1483) by [[Luigi Pulci]], ''[[Orlando innamorato]]'' (1495) by [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]], ''[[Orlando furioso]]'' (1516) by [[Ludovico Ariosto]], and ''[[Jerusalem Delivered]]'' (1581) by [[Torquato Tasso]] are all indebted to the French narrative material (the Pulci, Boiardo and Ariosto poems are founded on the legends of the paladins of Charlemagne, and particularly, of Roland, translated as "Orlando").

The incidents and plot devices of the Italian epics later became central to works of English literature such as [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''; Spenser attempted to adapt the form devised to tell the tale of the triumph of [[Christianity]] over [[Islam]] to tell instead of the triumph of [[Protestantism]] over [[Roman Catholicism]].

The [[Welsh people|Welsh]] poet, painter, soldier and engraver [[David Jones (artist-poet)|David Jones]]'s [[Modernism|Modernist]] poem "[[In Parenthesis]]" was described by contemporary critic [[Herbert Read]] as having "the heroic ring which we associate with the old chansons de geste".

==See also==
* [[Medieval French literature]]
* [[Matter of France]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== Bibliography ===
*{{in lang|fr}} Antoine Adam, Georges Lerminier, and Édouard Morot-Sir, eds. ''Littérature française.'' "Tome 1: Des origines à la fin du XVIIIe siècle," Paris: Larousse, 1967.
*Peter Brand and Lino Pertile, eds. ''The Cambridge History of Italian Literature Cambridge.'' 1996; revised edition: 1999. {{ISBN|0-521-66622-8}}
*Gerard J. Brault. ''The Song of Roland: An Analytical Edition.'' Tome I: Introduction and Commentary.  Pennsylvania State University, 1978. {{ISBN|0-271-00516-5}}
*Joachim Bumke. ''Courtly Culture: Literature and Society in the High Middle Ages''. English translation: 1991. The Overlook Press: New York, 2000. {{ISBN|1-58567-051-0}}
*[[Jessie Crosland]]. ''The Old French Epic''. New York: Haskell House, 1951.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Chansons de Geste | volume= 5 |last= Gosse |first= Edmund William |author-link= Edmund Gosse | pages = 845&ndash;846 |short= 1}}
*{{in lang|fr}} Geneviève Hasenohr and Michel Zink, eds.  ''Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Age''.  Collection: La Pochothèque.  Paris: Fayard, 1992. {{ISBN|2-253-05662-6}}
*[[Urban T. Holmes Jr.]]  ''A History of Old French Literature from the Origins to 1300''.  New York: F.S. Crofts, 1938.
*{{in lang|fr}} ''La Chanson de Roland.'' Edited and Translated into Modern French by Ian Short.  Paris: Livre de Poche, 1990. p.&nbsp;12.  {{ISBN|978-2-253-05341-5}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Chansons de Geste}}
* [http://www.arlima.net/ad/chanson_de_geste.html Bibliography of the chansons de geste (in French)] on the site Arlima (Archives de Littérature du Moyen Âge).
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100306183640/http://www.chanson-de-geste.com/index2.htm La Chanson de Geste]}}, with useful references {{in lang|fr}}

{{Matter of France}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chansons de geste}}
[[Category:Chansons de geste| ]]
[[Category:French folklore]]
[[Category:French mythology]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]
[[Category:Medieval legends]]
[[Category:Medieval French literature]]
[[Category:Epic poetry]]
[[Category:Old French texts]]
[[Category:Culture of Wallonia]]