View source for Council of Chalcedon

{{Short description|451 Christian ecumenical council}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox ecumenical council
| council_name = Council of Chalcedon
| council_date = 8 October – {{nowrap|1 November 451}}
| image = Fourth ecumenical council of chalcedon - 1876.jpg
| caption = ''Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon'', 1876&nbsp;painting by [[Vasily Surikov]]
| accepted_by = {{plainlist|
* [[Catholic Church]]<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Moffett|first=Samuel H.|title=A History of Christianity in Asia. Volume I: Beginnings to 1500|page=219|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=287–289}}
* [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
* [[Church of the East]]<ref name="auto"/>{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=287–289}}
* [[Old Catholic Church]]
* [[Lutheran Church]]es
* [[Anglican Church]]es
* [[Reformed Church]]es<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olson |first1=Roger E. |title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition Reform |date=1 April 1999 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0 |page=158 |language=English}}</ref>}}
| previous = [[Council of Ephesus]]
| next = [[Second Council of Constantinople]]
| convoked_by = Emperor [[Marcian]]
| presided_by = {{plainlist|
* [[Anatolius of Constantinople|Patriarch Anatolius of Constantinople]] and a board of government officials led by Consul [[Anatolius (consul 440)|Anatolius]]<hr>
* Formal presidency: [[Papal legate|legate]]s of [[Pope Leo I]] (Julian of Cos, Paschasinus of Lilybaeum, Lucentius of Asculanum, presbyters Boniface and Basil)<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Price |first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4WG1MQEACAAJ |title=The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon |last2=Gaddis |first2=Michael |publisher=[[Liverpool University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84631-100-0 |volume=45 |pages=42 |language=en |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/the-acts-of-the-council-of-chalcedon-translated-texts-for-historians-lup-volume-45/page/n57/mode/2up |archive-date=2023-12-25}}</ref>}}
| attendance = About 520 bishops or representatives
| topics = The judgements issued at the [[Second Council of Ephesus]], alleged offences of Bishop [[Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria|Dioscorus of Alexandria]], the definition of the [[Godhead in Christianity|Godhead]] and [[Christology|manhood of Christ]], many disputes involving particular bishops and sees
| documents = [[Chalcedonian Creed]], 28 canons
}}
{{Eastern Orthodox sidebar|expanded=councils}}
{{Ecumenical councils of the Catholic Church}}

The '''Council of Chalcedon''' ({{IPAc-en|k|æ|l|ˈ|s|iː|d|ən|,_|ˈ|k|æ|l|s|ɪ|d|ɒ|n}}; {{langx|la|Concilium Chalcedonense}}){{Efn|{{langx|grc|Σύνοδος τῆς Χαλκηδόνος}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Synodos tēs Chalkēdonos}}}} was the fourth [[ecumenical council]] of the Christian Church. It was convoked by the [[List of Byzantine emperors|Roman emperor]] [[Marcian]]. The council convened in the city of [[Chalcedon]], [[Bithynia]] (modern-day [[Kadıköy]], [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]) from 8 October to 1 November 451.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Council of Chalcedon {{!}} Description, History, & Significance |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Chalcedon |access-date=2021-03-29 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> The council was attended by over 520 bishops or their representatives, making it the largest and best-documented of the [[first seven ecumenical councils]].<ref name=":2" /> The principal purpose of the council was to re-assert the teachings of the ecumenical [[Council of Ephesus]] against the teachings of [[Eutyches]] and [[Nestorius]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Chalcedon |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm |access-date=2021-03-29 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref> Such doctrines viewed [[Christology|Christ's divine and human natures]] as separate ([[Nestorianism]]) or viewed Christ as solely divine ([[monophysitism]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Worthen |first=Molly |date=2008-05-12 |title=The Chalcedon Problem: Rousas John Rushdoony and the Origins of Christian Reconstructionism |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009640708000590 |journal=Church History |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=399–437 |doi=10.1017/s0009640708000590 |s2cid=153625926 |issn=0009-6407|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Agenda ==
{{Location map
|Turkey Istanbul|relief=1
|label='''Chalcedon'''
|label_size=100
|lat=40.983333
|long=29.033333
|marksize=9
|position=right
|width=280
|float=right
|caption=Chalcedon marked on a map of the Istanbul region
}}

The ruling of the council stated:{{blockquote|We all teach harmoniously [that he is] the same perfect in godhead, the same perfect in manhood, truly God and truly man, the same of a reasonable soul and body; [[Homoousion|homoousios]] with the Father in godhead, and the same homoousios with us in manhood&nbsp;... acknowledged in two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pelikan |first1=Jaroslav Jan |title=The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine |volume=1: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600) |date=1971 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |pages=262–263 |isbn=978-0-226-65370-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/christiantraditi00peli_0/page/262/mode/2up |access-date=8 May 2024}}</ref>}}

Whilst this judgment marked a significant turning point in the [[Christological]] debates,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Richard Price|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IUaOOT1G3UC&pg=PA94|title=The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon|author2=Michael Gaddis|date=2006|isbn=0-85323-039-0|pages=1–5| publisher=Liverpool University Press |access-date=2016-11-01}}</ref> it also generated heated disagreements between the council and the [[Oriental Orthodox]] Church, who did not agree with such conduct or proceedings.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Christianity's Great Schism of 1054 AD|url=https://www.ecumenicalexaminer.com/great_schism.html|access-date=2021-03-29|website=www.ecumenicalexaminer.com|archive-date=22 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622173858/https://www.ecumenicalexaminer.com/great_schism.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> This disagreement would later cause the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonian churches]] to schism, and led to the council being regarded as ''Chalcedon, the Ominous'' by the [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysites]]''.''<ref name=":3" />

The council's other responsibilities included addressing controversy, dealing with issues such as ecclesiastical discipline and jurisdiction,<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chalcedon, Council of|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2211-2685_eco_c358|access-date=2021-03-29|website=Encyclopedia of Christianity Online|doi=10.1163/2211-2685_eco_c358 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and approving [[Creed|statements of belief]] such as the [[Creed of Nicaea]] (325), the [[Creed of Constantinople]] (381, subsequently known as the [[Nicene Creed]]), two letters of [[St. Cyril of Alexandria]] against [[Nestorius]], and the [[Leo's Tome|Tome of Pope Leo I]].<ref name=":2" /> The [[Christology]] of the [[Church of the East]] may be called "[[Council of Ephesus|non-Ephesine]]" for not accepting the Council of Ephesus, but did finally gather to ratify the Council of Chalcedon at the Synod of Mar [[Aba I]] in 544.<ref name="auto"/>{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=287–289}} Through the 1994 [[Common Christological Declaration Between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East|Common Christological Declaration]] between the Chalcedonian Catholic Church and the Nestorian [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] and the Catholic Church each accepted and confessed the same doctrine of [[Christology]].<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1994/november/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19941111_dichiarazione-cristologica.html Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East], Preamble, accessed 8 February 2022</ref>

==Background==
In 325, the first ecumenical council ([[First Council of Nicaea]]) determined that Jesus Christ was God, "[[consubstantiality|consubstantial]]" with the Father, and rejected the [[Arianism|Arian contention]] that Jesus was a created being. This was reaffirmed at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] (381) and the [[First Council of Ephesus]] (431).

===Eutychian controversy===
{{Main|Eutyches}}
About two years after [[Cyril of Alexandria]]'s death in 444, an aged [[monk]] from Constantinople named [[Eutyches]] began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional Christology in an attempt to stop what he saw as a new outbreak of [[Nestorianism]].<ref name=EB>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Eutyches|title=Eutyches &#124; Biography, Eutychianism, Beliefs, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which was declared orthodox in the Union of 433.

Cyril had taught that "There is only one ''physis'', since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." It was argued by [[Pope Leo I]] that due to potential ambiguity between the various Greek terms and their Latin equivalents, in addition to the energy and imprudence with which he asserted his opinions, Eutyches was misunderstood, and many believed that he was advocating [[Docetism]], a sort of reversal of [[Arianism]] – where Arius had denied the [[consubstantial]] divinity of [[Jesus]], Eutyches seemed to be denying that Jesus was fully human.<ref name=EB/> [[Pope Leo I]] wrote that Eutyches' error seemed to be more from a lack of skill than from malice.

Eutyches had been accusing various personages of covert Nestorianism. In November 448, [[Flavian of Constantinople|Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople]] held a local synod regarding a point of discipline connected with the province of [[Sardis]]. At the end of the session of this synod one of those inculpated, [[Eusebius of Dorylaeum|Eusebius, Bishop of Dorylaeum]], brought a counter charge of heresy against the [[archimandrite]].<ref>{{citation-attribution|1=[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05631a.htm Chapman, John. "Eutyches." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 6 February 2019}}</ref> Eusebius demanded that Eutyches be removed from office. Flavian preferred that the bishop and the archimandrite sort out their differences, but as his suggestion went unheeded, Eutyches was summoned to clarify his position regarding the nature of Christ. Eventually, Eutyches reluctantly appeared, but his position was considered to be theologically unsophisticated, and the synod finding his answers unresponsive condemned and exiled him.<ref name=EB/> Flavian sent a full account to Pope Leo I. Although it had been accidentally delayed, Leo wrote a compendious explanation of the whole doctrine involved, and sent it to Flavian as a formal and authoritative decision of the question.<ref name=chapman>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05019a.htm Chapman, John. "Dioscurus." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 8 February 2019</ref>

Eutyches appealed against the decision, labeling Flavian a Nestorian, and received the support of [[Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria]]. [[John Anthony McGuckin]] sees an "innate rivalry" between the Sees of Alexandria and Constantinople.<ref>McGuckin, John Anthony. ''St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy''. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994. p. 12 {{ISBN|9789004099906}}</ref> Dioscurus, imitating his predecessors in assuming a primacy over Constantinople, held his own synod which annulled the sentence of Flavian, and absolved Eutyches after he claimed to have repented.

===Latrocinium of Ephesus===
{{Main|Second Council of Ephesus}}

Through the influence of the court official Chrysaphius, godson of Eutyches, in 449, the competing claims between the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria led Emperor [[Theodosius II]] to call a [[Second Council of Ephesus|council]] which was held in [[Ephesus]] in 449,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hughes|first=Philip|title=A Popular History of the Catholic Church|publisher=Image Books (Doubleday)|year=1954|location=Garden City, New York|page=37}}</ref> with Dioscorus presiding.

Pope Leo sent four legates to represent him and expressed his regret that the shortness of the notice must prevent the presence of any other bishop of the West.<ref name=chapman/> He provided his legates, one of whom died en route, with a letter addressed to Flavian explaining Rome's position in the controversy. Leo's letter, now known as [[Leo's Tome]], confessed that Christ had two natures, and was not of or from two natures.<ref name="SevenCouncils">{{cite web |url=http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-59.htm#P3825_663549 |title=NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils &#124; Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=2005-06-01 |access-date=2013-08-25}}</ref>

On August 8, 449 the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] began its first session. The Acts of the first session of this synod were read at the Council of Chalcedon, 451, and are thus preserved. The remainder of the Acts (the first session being wanting) are known through a Syriac translation by a Miaphysite monk, written in the year 535 and published from a manuscript in the British Museum.<ref name=jchap>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05495a.htm Chapman, John. "Robber Council of Ephesus." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 9 February 2019</ref> Nonetheless, there are somewhat different interpretations as to what actually transpired. The question before the council by order of the emperor was whether Flavian, in a synod held by him at Constantinople in November, 448, had justly deposed and excommunicated the Archimandrite Eutyches for refusing to admit two natures in Christ.

Dioscorus began the council by banning all members of the November 448 synod which had deposed Eutyches from sitting as judges. He then introduced Eutyches who publicly professed that while Christ had two natures before the incarnation, the two natures had merged to form a single nature after the incarnation. Of the 130 assembled bishops, 111 voted to rehabilitate Eutyches.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

Throughout these proceedings, [[Pope Hilarius|Hilary]] (one of the papal legates) repeatedly called for the reading of Leo's Tome, but was ignored. The Eastern Orthodox Church has very different accounts of The Second Council of Ephesus. Pope Dioscorus requested deferring reading of Leo's Tome, as it was not seen as necessary to start with, and could be read later. This was seen as a rebuke to the representatives from the Church of Rome not reading the Tome from the start.

Not having wanted for the [[Leo's Tome|letter]] to be read aloud for this reason, Dioscorus was then forced to depose Flavian of Constantinople and Eusebius of Dorylaeum on the grounds that they taught the Word having two distinct hypostases, in contrast to Cyril's teachings. According to Chalcedonian accounts, when Flavian and Hilary objected, Dioscorus called for a mob to enter the church which assaulted Flavian as he clung to the altar; other accounts blame one monk, [[Barsauma (died 456)|Barsauma]], and others yet blame Dioscorus himself. Flavian would die three days later. Other sources, however, implicate [[Pulcheria|Empress Pulcheria]] and [[Anatolius of Constantinople]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Center for the Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts |first=B. Y. U. |url=https://archive.org/details/DriverHodgson1925TheBazaarOfHeracleides |title=The Bazaar Of Heracleides |pages=343, 362 |language=English}}</ref> as it would not be realistic for a murder witnessed by many bishops and patriarchs at a major council to go unmentioned, and Flavian himself has letters to Leo ''after'' the council that make no mention of such events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flavian - Appeal to Leo |url=https://www.earlychurchtexts.com/public/flavian_appeal_to_leo.htm |access-date=2025-05-11 |website=www.earlychurchtexts.com}}</ref>

The papal legates refused to attend the second session at which several more bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre, Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret. Dioscorus then had Cyril of Alexandria's Twelve Anathemas declared orthodox<ref>[[Frend, W. H. C.]], ''The Rise of the Monophysite Movement'', Cambridge University Press, 1972, pp. 41–43</ref> with the intent of condemning any confession other than Cyril's one-nature formula.

According to a letter to the Empress [[Pulcheria]] collected among the letters of Leo I, Hilary apologized for not delivering to her the pope's letter after the synod, but owing to Dioscurus, who tried to hinder his going either to Rome or to Constantinople, he had great difficulty in making his escape in order to bring to the pontiff the news of the result of the council.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07348b.htm Kirsch, Johann Peter. "Pope Saint Hilarus." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 9 February 2019</ref> Hilary, who later became pope and dedicated an oratory in the [[Lateran Basilica]] in thanks for his life,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfpeople.org/Books/Pope/POPEp46.htm |title=St. Hilary |access-date=2009-11-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613053629/http://cfpeople.org/Books/Pope/POPEp46.htm |archive-date=2010-06-13 }}</ref> managed to escape from Constantinople and brought news of the council to Leo who immediately dubbed it a "synod of robbers"{{snd}}[[Latrocinium]]{{snd}}and refused to accept its pronouncements. The decisions of this council now threatened [[Schism (religion)|schism]] between the East and the West.

The claims that bishops being forced to approve actions, were challenged by Pope Dioscorus and the Egyptian Bishops at Chalcedon.

==Convocation and session==
[[File:Четвертый Вселенский Собор.jpg|thumb|Council of Chalcedon, fresco at [[Ferapontov Monastery]], {{Circa|1502}}]]

The situation continued to deteriorate, with Leo demanding the convocation of a new council and Emperor Theodosius II refusing to budge, all the while appointing bishops in agreement with Dioscorus. All this changed dramatically with the Emperor's death and the elevation of [[Marcian]] to the imperial throne. To resolve the simmering tensions, Marcian announced his intention to hold a new council to set aside the 449 Second Council of Ephesus which was named the "Latrocinium"<ref>Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "''Latrocinium''". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press</ref> or "Robber Council" by Pope Leo. [[Pulcheria]], the sister of Theodosius, may have influenced this decision, or even made the convention of a council a requirement during her negotiations with [[Aspar]], the [[magister militum]], to marry Marcian.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

Leo had pressed for it to take place in [[Italy]], but Emperor Marcian instead called for it to convene at Chalcedon, because it was closer to Constantinople, and would thus allow him to respond quickly to any events along the Danube, which was being raided by the Huns under [[Attila]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

The council opened on 8 October 451. Marcian had the bishops deposed by Dioscorus returned to their dioceses and had the body of Flavian brought to the capital to be buried honorably. The Emperor asked Leo to preside over the council, but Leo again chose to send legates in his place. This time, Bishops Paschasinus of [[Lilybaeum]] and Julian of Cos and two priests Boniface and Basil represented the western church at the council. The council was attended by about 520 bishops or their representatives and was the largest and best-documented of the [[First seven Ecumenical Councils#The Councils|first seven ecumenical councils]].<ref name=Britannica>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Chalcedon |title=Council of Chalcedon &#124; Christianity |website=Britannica.com |date=1955-04-15 |access-date=2016-11-01}}</ref> All the sessions were held in the church of [[St. Euphemia]], Martyr, outside the city and directly opposite Constantinople. As to the number of sessions held by the Council of Chalcedon there is a great discrepancy in the various texts of the Acts, also in the ancient historians of the council. Either the respective manuscripts must have been incomplete; or the historians passed over in silence several sessions held for secondary purposes. According to the deacon Rusticus, there were in all sixteen sessions; this division is commonly accepted by scholars, including [[Karl Josef von Hefele]], historian of the councils. If all the separate meetings were counted, there would be twenty-one sessions; several of these meetings, however, are considered as supplementary to preceding sessions.<ref name="Schaefer">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm Schaefer, Francis. "Council of Chalcedon." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 8 February 2019</ref>

Paschasinus refused to give Dioscorus (who had excommunicated Leo leading up to the council) a seat at the council. As a result, he was moved to the nave of the church. Paschasinus further ordered the reinstatement of Theodoret and that he be given a seat, but this move caused such an uproar among the council fathers, that Theodoret also sat in the nave, though he was given a vote in the proceedings, which began with a trial of Dioscorus.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}} [[Ibas of Edessa]], was also declared to be orthodox according to the contents of his letter which were read during the minutes of the Council of Chalcedon.

Marcian wished to bring proceedings to a speedy end, and asked the council to make a pronouncement on the doctrine of the Incarnation before continuing the trial. The council fathers, however, felt that no new creed was necessary, and that the doctrine had been laid out clearly in Leo's Tome.<ref name=SevenCouncils /> They were also hesitant to write a new creed as the [[Council of Ephesus|First Council of Ephesus]] had forbidden the composition or use of any new creed. Aetius, deacon of Constantinople then read Cyril's letter to Nestorius, and a second letter to John of Antioch. The bishops responded, "We all so believe: Pope Leo thus believes&nbsp;... we all thus believe. As Cyril so believe we, all of us: eternal be the memory of Cyril: as the epistles of Cyril teach such is our mind, such has been our faith: such is our faith: this is the mind of Archbishop Leo, so he believes, so he has written."<ref name="sourcebook">{{Cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/chalcedon.asp|title=Internet History Sourcebooks|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu}}</ref>

Beronician, clerk of the consistory, then read from a book handed him by Aetius, the synodical letter of Leo to Flavian (Leo's Tome). After the reading of the letter, the bishops cried out: "This is the faith of the fathers, this is the faith of the Apostles. So we all believe, thus the orthodox believe.&nbsp;... Peter has spoken thus through Leo. So taught the Apostles. Piously and truly did Leo teach, so taught Cyril. Everlasting be the memory of Cyril. Leo and Cyril taught the same thing,&nbsp;... This is the true faith&nbsp;... This is the faith of the fathers. Why were not these things read at Ephesus?"<ref name=sourcebook/>

However, during the reading of Leo's Tome, three passages were challenged as being potentially Nestorian, and their orthodoxy was defended by using the writings of Cyril.<ref name="romanity.org">{{cite journal|author=John Romanides|title=St. Cyril's "One Physis or Hypostasis of God the Logos Incarnate" and Chalcedon|journal=Greek Orthodox Theological Review|volume=X|date=1964|url=http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.08.en.st._cyrils_one_physis_or_hypostasis_of_god_the_log.htm}}</ref> Due to such concerns, the council decided to adjourn and appoint a special committee to investigate the orthodoxy of Leo's Tome, judging it by the standard of Cyril's Twelve Chapters, as some of the bishops present raised concerns about their compatibility. This committee was headed by Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and was given five days to carefully study the matter. The committee unanimously decided in favor of the orthodoxy of Leo, determining that what he said was compatible with the teaching of Cyril. A number of other bishops also entered statements to the effect that they believed that Leo's Tome was not in contradiction with the teaching of Cyril as well.<ref name="romanity.org"/>

The council continued with Dioscorus' trial, but he refused to appear before the assembly. However, historical accounts from the Eastern Orthodox Church note that Dioscorus was put under solitary arrest. As a result, he was condemned, but by an underwhelming amount (more than half the bishops present for the previous sessions did not attend his condemnation), and all of his decrees were declared null. Empress Pulcheria (Marcian's wife) told Dioscorus "In my father's time, there was a man who was stubborn (referring to [[St. John Chrysostom]]) and you are aware of what was made of him", to which Dioscorus famously responded "And you may recall that your mother prayed at his tomb, as she was bleeding of sickness". Pulcheria is said to have slapped Dioscorus in the face, breaking some of his teeth, and ordered the guards to confine him, which they did pulling his beard hair. Dioscorus is said to have put these in a box and sent them back to his Church in Alexandria noting "this is the fruit of my faith."<ref>''History of the Coptic Church'', Father Menassa Yuhanna</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/thecopticchurch/Intro_to_the_Coptic_Church_fr_yacoub_malaty.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060622192628/http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/thecopticchurch/Intro_to_the_Coptic_Church_fr_yacoub_malaty.pdf |archive-date=2006-06-22 |url-status=live|title=Introduction to the Coptic Church|last=Tadros|first=Y. Malaty|year=1993|website=www.copticchurch.net|page=71|access-date=2018-12-07}}</ref> Marcian responded by exiling Dioscorus.

All of the bishops were then asked to sign their assent to the Tome, but a group of thirteen Egyptians refused, saying that they would assent to "the traditional faith". As a result, the Emperor's commissioners decided that a ''credo'' would indeed be necessary and presented a text to the fathers. No consensus was reached. Paschasinus threatened to return to Rome to reassemble the council in Italy. Marcian agreed, saying that if a clause were not added to the ''credo'', the bishops would have to relocate. The Committee then sat in the oratory of the most holy martyr Euphemis and afterwards reported a definition of faith which while teaching the same doctrine was not the Tome of Leo.<ref name="sourcebook"/>

Although it could be reconciled with Cyril's Formula of Reunion, it was not compatible in its wording with Cyril's Twelve Anathemas. In particular, the third anathema reads: "If anyone divides in the one Christ the [[Hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostases]] after the union, joining them only by a conjunction of dignity or authority or power, and not rather by a coming together in a union by nature, let him be anathema." This appeared to some to be incompatible with Leo's definition of two natures [[Hypostatic union|hypostatically joined]]. However, the council would determine (with the exception of 13 Egyptian bishops) that this was an issue of wording and not of doctrine; a committee of bishops appointed to study the orthodoxy of the Tome using Cyril's letters (which included the twelve anathemas) as their criteria unanimously determined it to be orthodox, and the council, with few exceptions, supported this.{{clarify|reason=this is garbled, and what council is being talked about?|date=July 2012}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.06.en.orthodox_and_oriental_orthodox_consultation.htm#m7 |title=Orthodox And Oriental Orthodox Consultation |website=Romanity.org |access-date=2016-11-01}}</ref>

It approved the creed of Nicaea (325), the creed of Constantinople (381; subsequently known as the Nicene Creed), two letters of Cyril against Nestorius, which insisted on the unity of divine and human persons in Christ, and the Tome of Pope Leo I confirming two distinct natures in Christ.<ref name=Britannica/>

==Acceptance==
[[File:Christological spectrum.svg|thumb|400x400px|Spectrum of Christological views in late antiquity]]
The [[dogmatic definition]]s of the council are recognized as normative by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Churches, as well by certain other [[Western Christianity|Western Churches]]; also, most [[Protestantism|Protestants]] agree that the council's teachings regarding the [[Trinity]] and the [[Incarnation#Christianity|Incarnation]] are orthodox doctrine which must be adhered to. The council, however, is rejected by the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]], the latter teaching rather that "The Lord Jesus Christ is God the Incarnate [[Logos (Christianity)|Word]]. He possesses the perfect Godhead and the perfect manhood. His fully divine nature is united with His fully human nature yet without mixing, blending or alteration."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.suscopts.org/q&a/index.php?qid=733&catid=270 |title=Questions and Answers by His Grace Bishop Youssef |work=suscopts |access-date=2014-06-10}}</ref> The Oriental Orthodox contend that this latter teaching has been misunderstood as [[monophysitism]], an appellation with which they strongly disagree but, nevertheless, refuse to accept the decrees of the council.

Many [[Anglican]]s and most Protestants consider it to be the last authoritative ecumenical council.<ref name="Armentrout">{{cite book|title=An Episcopal dictionary of the church|author1=Donald S. Armentrout|author2=Robert Boak Slocum|date=2005|isbn=0-89869-211-3 |page=81|publisher=Church Publishing Incorporated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_RpbmWNfHcC&q=Chalcedon+catholic+anglican+eastern&pg=PA81|access-date=2016-11-01}}</ref> These churches, along with [[Martin Luther]], hold that both conscience and scripture preempt doctrinal councils and generally agree that the conclusions of later councils were unsupported by or contradictory to scripture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.learn.columbia.edu/ma/htm/sw/ma_sw_prim_ecumen_council.htm|title=Ecumenical Council|work=columbia.edu|access-date=2014-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015021608/http://www.learn.columbia.edu/ma/htm/sw/ma_sw_prim_ecumen_council.htm|archive-date=2014-10-15|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Results===
The Council of Chalcedon issued the [[Chalcedonian Definition]], which repudiated the notion of a single nature in Christ, and declared that he has two natures in one person and [[hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasis]]. It also insisted on the completeness of his two natures: [[Godhead in Christianity|Godhead]] and manhood.{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|pp=167–178}} The council also issued 27 disciplinary canons governing church administration and authority. In a further decree, later known as canon 28, the bishops declared that the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|See of Constantinople]] (New Rome) had the patriarchal status with "equal privileges" ({{lang|grc|τῶν ἴσων ἀπολαύουσαν}} in Greek, {{lang|la|aequalibus privilegiis}} in Latin) to the [[Holy See|See of Rome]].<ref name=":1">The canon in the original language can be seen here: https://earlychurchtexts.com/main/chalcedon/canons_of_chalcedon_03.shtml. English translation available here: https://earlychurchtexts.com/public/chalcedon_canons.htm</ref><ref>Schwerin, Philip, [http://essays.wls.wels.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/3512/SchwerinBishop.pdf How the Bishop of Rome Assumed the Title of "Vicar of Christ"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805133528/http://essays.wls.wels.net/bitstream/handle/123456789/3512/SchwerinBishop.pdf |date=2017-08-05 }}, p. 3, "Leo believed that in him was the voice of Peter. The Fourth Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon in 451 declared that Constantinople had the same patriarchal status as Rome (28th canon), a statement with which Leo never agreed, and which he even tried to declare invalid. When Leo tried to reinstate a defrocked French bishop, St. Hilary who presided over the Gallican Church as Supreme Pontiff, told Leo to keep his Roman nose out of French affairs. Leo's aspirations were strongly opposed, especially by the patriarch of Constantinople. Yet through him the papacy still gained some ground."</ref><ref name="Bokenkotter84">{{cite book |title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church |last=Bokenkotter |first=Thomas |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke/page/84 84] |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=0-385-50584-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke/page/84 }}</ref><ref name="Noble214">{{cite book | last1 = Noble| first1 = Thomas|last2=Strauss |first2= Barry |title=Western Civilization | year=2005|page=214| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company|isbn=0-618-43277-9}}</ref> No reference was made in Canon 28 to the bishops of Rome or Constantinople having their authority from being successors to Peter or Andrew respectively. Instead, the stated reasons in the actual text of the Canon that the episcopacy of these cities had been granted their status was the importance of these cities as major cities of the empire of the time.<ref name=":1" />{{Efn|Canon 28: "[...] For the Fathers rightly granted privileges to the throne of old Rome, because it was the royal city. And the One Hundred and Fifty most religious Bishops, actuated by the same consideration, gave equal privileges to the most holy throne of New Rome, justly judging that the city which is honoured with the Sovereignty and the Senate, and enjoys equal privileges with the old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical matters also be magnified as she is, and rank next after her; so that, in the Pontic, the Asian, and the Thracian dioceses, the metropolitans only and such bishops also of the Dioceses aforesaid as are among the barbarians, should be ordained by the aforesaid most holy throne of the most holy Church of Constantinople; every metropolitan of the aforesaid dioceses, together with the bishops of his province, ordaining his own provincial bishops, as has been declared by the divine canons; but that, as has been above said, the metropolitans of the aforesaid Dioceses should be ordained by the archbishop of Constantinople, after the proper elections have been held according to custom and have been reported to him."}}

===Confession of Chalcedon===
{{Main|Chalcedonian Definition}}
[[File:Nuremberg_chronicles_f_138r_1.jpg|thumb|Council of Chalcedon in the [[Nuremberg Chronicle]] ]]
The Confession of Chalcedon provides a clear statement on the two natures of Christ, human and divine:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlychurchtexts.com/main/chalcedon/chalcedonian_definition.shtml |title=Chalcedonian Definition |website=Earlychurchtexts.com |access-date=2016-11-01}}</ref>

{{blockquote|We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body; consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; ({{lang|grc|ἐν δύο φύσεσιν ἀσυγχύτως, ἀτρέπτως, ἀδιαιρέτως, ἀχωρίστως}}{{snd}}{{lang|la|in duabus naturis inconfuse, immutabiliter, indivise, inseparabiliter}}) the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person ({{lang|grc-Latn|prosopon}}) and one Subsistence ({{lang|grc-Latn|hypostasis}}), not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten God ({{lang|grc|μονογενῆ Θεόν}}), the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.}}

The full text of the definition reaffirms the decisions of the [[Council of Ephesus]] and the pre-eminence of the [[Nicene Creed|Creed of Nicea]] (325).{{Efn|Further definitions of the Council of Constantinople (381) can be found on [[wikisource:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XIV/The Fourth Ecumenical Council/The Definition of Faith|Wikisource]].}} It also canonises as authoritative two of [[Cyril of Alexandria]]'s letters and the Tome of Leo written against [[Eutyches]] and sent to [[Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople]] in 449.

===Canons===
The work of the council was completed by a series of 30 disciplinary [[canon law|canons]], the Ancient [[Epitome]]s of which are:<ref name=SevenCouncils />
# The canons of every Synod of the holy Fathers shall be observed.
# Whoso buys or sells an ordination, down to a Prosmonarius, shall be in danger of losing his grade. Such shall also be the case with go-betweens, if they be clerics they shall be cut off from their rank, if laymen or monks, they shall be anathematized.
# Those who assume the care of secular houses should be corrected, unless perchance the law called them to the administration of those not yet come of age, from which there is no exemption. Unless further their Bishop permits them to take care of orphans and widows.
# Domestic oratories and monasteries are not to be erected contrary to the judgment of the bishop. Every monk must be subject to his bishop, and must not leave his house except at his suggestion. A slave, however, can not enter the monastic life without the consent of his master.
# Those who go from city to city shall be subject to the canon law on the subject.
# In Martyries and Monasteries ordinations are strictly forbidden. Should any one be ordained therein, his ordination shall be reputed of no effect.
# If any cleric or monk arrogantly affects the military or any other dignity, let him be cursed.
# Any clergyman in an almshouse or monastery must submit himself to the authority of the bishop of the city. But he who rebels against this let him pay the penalty.
# Litigious clerics shall be punished according to canon, if they despise the episcopal and resort to the secular tribunal. When a cleric has a contention with a bishop let him wait till the synod sits, and if a bishop have a contention with his metropolitan let him carry the case to Constantinople.
# No cleric shall be recorded on the clergy-list of the churches of two cities. But if he shall have strayed forth, let him be returned to his former place. But if he has been transferred, let him have no share in the affairs of his former church.
# Let the poor who stand in need of help make their journey with letters pacificatory and not commendatory: for letters commendatory should only be given to those who are open to suspicion.
# One province shall not be cut into two. Whoever shall do this shall be cast out of the episcopate. Such cities as are cut off by imperial rescript shall enjoy only the honour of having a bishop settled in them: but all the rights pertaining to the true metropolis shall be preserved.
# No cleric shall be received to communion in another city without a letter commendatory.
# A Cantor or Lector alien to the sound faith, if being then married, he shall have begotten children let him bring them to communion, if they had there been baptized. But if they had not yet been baptized they shall not be baptized afterwards by the heretics.
# No person shall be ordained deaconess except she be forty years of age. If she shall dishonour her ministry by contracting a marriage, let her be anathema.
# Monks or nuns shall not contract marriage, and if they do so let them be excommunicated.
# Village and rural parishes if they have been possessed for thirty years, they shall so continue. But if within that time, the matter shall be subject to adjudication. But if by the command of the Emperor a city be renewed, the order of ecclesiastical parishes shall follow the civil and public forms.
# Clerics and Monks, if they shall have dared to hold conventicles and to conspire against the bishop, shall be cast out of their rank.
# Twice each year the Synod shall be held wherever the bishop of the Metropolis shall designate, and all matters of pressing interest shall be determined.
# A clergyman of one city shall not be given a cure in another. But if he has been driven from his native place and shall go into another he shall be without blame. If any bishop receives clergymen from without his diocese he shall be excommunicated as well as the cleric he receives.
# A cleric or layman making charges rashly against his bishop shall not be received.
# Whoever seizes the goods of his deceased bishop shall be cast forth from his rank.
# Clerics or monks who spend much time at Constantinople contrary to the will of their bishop, and stir up seditions, shall be cast out of the city.
# A monastery erected with the consent of the bishop shall be immovable. And whatever pertains to it shall not be alienated. Whoever shall take upon him to do otherwise, shall not be held guiltless.
# Let the ordination of bishops be within three months: necessity however may make the time longer. But if anyone shall ordain counter to this decree, he shall be liable to punishment. The revenue shall remain with the [[Oikonomos|œconomus]].
# The œconomus in all churches must be chosen from the clergy. And the bishop who neglects to do this is not without blame.
# If a clergyman elope with a woman, let him be expelled from the Church. If a layman, let him be anathema. The same shall be the lot of any that assist him.
# The bishop of New Rome (Constantinople) shall enjoy the same privileges as the bishop of Old Rome, on account of the removal of the Empire. For this reason the [metropolitans] of Pontus, of Asia, and of Thrace, as well as the Barbarian bishops shall be ordained by the bishop of Constantinople.
# He is sacrilegious who degrades a bishop to the rank of a presbyter. For he that is guilty of crime is unworthy of the priesthood. But he that was deposed without cause, let him be [still] bishop.
# It is the custom of the Egyptians that none subscribe without the permission of their archbishop. Wherefore they are not to be blamed who did not subscribe the Epistle of the holy Leo until an archbishop had been appointed for them.

Canon 28 grants equal privileges ({{lang|la|isa presbeia}}) to Constantinople as of Rome because Constantinople is the [[New Rome]] as renewed by canon 36 of the [[Quinisext Council]]. [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo]] declared the canon 28 null and void and only approved the canons of the council which were pertaining to faith.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Chalcedon|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=2018-12-07}}</ref><ref>Migne, Jacquies Paul, [https://books.google.com/books?id=9fgQAAAAYAAJ ''Patrologia Latina'', 54], 1038 & 1143</ref> Initially, the council indicated their understanding that Pope Leo's ratification was necessary for the canon to be binding,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Art |title=A Response to 'Evangelicals, Catholics, and Unity' |year=2004}}</ref> writing, "we have made still another enactment which we have deemed necessary for the maintenance of good order and discipline, and we are persuaded that your Holiness will approve and confirm our decree.&nbsp;... We are confident you will shed upon the Church of Constantinople a ray of that Apostolic splendor which you possess, for you have ever cherished this church, and you are not at all niggardly in imparting your riches to your children.&nbsp;... Vouchsafe then, most Holy and most Blessed Father, to accept what we have done in your name, and in a friendly spirit ({{Lang|grc|hos oikeia te kai phila}}). For your legates have made a violent stand against it, desiring, no doubt, that this good deed should proceed, in the first instance, from your provident hand. But we, wishing to gratify the pious Christian emperors, and the illustrious Senate, and the capital of the empire, have judged that an Ecumenical Council was the fittest occasion for effecting this measure. Hence we have made bold to confirm the privileges of the aforementioned city (tharresantes ekurosamen) as if your holiness had taken the initiative, for we know how tenderly you love your children, and we feel that in honoring the child we have honored its parent.&nbsp;... We have informed you of everything with a view of proving our sincerity, and of obtaining for our labors your confirmation and consent."<ref>Opp. S. Leonis, Ep. 98. [23] Ep. 101. [24] Ep. 132. [25] Ep. 100. 232, http://www.clerus.org/bibliaclerusonline/en/ui.htm</ref> Following Leo's rejection of the canon, Bishop Anatolius of Constantinople conceded, "Even so, the whole force of confirmation of the acts was reserved for the authority of Your Blessedness. Therefore, let Your Holiness know for certain that I did nothing to further the matter, knowing always that I held myself bound to avoid the lusts of pride and covetousness."<ref>To Leo, Epistle 132</ref> However, the Canon has since been viewed as valid by the Eastern Orthodox Church.<ref>Ware, Kallistos, ''The Orthodox Church''. New Edition. Penguin Books. 1997. p. 26</ref>

According to some ancient Greek collections, canons 29 and 30 are attributed to the council: canon 29, which states that an unworthy bishop cannot be demoted but can be removed, is an extract from the minutes of the 19th session; canon 30, which grants the Egyptians time to consider their rejection of Leo's ''Tome'', is an extract from the minutes of the fourth session.<ref>''The Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils'', Vol. 1, ed. Norman P. Tanner, S.J. (1990), pp.&nbsp;75–76.</ref>

In all likelihood an official record of the proceedings was made either during the council itself or shortly afterwards. The assembled bishops informed the pope that a copy of all the "Acta" would be transmitted to him; in March 453, Pope Leo commissioned Julian of Cos, then at Constantinople, to make a collection of all the Acts and translate them into Latin. Most of the documents, chiefly the minutes of the sessions, were written in Greek; others, e.g. the imperial letters, were issued in both languages; others, again, e.g. the papal letters, were written in Latin. Eventually nearly all of them were translated into both languages.<ref name=":0" />

==The status of the sees of Constantinople and Jerusalem==

===The status of Jerusalem===
{{see also|Jerusalem in Christianity}}
The metropolitan of Jerusalem was given independence from the [[Patriarch of Antioch|metropolitan of Antioch]] and from any other higher-ranking bishop, given what is now known as [[autocephaly]], in the council's seventh session whose "Decree on the Jurisdiction of Jerusalem and Antioch" contains: "the bishop of Jerusalem, or rather the most holy Church which is under him, shall have under his own power the three Palestines".<ref name= SevenCouncils /> This led to Jerusalem becoming a [[patriarch]]ate, one of the five patriarchates known as the [[pentarchy]], when the title of ''patriarch'' was created in 531 by [[Justinian]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.homolaicus.com/storia/medioevo/pentarchia/pentarchia.htm |title=L'idea di pentarchia nella cristianità|work= Homo laicus}}</ref> The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, s.v. ''patriarch (ecclesiastical)'', also calls it "a title dating from the 6th century, for the bishops of the five great sees of Christendom". Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions,<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |title= Encyclopedia of World Religions |publisher= Merriam-Webster |access-date= 2016-11-01 |isbn=978-0-87779044-0 |year=1999}}</ref> says: "Five patriarchates, collectively called the pentarchy, were the first to be recognized by the legislation of the emperor Justinian (reigned 527–565)".

===The status of Constantinople===
In a canon of disputed validity,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.aoiusa.org/canon-28-and-eastern-papalism-cause-or-effect/ |title= Canon xxviii & eastern papalism: cause or effect? | publisher = AOI USA |access-date= 2013-02-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130110112941/http://www.aoiusa.org/canon-28-and-eastern-papalism-cause-or-effect/ |archive-date= 2013-01-10}}</ref> the Council of Chalcedon also elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the [[diocese of Rome|Bishop of Rome]]".<ref name="Bokenkotter84"/><ref name="Noble214"/>

The Council of Nicaea in 325 had noted that the Sees of [[Patriarch of Rome|Rome]], [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antioch]] should have primacy over other, lesser dioceses. At the time, the See of Constantinople was not yet of ecclesiastical prominence, but its proximity to the Imperial court gave rise to its importance. The Council of Constantinople in 381 modified the situation somewhat by placing Constantinople second in honor, above Alexandria and Antioch, stating in Canon III, that "the bishop of Constantinople&nbsp;... shall have the prerogative of honor after the bishop of Rome; because Constantinople is New Rome". In the early 5th century, this status was challenged by the bishops of Alexandria, but the Council of Chalcedon confirmed in Canon XXVIII:
{{blockquote|For the Fathers rightly granted privileges to the throne of old Rome, because it was the royal city. And the One Hundred and Fifty most religious Bishops, actuated by the same consideration, gave equal privileges ({{lang|grc|ἴσα πρεσβεῖα}}) to the most holy throne of New Rome, justly judging that the city which is honoured with the Sovereignty and the Senate and enjoys equal privileges with the old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical matters also be magnified as she is, and rank next after her.<ref name="SevenCouncils" />}}

In making their case, the council fathers argued that tradition had accorded "honor" to the see of older Rome because it was the first imperial city. Accordingly, "moved by the same purposes" the fathers "apportioned equal prerogatives to the most holy see of new Rome" because "the city which is honored by the imperial power and senate and enjoying privileges equaling older imperial Rome should also be elevated to her level in ecclesiastical affairs and take second place after her".<ref>''Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils'', ed. Norman P. Tanner, SJ, pp.&nbsp;99–100.</ref> The framework for allocating ecclesiastical authority advocated by the council fathers mirrored the allocation of imperial authority in the later period of the [[Roman Empire]]. The Eastern position could be characterized as being political in nature, as opposed to a doctrinal view. In practice, all Christians East and West addressed the papacy as the See of Peter and Paul or the Apostolic See rather than the See of the Imperial Capital. Rome understands this to indicate that its precedence has always come from its direct lineage from the apostles Peter and Paul rather than its association with Imperial authority.{{clarify|reason=The debate was not over Roman primacy, or the grounds for it, for over primacy in the East: Constantinople was now given primacy over Alexandria and Antioch, and this could only be done on the basis of its status as the imperial capital. Rome objected because it saw the demotion of Alexandria and Antioch as uncanonical|date=January 2012}}

After the passage of the Canon 28, Rome filed a protest against the reduction of honor given to Antioch and Alexandria. However, fearing that withholding Rome's approval would be interpreted as a rejection of the entire council, in 453 the pope confirmed the council's canons while declaring the 28th null and void. This position would change and later be accepted in 1215 at the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=of Antinoes |first=His Eminence Metropolitan Panteleimon |date=14 July 2013 |title=Council of Chalcedon 451 ad |url=https://www.orthodoxpath.org/catechisms-and-articles/council-of-chalcedon-451ad/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Consequences: Chalcedonian Schism==<!-- This section is linked from [[Nestorianism]] -->
{{further|Non-Chalcedonianism}}
The near-immediate result of the council was a major schism.{{clarify|reason=it was not 'near-immediate': there was certainly opposition to the council, but schism, in the sense of a rival episcopal hierarchy, distinct from that of the imperial church, only began to develop in the mid-sixth century, and only became complete after the Arab conquest of Syria and Egypt|date=January 2012}} The bishops who were uneasy with the language of Pope Leo's Tome repudiated the council, saying that the acceptance of two ''physes'' was tantamount to Nestorianism. Dioscorus of Alexandria advocated [[miaphysitism]] and had dominated the Council of Ephesus.<ref>"Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> A schism occurred, whereby the [[Oriental Orthodox Church|churches that rejected Chalcedon in favor of Ephesus]] and [[Chalcedonian Christianity|the rest of the Eastern Church]] broke off from each other, the most significant among the former being the Church of [[Alexandria]], today known as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].<ref name="georgetown2">{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=[[Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs]] |access-date=2011-12-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |archive-date=2011-12-20 |url-status=dead }} See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"</ref> The rise of the "so-called" monophysitism in the East (as branded by the West) was incorrectly believed to be led by the Copts of Egypt. This must be regarded{{dubious|date=January 2022}} as the outward expression of the growing nationalist trends{{citation needed|date=January 2022}} in that province against the gradual intensification of Byzantine imperialism, soon to reach its consummation during the reign of Emperor Justinian. However, the Coptic Orthodox Church is miaphysite, which means they believe that Jesus Christ is both 100% human and 100% divine but in one person without mingling, confusion or alteration. In every liturgy till this day, the Copts recite “Christ's divinity parted not from His humanity, not for a single moment nor a twinkling of an eye".<ref name=QA>{{Cite web |title=Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States - Q&A|url=https://www.suscopts.org/q&a/index.php?qid=918&catid=279 |website=suscopts.org |access-date=September 2, 2024}}</ref>

In [[Egypt]], opponents starkly outnumbered adherents, as 30,000 Greeks of Chalcedonian persuasion were ranged against some five million [[Copts|Coptic]] non-Chalcedonians.{{sfn|Bury|1889|p=249}} A significant effect on the Orthodox Christians in Egypt was a series of persecutions by the Roman (later, Byzantine) empire forcing followers of the Oriental Orthodox Church to claim allegiance to Leo's Tome, or Chalcedon. This led to the martyrdom, persecution and death of thousands{{dubious|date=August 2023}} of Egyptian saints and bishops till the Arab Conquest of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/arabconquestofeg00butl|title=The Arab conquest of Egypt and the last thirty years of the Roman dominion|last=Butler|first=Alfred Joshua|author-link=Alfred J. Butler|date=1902|publisher=Oxford, Clarendon Press|others=The Library of Congress}}</ref> As a result, The Council of Chalcedon is referred to as "Chalcedon, the Ominous" among Coptic Egyptians given how it led to Christians persecuting other Christians for the first time{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}} in history. Coptic Orthodox Christians continue to distinguish themselves from followers of Chalcedon to this day. Although the theological differences are seen as limited (if non-existent), it is politics, the subsequent persecutions and the power struggles in the Roman Empire, that may have led to the this schism, or at least contributed significantly to amplifying it through the centuries.

The divisions in the Church weakened the Byzantine Empire's eastern provinces and helped ease the subsequent [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian]] and [[Arab invasions]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Francesca Aran Murphy |title=The Oxford Handbook of Christology |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191061677 |page=146}}</ref>

[[Justinian I]] attempted to bring those monks who still rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon into communion with the Chalcedonian church. The exact time of this event is unknown, but it is believed to have been between 535 and 548. [[Abraham of Farshut]] was summoned to Constantinople and chose to bring with him four monks. Upon arrival, Justinian summoned them and informed them that they could either accept the decision of the council or lose their positions. Abraham refused to entertain the idea. [[Theodora (wife of Justinian I)|Theodora]] tried to persuade Justinian to change his mind, seemingly to no avail. Abraham himself stated in a letter to his monks that he preferred to remain in exile rather than subscribe to a faith contrary to that of [[Athanasius]].{{clarify|reason=This is a seriously incomplete and misleading account of the complex negotiations between Justinian and the non-Chalcedonians|date=January 2012}} They were not alone, and the non-Chalcedon churches compose [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], with the [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Church of Alexandria]] as their [[primus inter pares]]. Only in recent years has a degree of rapprochement between Chalcedonian Christians and the Oriental Orthodox been seen.

==Oriental Orthodox view==
Plenty of Oriental Orthodox theologians,<ref>Fr. Shenouda M. Ishak, Christology and the Council of Chalcedon.</ref> saints and modern clergy<ref>{{Cite book |last=Petrosyan |first=Yeznik |title=The Christology of the Armenian Church |publisher=Holy Etchmiadzin |year=1995 |language=Armenian}}</ref> have affirmed that a real difference in the confessions of faith has taken place. Modern Coptic Orthodox Christians profess to be Miaphysites. This is reflected in the daily liturgical prayer “Christ's divinity parted not from His humanity, not for a single moment nor a twinkling of an eye".<ref name=QA/>

==Liturgical commemorations==
The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] commemorates the "Holy Fathers of the 4th Ecumenical Council, who assembled in Chalcedon" on the Sunday on or after July 13;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anastasis.org.uk/holy_fathers.htm |title=On the Sunday of the Holy Fathers of the 4th Ecumenical Council, who assembled in Chalcedon |work=Liturgical Texts – Menaion – July – Holy Fathers |publisher=Anastasis – The Home Page of Archimandrite Ephrem |access-date=2013-08-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235329/http://www.anastasis.org.uk/holy_fathers.htm |archive-date=2013-12-30 }}</ref><ref name="Menaion_Greek">{{cite web |url=http://analogion.gr/glt/texts/Jul/13-19.uni.htm |title=TA ΜΗΝΑΙΑ – Ιούλιος – Τῇ Κυριακῇ τῶν ἁγίων Πατέρων τῆς Δ' Οἰκουμενικῆς Συνόδου, τῶν ἐν Χαλκηδόνι συνελθόντων |access-date=2013-08-28 |archive-date=31 August 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130831165440/http://analogion.gr/glt/texts/Jul/13-19.uni.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> however, in some places (e.g., Russia) on that date is rather a feast of the Fathers of the First Six Ecumenical Councils.<ref name="Menaion_Slavonic">{{cite web |url=http://www.orthlib.info/Menaia/Rjadovaja-Minea/11-July/jul16.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927172719/http://www.orthlib.info/Menaia/Rjadovaja-Minea/11-July/jul16.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-27 |url-status=live |title=Богослужебные тексты – Рядовая Минея – Июль – 16 июля: Священномученика Афиногена и десяти учеников его. Святые отцов шести Вселенских соборов |access-date=2013-08-28}}</ref>

For both of the above complete [[Proper (liturgy)|propers]] have been composed and are found in the [[Menaion]].

For the former "The Office of the 630 Holy and God-bearing Fathers of the 4th&nbsp;... Summoned against the Monophysites Eftyches and Dioskoros" (despite the latter being [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] and not [[Monophysitism|monophysite]]) was composed in the middle of the 14th century by [[Patriarch Philotheus I of Constantinople]]. This contains numerous hymns exposing the council's teaching, commemorating its leaders whom it praises and whose prayers it implores, and naming its opponents pejoratively, e.g., "Come let us clearly reject the errors of ... but praise in divine songs the fourth council of pious fathers."<ref name=Menaion_Greek/>

For the latter the propers are titled "We Commemorate Six Holy Ecumenical Councils".<ref name=Menaion_Slavonic/> This repeatedly damns those anathematized by the councils with such rhetoric as "Christ-smashing deception enslaved Nestorius" and "mindless Arius and&nbsp;... is tormented in the fires of Gehenna" while the fathers of the councils are praised and the dogmas of the councils are expounded in the hymns therein.

==See also==
* [[Pamphilus the Theologian]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{catholic|wstitle=Council of Chalcedon}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Edward Walford]], translator, ''The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594'', 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1-889758-88-6}}. [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE5 The Christian Roman Empire series]
* Bindley, T. Herbert and F. W. Green, ''The Oecumenical Documents of the Faith''. 2nd ed. London: Methuen, 1950.
* {{Cite book|last=Bury|first=John B.|author-link=John B. Bury|year=1889|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflaterro02buryuoft/page/316|title=A history of the later Roman empire from Arcadius to Irene|volume=2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Edwards|first=Mark J.|title=Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church|year=2009|location=Farnham|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9acTl-jAkAC|isbn=9780754662914}}
* {{Cite book|last=Grillmeier|first=Aloys|author-link=Aloys Grillmeier|title=Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon (451)|year=1975|orig-year=1965|edition=2nd revised|location=Louisville|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=9780664223014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LH-cBwmmY2cC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Gwynn|first=David M.|chapter=The Council of Chalcedon and the Definition of Christian Tradition|title=Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400–700|year=2009|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|pages=7–26|isbn=9781846316487 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C121DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7}}
* Hefele, Charles Joseph. ''A History of the Councils of the Church from the Original Documents''. 5 vols. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1883. (Our topic is located in vol. 3)
* {{Cite book|last=Kelly|first=John N. D.|author-link=John Norman Davidson Kelly|title=Early Christian Creeds|year=2006|orig-year=1972|edition=3rd|location=London-New York|publisher=Continuum|isbn=9780826492166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Titk-TEYqD4C}}
* {{Cite book|last=Louth|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Louth|chapter=Why Did the Syrians reject the Council of Chalcedon?|title=Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400–700|year=2009|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|pages=107–116|isbn=9781846316487 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C121DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107}}
* {{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|title=Orthodoxy and Catholicity|year=1966|location=New York|publisher=Sheed & Ward|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qfRCAAAAIAAJ}}
* Meyendorff, John, ''Christ in Eastern Christian Thought'' (Washington D.C.: Corpus Books, 1969).
* {{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|year=1989|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=978-0-88-141056-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Price|editor-first1=Richard|editor-last2=Gaddis|editor-first2=Michael|title=The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon|year=2005a|volume=1|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=9780853230397 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IUaOOT1G3UC&pg=PR3}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Price|editor-first1=Richard|editor-last2=Gaddis|editor-first2=Michael|title=The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon|year=2005b|volume=2|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=9780853230397 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6IUaOOT1G3UC&pg=PP9}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Price|editor-first1=Richard|editor-last2=Gaddis|editor-first2=Michael|title=The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon|year=2005c|volume=3|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9Q6swEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Price|first=Richard|chapter=The Council of Chalcedon (451): A Narrative|title=Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400–700|year=2009a|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|pages=70–91|isbn=9781846316487 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C121DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70}}
* {{Cite book|last=Price|first=Richard|chapter=Truth, Omission, and Fiction in the Acts of Chalcedon|title=Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400–700|year=2009b|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|pages=92–106|isbn=9781846316487 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C121DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92}}
* {{Cite book|last=Roueché|first=Charlotte|chapter=Acclamations at the Council of Chalcedon|title=Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400–700|year=2009|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|pages=169–177|isbn=9781846316487 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C121DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169}}
* Sellers, R.V., ''Two Ancient Christologies'' (London: SPCK, 1940)
* Sellers, R.V., ''The Council of Chalcedon: A Historical and Doctrinal Survey'', (London, SPCK, 1953).
* {{Cite book|last=Whitby|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Whitby|chapter=An Unholy Crew? Bishops Behaving Badly at Church Councils|title=Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400–700|year=2009|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|pages=178–196|isbn=9781846316487 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C121DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA178}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Chalcedon, Council of|Council of Chalcedon}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://dge.cchs.csic.es/dge-i/lst-trad/Bookzz/Price%20-%20Gaddis%202007.pdf Acts of the Council of Chalcedon] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20140211072052/http://ixoyc.net/data/Fathers/624.pdf archive])
* [http://www.legionofmarytidewater.com/faith/ECUM04.HTM Council of Chalcedon]
* [https://www.papalencyclicals.net//councils/ecum04.htm Text of the Council of Chalcedon]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080509182950/http://www.orthodoxunity.org/ Orthodox Unity]
* [https://www.usccb.org/committees/ecumenical-interreligious-affairs/oriental-orthodox The U.S. Oriental Orthodox–Roman Catholic Consultation]

{{Ecumenical councils|uncollapsed}}
{{Christianity footer}}
{{Christian History}}
{{Catholic Church footer}}
{{History of the Catholic Church}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chalcedon}}
[[Category:450s in the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:5th-century church councils]]
[[Category:First seven ecumenical councils]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Schisms in Christianity]]
[[Category:Theodosian dynasty]]
[[Category:Bithynia]]
[[Category:Kadıköy]]
[[Category:451]]
[[Category:Nature of Jesus Christ]]