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{{Short description|Religious wars of the High Middle Ages}}
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[[File:Combat deuxième croisade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|14th-century miniature of the [[Battle of Dorylaeum (1147)]], a [[Second Crusade]] battle, from the ''[[Estoire d'Eracles]]''|alt=Medieval illustration of a battle during the Second Crusade]]
{{Campaignbox Crusades|state=expanded}}
The '''Crusades''' were a series of [[religious wars]] initiated, supported, and at times directed by the [[Papacy]] during the [[Middle Ages]]. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the [[Holy Land]] aimed at reclaiming [[Jerusalem]] and its surrounding territories from Muslim rule. Beginning with the [[First Crusade]], which culminated in the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|capture of Jerusalem]] in 1099, these expeditions spanned centuries and became a central aspect of European political, religious, and military history.

In 1095, after a [[Byzantine]] request for aid,<ref name="Nicholson6">Helen J. Nicholson, ''The Crusades'', (Greenwood Publishing, 2004), 6.</ref> [[Pope Urban II]] proclaimed the first expedition at the [[Council of Clermont]]. He encouraged military support for [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine emperor]] [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios{{nbsp}}I Komnenos]] and called for an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Across all social strata in Western Europe, there was an enthusiastic response. Participants came from all over Europe and had a variety of motivations. These included religious salvation, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and economic or political advantage. Later expeditions were conducted by generally more organised armies, sometimes led by a king. All were granted papal [[Indulgence#Early and medieval beliefs|indulgences]]. Initial successes established four [[Crusader states]]: the [[County of Edessa]]; the [[Principality of Antioch]]; the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]; and the [[County of Tripoli]]. A European presence remained in the region in some form until the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|fall of Acre]] in 1291. After this, no further large military campaigns were organised.

Other church-sanctioned campaigns include crusades against Christians not obeying papal rulings and [[Heresy in the Catholic Church|heretics]], those against the [[Ottoman Empire]], and ones for political reasons. The struggle against the [[Moors]] in the Iberian Peninsula–the ''[[Reconquista]]–''ended in 1492 with the [[Granada War#Last stand at Granada|Fall of Granada]]. From 1147, the [[Northern Crusades]] were fought against [[pagan]] tribes in Northern Europe. [[Crusades against Christians]] began with the [[Albigensian Crusade]] in the 13th century and continued through the [[Hussite Wars]] in the early 15th century. [[Ottoman wars in Europe#Crusades against the Ottoman Empire|Crusades against the Ottomans]] began in the late 14th century and include the [[Crusade of Varna]]. [[Popular crusades]], including the [[Children's Crusade]] of 1212, were generated by the masses and were unsanctioned by the Church.

==Terminology==
[[File:Siege of Damascus, second crusade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Siege of Damascus (1148)]] as depicted in the ''[[Passages d'outremer]]'', {{circa|1490}}]]
The term "crusade" first referred to military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th{{nbsp}}centuries to the [[Holy Land]]. The conflicts to which the term is applied have been extended to include other campaigns initiated, supported and sometimes directed by the Latin Church with varying objectives, mostly religious, sometimes political. These differed from previous Christian religious wars in that they were considered a penitential exercise, and so earned participants remittance from penalties for all confessed sins.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|p=1}} What constituted a crusade has been understood in diverse ways, particularly regarding the early Crusades, and the precise definition remains a matter of debate among contemporary historians.{{sfn|Holt|Andrea|2015|p=xii}}{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|p=40}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2011|pp=225–226}}

At the time of the [[First Crusade]], {{lang|la|iter}}, "journey", and {{lang|la|peregrinatio}}, "pilgrimage" were used for the campaign. Crusader terminology remained largely indistinguishable from that of Christian pilgrimage during the 12th{{nbsp}}century. A specific term for a crusader in the form of {{lang|la|crucesignatus}}{{mdash}}"one signed by the cross"{{mdash}}emerged in the early 12th century. This led to the French term {{lang|fr|croisade}}{{mdash}}the way of the cross.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|p=40}} By the mid 13th{{nbsp}}century the cross became the major descriptor of the crusades with {{lang|la|crux transmarina}}{{mdash}}"the cross overseas"{{mdash}}used for crusades in the eastern Mediterranean, and {{lang|la|crux cismarina}}{{mdash}}"the cross this side of the sea"{{mdash}}for those in Europe.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|p=5}} The use of {{lang|enm|croiserie}}, "crusade" in Middle English can be dated to {{circa|1300}}, but the modern English "crusade" dates to the early 1700s.{{sfn|Tyerman|2011|p=77}} The [[Crusader states]] of Syria and Palestine were known as the "[[Outremer]]" from the French ''outre-mer'', or "the land beyond the sea".{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|p=105}}

==Crusades and the Holy Land, 1095–1291==
{{see also|Timeline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles|state=collapsed}}
[[File:The Church of the Holy Sepulchre-Jerusalem.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem. In 1071, Jerusalem was conquered by the Seljuk Turks.]]

===Background===
By the end of the 11th{{nbsp}}century, the period of [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic Arab territorial expansion]] had been over for centuries. The Holy Land's remoteness from focus of Islamic power struggles enabled relative peace and prosperity in Syria and Palestine. Contact between the Muslim world and Western Europe was minimal outside the [[Iberian Peninsula]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=40}} The Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world were long standing centres of wealth, culture and military power. The Arab-Islamic world tended to view Western Europe as a backwater that presented little organised threat.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|p=8}} By 1025, the Byzantine Emperor [[Basil II]] had extended territorial recovery to its furthest extent. The frontiers stretched east to Iran. Bulgaria and much of southern Italy were under control, and piracy was suppressed in the Mediterranean Sea. The empire's relationships with its Islamic neighbours were no more quarrelsome than its relationships with the [[Slavs]] or the Western Christians. The [[Italo-Normans|Normans]] in Italy; to the north [[Pechenegs]], [[Serbs]] and [[Cumans]]; and [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]] in the east all competed with the Empire and the emperors recruited mercenaries{{mdash}}even on occasions from their enemies{{mdash}}to meet this challenge.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=42–46}}

The political situation in Western Asia was changed by later waves of [[Turkic migration]], in particular the arrival of the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]] in the 10th{{nbsp}}century. Previously a minor ruling clan from [[Transoxania]], they had recently converted to Islam and migrated into Iran. In two decades following their arrival they conquered Iran, Iraq and the Near East. The Seljuks and their followers were from the [[Sunni]] tradition. This brought them into conflict in Palestine and Syria with the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] who were [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=39–41}} The Seljuks were nomadic, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] speaking and occasionally shamanistic, very different from their sedentary, Arabic speaking subjects. This difference and the governance of territory based on political preference, and competition between independent princes rather than geography, weakened existing power structures.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=43–44}} In 1071, Byzantine Emperor [[Romanos IV Diogenes]] attempted confrontation to suppress the [[Byzantine–Seljuk wars|Seljuks' sporadic raiding]], leading to his defeat at the [[battle of Manzikert]]. Historians once considered this a pivotal event but now Manzikert is regarded as only one further step in the expansion of the [[Great Seljuk Empire]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|p=27}}

The evolution of a Christian theology of war developed from the link of [[Roman citizenship]] to Christianity, according to which citizens were required to fight the empire's enemies. This doctrine of [[holy war]] dated from the 4th-century theologian [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]]. He maintained that aggressive war was sinful, but acknowledged a "[[Just war theory|just war]]" could be rationalised if it was proclaimed by a legitimate authority, was defensive or for the recovery of lands, and without an excessive degree of violence.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=14–15}}{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=14–15}} Violent acts were commonly used for dispute resolution in Western Europe, and the papacy attempted to mitigate this.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=30–31}} Historians have thought that the [[Peace and Truce of God]] movements restricted conflict between Christians from the 10th{{nbsp}}century; the influence is apparent in Urban II's speeches. Other historians assert that the effectiveness was limited and it had died out by the time of the crusades.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=30–38}} [[Pope Alexander II]] developed a system of recruitment via oaths for military resourcing that his successor [[Pope Gregory VII]] extended across Europe.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=31}} In the 11th{{nbsp}}century, Christian conflict with Muslims on the southern peripheries of Christendom was sponsored by the Church, including the [[Crusade of Barbastro|siege of Barbastro]] and the [[Norman conquest of Sicily]].{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=18–19, 289}} In 1074, Gregory{{nbsp}}VII planned a display of military power to reinforce the principle of papal sovereignty. His vision of a holy war supporting Byzantium against the Seljuks was the first crusade prototype, but lacked support.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|p=16}}

The First Crusade was an unexpected event for contemporary chroniclers, but historical analysis demonstrates it had its roots in earlier developments with both clerics and laity recognising [[Jerusalem in Christianity#First Crusade|Jerusalem's role in Christianity]] as worthy of penitential [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimage]]. In 1071, Jerusalem was captured by the Turkish warlord [[Atsiz ibn Uvaq|Atsiz]], who seized most of Syria and Palestine as part of the expansion of the [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuks]] throughout the Middle East. The Seljuk hold on the city was weak and returning pilgrims reported difficulties and the oppression of Christians. Byzantine desire for military aid converged with increasing willingness of the western nobility to accept papal military direction.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|p=28}}{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=46}}

===First Crusade===
{{main|First Crusade}}
[[File:Peter the Hermit.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|250px|right|Miniature of [[Peter the Hermit]] leading the [[People's Crusade]] (''[[Abreujamen de las estorias]]'', MS [[Egerton Collection|Egerton]] 1500, Avignon, 14th{{nbsp}}century)|alt=14th-century miniature of Peter the Hermit leading the People's Crusade]]

In 1095, Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] requested military aid from [[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Piacenza]]. He was probably expecting a small number of mercenaries he could direct. Alexios had restored the Empire's finances and authority but still faced numerous foreign enemies. Later that year at the [[Council of Clermont]], Urban raised the issue again and preached a crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=34}}</ref> Almost immediately, the French priest [[Peter the Hermit]] gathered thousands of mostly poor in the [[People's Crusade]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=20–21}}</ref> Traveling through Germany, German bands massacred Jewish communities in the [[Rhineland massacres]] during wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chazan|1996|pp=28–34}}</ref> Jews were perceived to be as much an enemy as Muslims. They were held responsible for the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]], and were more immediately visible. People wondered why they should travel thousands of miles to fight non-believers when there were many closer to home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman|2006|pp=99–100}}</ref> Quickly after leaving Byzantine-controlled territory on their journey to [[Nicaea]], these crusaders were annihilated in a Turkish ambush at the [[Battle of Civetot]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=41}}</ref>

Conflict with Urban II meant that King [[Philip I of France]] and [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Henry{{nbsp}}IV]] declined to participate. Aristocrats from France, western Germany, the [[Low Countries]], [[Languedoc]] and Italy led independent contingents in loose, fluid arrangements based on bonds of lordship, family, ethnicity and language. The elder statesman [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse]] was foremost, rivaled by the relatively poor but martial [[Italo-Norman]] [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] and his nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]]. [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] and his brother [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin]] also joined with forces from [[Lorraine]], [[Lotharingia]], and [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]]. These five princes were pivotal to the campaign, which was augmented by a northern French army led by [[Robert Curthose]], Count [[Stephen, Count of Blois|Stephen II of Blois]], and Count [[Robert II, Count of Flanders|Robert II of Flanders]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=43–47}}</ref> The total number may have reached as many as 100,000 people including non-combatants. They traveled eastward by land to Constantinople where they were cautiously welcomed by the emperor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=30–31}}</ref> Alexios persuaded many of the princes to pledge allegiance to him and that their first objective should be Nicaea, the capital of the [[Sultanate of Rum]]. Sultan [[Kilij Arslan I|Kilij Arslan]] left the city to resolve a territorial dispute, enabling its capture after the [[siege of Nicaea]] and a Byzantine naval assault in the high point of Latin and Greek co-operation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=52–56}}</ref>

[[File:Byzantium1081ADlightpurple-1-+Antioch.png|thumb|250px|Southeastern Europe, Asia Minor and Syria before the First Crusade]]The first experience of Turkish tactics, using lightly armoured mounted archers, occurred when an advanced party led by Bohemond and Robert was ambushed at the [[Battle of Dorylaeum (1097)|battle of Dorylaeum]]. The Normans resisted for hours before the arrival of the main army caused a Turkish withdrawal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=57–59}}</ref> The army marched for three months to the former Byzantine city [[Antioch]], that had been in Muslim control since 1084. Starvation, thirst and disease reduced numbers, combined with Baldwin's decision to leave with 100 knights and their followers to carve out [[County of Edessa|his own territory in Edessa]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=59–61}}</ref> The [[siege of Antioch]] lasted eight months. The crusaders lacked the resources to fully invest the city; the residents lacked the means to repel the invaders. Then Bohemond persuaded a guard in the city to open a gate. The crusaders entered, massacring the Muslim inhabitants and many Christians amongst the Greek Orthodox, Syrian and Armenian communities.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=72–73}}</ref> A force to recapture the city was raised by [[Kerbogha]], the effective ruler of [[Mosul]]. The Byzantines did not march to the assistance of the crusaders after the deserting Stephen of Blois told them the cause was lost. Alexius retreated from [[Philomelium]], where he received Stephen's report, to Constantinople. The Greeks were never truly forgiven for this perceived betrayal and Stephen was branded a coward.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=74–75}}</ref> Losing numbers through desertion and starvation in the besieged city, the crusaders attempted to negotiate surrender but were rejected. Bohemond recognised that the only option was open combat and launched a counterattack. Despite superior numbers, Kerbogha's army{{mdash}}which was divided into factions and surprised by the Crusaders' commitment{{mdash}}retreated and abandoned the siege.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge |2012|pp=72–82}}</ref> Raymond [[Arqa#Crusades period|besieged Arqa]] in February 1099 and sent an embassy to [[al-Afdal Shahanshah]], the vizier of [[Fatimid dynasty|Fatimid Egypt]], seeking a treaty. The Pope's representative [[Adhemar of Le Puy|Adhemar]] died, leaving the crusade without a spiritual leader. Raymond failed to capture Arqa and in May led the remaining army south along the coast. Bohemond retained Antioch and remained, despite his pledge to return it to the Byzantines. Local rulers offered little resistance, opting for peace in return for provisions. The Frankish envoys returned accompanied by Fatimid representatives. This brought the information that the Fatimids had recaptured Jerusalem. The Franks offered to partition conquered territory in return for the city. Refusal of the offer made it imperative that the crusade reach Jerusalem before the Fatimids made it defensible.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=82–83, 87, 89}}

The first attack on the city, launched on 7 June 1099, failed, and the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]] became a stalemate, before the arrival of craftsmen and supplies transported by the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] to [[Jaffa]] tilted the balance. Two large siege engines were constructed and the one commanded by Godfrey breached the walls on 15 July. For two days the crusaders massacred the inhabitants and pillaged the city. Historians now believe the accounts of the numbers killed have been exaggerated, but this narrative of massacre did much to cement the crusaders' reputation for barbarism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=96–103}}</ref> Godfrey secured the Frankish position by defeating an Egyptian force at the [[Battle of Ascalon]] on 12 August.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=104–106}}</ref> Most of the crusaders considered their pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe. When it came to the future governance of the city it was Godfrey who took leadership and the title of ''[[Title of Godfrey of Bouillon#Advocate, or Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri|Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri]],'' Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. The presence of troops from Lorraine ended the possibility that Jerusalem would be an ecclesiastical domain and the claims of Raymond.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|p=62}}</ref> Godfrey was left with a mere 300 knights and 2,000 infantry. Tancred also remained with the ambition to gain a princedom of his own.<ref name="Asbridge 2012 106">{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=106}}</ref>

The Islamic world seems to have barely registered the crusade; certainly, there is limited written evidence before 1130. This may be in part due to a reluctance to relate Muslim failure, but it is more likely to be the result of cultural misunderstanding. Al-Afdal Shahanshah and the Muslim world mistook the crusaders for the latest in a long line of Byzantine mercenaries, not religiously motivated warriors intent on conquest and settlement.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=111–113}}</ref> The Muslim world was divided between the Sunnis of Syria and Iraq and the Shi'ite Fatimids of Egypt. The Turks had found unity unachievable since the death of Sultan Malik-Shah in 1092, with rival rulers in [[Damascus]] and [[Aleppo]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=21–22}}</ref> In addition, in Baghdad, Seljuk sultan [[Berkyaruq]] and Abbasid caliph [[al-Mustazhir]] were engaged in a power struggle. This gave the Crusaders a crucial opportunity to consolidate without any pan-Islamic counter-attack.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|p=114}}</ref>

=== Early 12th century ===
[[File:The Crusader States in 1135.svg|thumb|280px |alt=map of the Crusader States (1135) |The Crusader states in 1135]]

Urban II died on 29 July 1099, fourteen days after the capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, but before news of the event had reached Rome. He was succeeded by [[Pope Paschal II]] who continued the policies of his predecessors in regard to the Holy Land.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=106-107}} Godfrey died in 1100. [[Dagobert of Pisa]], [[Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem|Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and Tancred looked to Bohemond to come south, but he was captured by the [[Danishmends]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman|2006|pp=178}}</ref> The Lorrainers foiled the attempt to seize power and enabled Godfrey's brother, [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], to take the crown.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|pp=62–63}}</ref>

Paschal II promoted the large-scale [[Crusade of 1101]] in support of the remaining Franks. This new crusade was a similar size to the First Crusade and joined in Byzantium by [[Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse|Raymond of Saint-Gilles]]. Command was fragmented and the force split in three:{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=106-107}}
* A largely Lombard force was harried by Kilij Arslan's forces and finally destroyed in three days at the [[battle of Mersivan]] in August 1101. Some of the leadership, including Raymond, [[Stephen, Count of Blois|Stephen of Blois]] and [[Anselm IV (archbishop of Milan)|Anselm IV of Milan]], survived to retreat to Constantinople.
* A force led by [[William II, Count of Nevers|William II of Nevers]] attempted catch up with the Lombards but was caught and routed at [[Heraclea Cybistra|Heraclea]]. The destitute leaders eventually reached Antioch.
* [[William IX, Duke of Aquitaine|William IX of Aquitaine]], [[Welf II, Duke of Bavaria|Welf IV of Bavaria]], [[Ida of Formbach-Ratelnberg]] and [[Hugh, Count of Vermandois]] reached Heraclea later and were also defeated. Again the leaders fled the field and survived, although Hugh died of his wounds at [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]] and Ida disappeared. The remnants of the army helped Raymond capture [[Tartus|Tortosa]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman|2006|pp=170–175}}</ref>

The defeat of the crusaders proved to the Muslim world that the crusaders were not invincible, as they appeared to be during the First Crusade. Within months of the defeat, the Franks and Fatimid Egypt began fighting in three battles at Ramla, and one at [[Jaffa]]:
* In the [[Battle of Ramla (1101)|first]] on 7 September 1101, Baldwin I and 300 knights narrowly defeated the Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=27}}
* In the [[Battle of Ramla (1102)|second]] on 17 May 1102, al-Afdal's son [[Sharaf al-Ma'ali]] and a superior force inflicted a major defeat on the Franks. Stephen of Blois and Stephen of Burgundy from the Crusade of 1101 were among those killed. Baldwin I fled to Arsuf.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=27}}
* Victory at the [[Battle of Ramla (1102)#Siege of Jaffa and Aftermath|battle of Jaffa]] on 27 May 1102 saved the kingdom from virtual collapse.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=27}}
* In the [[Battle of Ramla (1105)|third]] at Ramla on 28 August 1102, a coalition of Fatimid and Damescene forces were defeated again by Baldwin I and 500 knights.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=28}}

[[Baldwin II of Jerusalem|Baldwin of Edessa]], later king of Jerusalem as Baldwin II, and Patriarch [[Bernard of Valence]] ransomed Bohemond for 100,000 gold pieces.{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|p=138}} Baldwin and Bohemond then jointly campaigned to secure Edessa's southern front. On 7 May 1104, the Frankish army was defeated by the Seljuk rulers of [[Mosul]] and [[Mardin]] at the [[battle of Harran]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=28}} Baldwin II and his cousin, [[Joscelin I, Count of Edessa|Joscelin of Courtenay]], were captured. Bohemond and Tancred retreated to Edessa where Tancred assumed command. Bohemond returned to Italy, taking with him much of Antioch's wealth and manpower. Tancred revitalised the beleaguered principality with victory at the [[battle of Artah]] on 20 April 1105 over a larger force, led by the Seljuk [[Fakhr al-Mulk Ridwan|Ridwan of Aleppo]]. He was then able to secure Antioch's borders and push back his Greek and Muslim enemies.{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|pp=138-142}} Under Paschal's sponsorship, Bohemond launched a version of a crusade in 1107 against the Byzantines, crossing the [[Adriatic]] and [[Siege of Dyrrhachium (1107–1108)|besieging Durrës]]. The siege failed; Alexius hit his supply lines, forcing his surrender. The terms laid out in the [[Treaty of Devol]] were never enacted because Bohemond remained in Apulia and died in 1111, leaving Tancred as notional regent for his son [[Bohemond II of Antioch|Bohemond II]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|pp=142-145}} In 1007, the people of [[Gündoğan, Oğuzeli|Tell Bashir]] ransomed Joscelin and he negotiated Baldwin's release from [[Jawali Saqawa]], atabeg of Mosul, in return for money, hostages and military support. Tancred and Baldwin, supported by their respective Muslim allies, entered violent conflict over the return of Edessa leaving 2,000 Franks dead before Bernard of Valence, patriarch of both Antioch and Edessa, adjudicated in Baldwin's favour.{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|pp=146-147}}

On 13 May 1110, Baldwin II and a Genoese fleet [[Siege of Beirut (1110)|captured Beirut]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=31}}{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|p=125}} In the same month, [[Muhammad I Tapar]], sultan of the Seljuk Empire, sent an army to recover Syria, but a Frankish defensive force arrived at Edessa, ending the short siege of the city.{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|p=150}} On 4 December, Baldwin [[siege of Sidon|captured Sidon]], aided by a flotilla of [[Norwegian Crusade|Norwegian pilgrims]] led by [[Sigurd the Crusader]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=31}}{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|p=125}} Next year, Tancred's extortion from Antioch's Muslim neighbours provoked the inconclusive [[battle of Shaizar]] between the Franks and an [[Abbasid]] army led by the governor of Mosul, [[Mawdud]]. Tancred died in 1112 and power passed to his nephew [[Roger of Salerno]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|p=153}} In May 1113, Mawdud invaded Galilee with [[Toghtekin]], [[List of rulers of Damascus#Burid emirs|atabeg of Damascus]]. On 28 June this force surprised Baldwin, chasing the Franks from the field at the [[battle of al-Sannabra]]. Mawdud was killed by [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]]. [[Bursuq II|Bursuq ibn Bursuq]] led the Seljuk army in 1115 against an alliance of the Franks, Toghtekin, his son-in-law [[Ilghazi]] and the Muslims of Aleppo. Bursuq feigned retreat and the coalition disbanded. Only the forces of Roger and Baldwin of Edessa remained, but, heavily outnumbered, they were victorious on 14 September at the [[Battle of Sarmin|first battle of Tell Danith]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|pp=155-159}}
[[File:Battle-of-Ager-Sanguinis.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Battle of Ager Sanguinis]] known as the Battle of the Field of Blood, medieval miniature]]
In April 1118, Baldwin I died of illness while raiding in Egypt.{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|p=160}} His cousin, Baldwin of Edessa, was unanimously elected his successor.{{Sfn|Lock|2006|p=33}} In June 1119, Ilghazi, now [[List of monarchs of Aleppo#Artuqid Dynasty|emir of Aleppo]], attacked Antioch with more than 10,000 men. [[Roger of Salerno]]'s army of 700 knights, 3,000 foot soldiers and a corps of [[Turcopole]]s was defeated at the [[battle of Ager Sanguinis]], or "field of blood". Roger was among the many killed.{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|pp=163-165}} Baldwin II's counter-attack forced the offensive's end, after an inconclusive [[Battle of Hab|second battle of Tell Danith]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|pp=163-165}}

In January 1120 the secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Outremer gathered at the [[Council of Nablus]]. The council laid a foundation of a law code for the kingdom of Jerusalem that replaced common law.{{sfn|Kedar|1999}} The council also heard the first direct appeals for support made to the Papacy and [[Republic of Venice]]. They responded with the [[Venetian Crusade]], sending a large fleet that supported the [[History of Tyre, Lebanon#Crusader period (1124–1291)|capture of Tyre]] in 1124.{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|p=172}} In April 1123, Baldwin II was ambushed and captured by [[Belek Ghazi]] while campaigning north of Edessa, along with [[Joscelin I, Count of Edessa]]. He was released in August 1024 in return for 80,000 gold pieces and the city of [[Azaz]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=36-37}} In 1129, the [[Council of Troyes]] approved the rule of the [[Knights Templar]] for [[Hugues de Payens]]. He returned to the East with a major force including [[Fulk, King of Jerusalem|Fulk V of Anjou]]. This allowed the Franks to capture the town of [[Banias#Crusader/Ayyubid period|Banias]] during the [[Crusade of 1129]]. Defeat at [[Crusade of 1129#Damascus|Damascus]] and [[Marj al-Saffar]] ended the campaign and Frankish influence on Damascus for years.{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=40}}

The Levantine Franks sought alliances with the Latin West through the marriage of heiresses to wealthy martial aristocrats. [[Constance of Antioch]] was married to [[Raymond of Poitiers]], son of [[William IX, Duke of Aquitaine]]. Baldwin II's eldest daughter [[Melisende of Jerusalem]] was married to Fulk of Anjou in 1129. When Baldwin II died on 21 August 1131, Fulk and Melisende were consecrated joint rulers of Jerusalem. Despite conflict caused by the new king appointing his own supporters and the Jerusalemite nobles attempting to curb his rule, the couple were reconciled and Melisende exercised significant influence. When Fulk died in 1143, she became joint ruler with their son, [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2000|pp=172-174}} At the same time, the advent of [[Imad ad-Din Zengi]] saw the Crusaders threatened by a Muslim ruler who would introduce ''[[jihad]]'' to the conflict, joining the powerful Syrian emirates in a combined effort against the Franks.<ref>Christie, Naill (2006). "Zengi (d. 1146)". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 1293–1295.</ref> He became [[List of rulers of Mosul#Zengid emirs|atabeg of Mosul]] in September 1127 and used this to expand his control to [[List of rulers of Aleppo#Zengid Dynasty|Aleppo]] in June 1128.{{sfn|El-Azhari|2016|pp=10–23|loc=The Early Career of Zengi, 1084–1127: the Turkmen influence}} In 1135, Zengi moved against Antioch and, when the Crusaders failed to put an army into the field to oppose him, he captured several important Syrian towns. He defeated Fulk at the [[battle of Ba'rin]] of 1137, seizing [[Baarin#Medieval period|Ba'rin Castle]].{{sfn|Maalouf|2006|pp=123–142|loc=An Emir among Barbarians}}

In 1137, Zengi invaded [[County of Tripoli|Tripoli]], killing the count [[Pons, Count of Tripoli|Pons of Tripoli]].{{sfn|Maalouf|2006|pp=109–122|loc=The Damascus Conspiracies}} Fulk intervened, but Zengi's troops captured Pons' successor [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond II of Tripoli]], and besieged Fulk in the border castle of [[Montferrand (crusader castle)|Montferrand]]. Fulk surrendered the castle and paid Zengi a ransom for his and Raymond's freedom. [[John II Komnenos]], emperor since 1118, reasserted Byzantine claims to [[John II Komnenos#Campaigning in Cilicia and Syria (1137–1138)|Cilicia and Antioch]], compelling [[Raymond of Poitiers]] to give homage. In April 1138, the Byzantines and Franks jointly besieged [[Aleppo#Seljuq and Ayyubid periods|Aleppo]] and, with no success, began the [[Siege of Shaizar]], abandoning it a month later.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=214–216|loc=The Christians lay siege to Shaizar (1138)}}

On 13 November 1143, while the royal couple were in Acre, Fulk was killed in a hunting accident. On Christmas Day 1143, their son [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem]] was crowned co-ruler with his mother.<ref>Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Baldwin III.|Baldwin III]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''3.''' (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. p. 246–247.</ref> That same year, having prepared his army for a renewed attack on Antioch, John II Komnenos cut himself with a poisoned arrow while hunting wild boar. He died on 8 April 1143 and was succeeded as emperor by his son [[Manuel I Komnenos]].<ref name="images.library.wisc.edu">Baldwin, Marshall W. (1969). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20201205122738/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0032.pdf Chapter XVII. The Latin States under Baldwin III and Amalric I, 1143–1174]". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume One. The First Hundred Years''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 528–563.</ref>

Following John's death, the Byzantine army withdrew, leaving Zengi unopposed. Fulk's death later in the year left [[Joscelin II, Count of Edessa|Joscelin II of Edessa]] with no powerful allies to help defend Edessa. Zengi came north to begin the first [[Siege of Edessa (1144)|siege of Edessa]], arriving on 28 November 1144.<ref>[[H. A. R. Gibb|Gibb, Hamilton A. R.]] (1969). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0029.pdf Zengi and the Fall of Edessa]". In Setton, K. ''A History of the Crusades: Volume I''. pp. 449–462.</ref> The city had been warned of his arrival and was prepared for a siege, but there was little they could do. Zengi realised there was no defending force and surrounded the city. The walls collapsed on 24 December 1144. Zengi's troops rushed into the city, killing all those who were unable to flee. All the Frankish prisoners were executed, but the native Christians were allowed to live. The Crusaders were dealt their first major defeat.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=225–246|loc=The Fall of Edessa}}

Zengi was assassinated by a slave on 14 September 1146 and was succeeded in the [[Zengid dynasty]] by his son [[Nur ad-Din (died 1174)|Nūr-ad-Din]]. The Franks recaptured the city during the [[Siege of Edessa (1146)|Second Siege of Edessa]] of 1146 by stealth but could not take or even properly besiege the citadel.<ref>MacEvitt, Christopher (2006). "Edessa, City of". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 378–379.</ref> After a brief counter-siege, Nūr-ad-Din took the city. The men were massacred, with the women and children enslaved, and the walls razed.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=225–232|loc=Zangi – Champion of Islam, The Advent of Nūr-ad-Din}}

===Second Crusade===
{{Main|Second Crusade}}
[[File:Route of the Second Crusade.png|thumb|280px|Routes of the Second Crusade]]
The fall of Edessa caused great consternation in Jerusalem and Western Europe, tempering the enthusiastic success of the First Crusade. Calls for a new crusade{{snd}}the [[Second Crusade]]{{snd}}were immediate, and was the first to be led by European kings. Concurrent campaigns as part of the ''[[Reconquista]]'' and [[Northern Crusades]] are also sometimes associated with this Crusade.<ref name=":1">Berry, Virginia G. (1969). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0030.pdf Chapter XV. The Second Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182119/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0030.pdf |date=2021-07-09 }}". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume One. The First Hundred Years''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 463–512.</ref> The aftermath of the Crusade saw the Muslim world united around [[Saladin]], leading to the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|fall of Jerusalem]].<ref name=":02">[[H. A. R. Gibb|Gibb, Hamilton A. R.]] (1969). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0033.pdf Chapter XVIII. The Rise of Saladin, 1169–1189] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526140841/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0033.pdf |date=2024-05-26 }}". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume One. The First Hundred Years''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 563–589.</ref>

[[Pope Eugene III|Eugene III]], recently elected pope, issued the bull ''[[Quantum praedecessores]]'' in December 1145 calling for a new crusade, one that would be more organized and centrally controlled than the First. The armies would be led by the strongest kings of Europe and a route that would be pre-planned. The pope called on [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] to preach the Second Crusade, granting the same indulgences which had been accorded to the First Crusaders. Among those answering the call were two European kings, [[Louis VII of France]] and [[Conrad III of Germany]]. Louis, his wife, [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], and many princes and lords prostrated themselves at the feet of Bernard in order to take the cross. Conrad and his nephew [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] also received the cross from the hand of Bernard.<ref>Beverly Mayne Kienzle and James Calder Walton (2006). Second Crusade (1147–1149). In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 1083–1090.</ref>

Conrad III and the German contingent planned to leave for the Holy Land at Easter, but did not depart until May 1147. When the German army began to cross Byzantine territory, emperor Manuel I had his troops posted to ensure against trouble. A brief [[Battle of Constantinople (1147)|Battle of Constantinople]] in September ensued, and their defeat at the emperor's hand convinced the Germans to move quickly to Asia Minor. Without waiting for the French contingent, Conrad III engaged the [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuks of Rûm]] under sultan [[Mesud I]], son and successor of [[Kilij Arslan I|Kilij Arslan]], the nemesis of the First Crusade. Mesud and his forces almost totally destroyed Conrad's contingent at the [[Battle of Dorylaeum (1147)|Second Battle of Dorylaeum]] on 25 October 1147.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=268–303|loc=God's Bargain: Summoning the Second Crusade}}

The French contingent departed in June 1147. In the meantime, [[Roger II of Sicily]], an enemy of Conrad's, had invaded Byzantine territory. Manuel I needed all his army to counter this force, and, unlike the armies of the First Crusade, the Germans and French entered Asia with no Byzantine assistance. The French met the remnants of Conrad's army in northern Turkey, and Conrad joined Louis's force. They fended off a Seljuk attack at the [[Battle of Ephesus (1147)|Battle of Ephesus]] on 24 December 1147. A few days later, they were again victorious at the [[Battle of the Meander]]. Louis was not as lucky at the [[Battle of Mount Cadmus]] on 6 January 1148 when the army of Mesud inflicted heavy losses on the Crusaders. Shortly thereafter, they sailed for Antioch, almost totally destroyed by battle and sickness.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=268–274|loc=The French in Asia Minor, 1147–1148}}

The Crusader army arrived at Antioch on 19 March 1148 with the intent on moving to retake Edessa, but Baldwin III of Jerusalem and the Knights Templar had other ideas. The [[Council of Acre]] was held on 24 June 1148, changing the objective of the Second Crusade to Damascus, a former ally of the kingdom that had shifted its allegiance to that of the Zengids. The Crusaders fought the [[Battle of Bosra (1147)|Battle of Bosra]] with the Damascenes in the summer of 1147, with no clear winner.<ref>[[H. A. R. Gibb|Gibb, Hamilton A. R.]] (1969). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0031.pdf Chapter XVI. The Career of Nūr-ad-Din]". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume One. The First Hundred Years''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 513–528.</ref> Bad luck and poor tactics of the Crusaders led to the disastrous five-day [[Siege of Damascus (1148)|siege of Damascus]] from 24 to 28 July 1148.{{sfn|Maalouf|2006|pp=143–158|loc=Nūr-ad-Din, the Saint King}} The barons of Jerusalem withdrew support and the Crusaders retreated before the arrival of a relief army led by Nūr-ad-Din. Morale fell, hostility to the Byzantines grew and distrust developed between the newly arrived Crusaders and those that had made the region their home after the earlier crusades. The French and German forces felt betrayed by the other, lingering for a generation due to the defeat, to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=278–288|loc=Fiasco}}

In the spring of 1147, Eugene III authorised the expansion of his mission into the Iberian Peninsula, equating these campaigns against the [[Moors]] with the rest of the Second Crusade. The successful [[Siege of Lisbon]], from 1 July to 25 October 1147, was followed by the six-month [[Siege of Tortosa (1148)|siege of Tortosa]], ending on 30 December 1148 with a defeat for the Moors.<ref>Jaspert, Nikolas (2006).  Tortosa (Spain). In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. p. 1186.</ref> In the north, some Germans were reluctant to fight in the Holy Land while the pagan [[Wends]] were a more immediate problem. The resulting [[Wendish Crusade]] of 1147 was partially successful but failed to convert the pagans to Christianity.<ref>Lind, John H. (2006).  Wendish Crusade (1147). In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 1265–1268.</ref>

The disastrous performance of this campaign in the Holy Land damaged the standing of the papacy, soured relations between the Christians of the kingdom and the West for many years, and encouraged the Muslims of Syria to even greater efforts to defeat the Franks. The dismal failures of this Crusade then set the stage for the fall of Jerusalem, leading to the Third Crusade.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=278–288|loc=Fiasco}}

==== Nūr-ad-Din and the rise of Saladin ====
In the first major encounter after the Second Crusade, Nūr-ad-Din's forces then destroyed the Crusader army at the [[Battle of Inab]] on 29 June 1149. [[Raymond of Poitiers]], as prince of Antioch, came to the aid of the besieged city. Raymond was killed and his head was presented to Nūr-ad-Din, who forwarded it to the caliph [[al-Muqtafi]] in Baghdad.<ref>Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raymund of Antioch|Raymund of Antioch]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''22.''' (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. p. 934.</ref> In 1150, Nūr-ad-Din defeated [[Joscelin II, Count of Edessa|Joscelin II of Edessa]] for a final time, resulting in Joscelin being publicly blinded, dying in prison in Aleppo in 1159. Later that year, at the [[Battle of Aintab]], he tried but failed to prevent Baldwin III's evacuation of the residents of [[Turbessel#Byzantine Period|Turbessel]].{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=329–330|loc=Turbessel ceded to Byzantium (1150)}} The unconquered portions of the County of Edessa would nevertheless fall to the Zengids within a few years. In 1152, [[Raymond II, Count of Tripoli|Raymond II of Tripoli]] became the first Frankish victim of the [[Order of Assassins|Assassins]].{{sfn|Lewis|2017|p=167|loc=Military Decline and Matrimonial Discord: Count Raymond II (1137–1152)}} Later that year, Nūr-ad-Din captured and burned [[Tartus#Crusades|Tortosa]], briefly occupying the town before it was taken by the Knights Templar as a military headquarters.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|p=333|loc=Murder of Raymond II (1152)}}

[[File:BattleOfInab.jpg|thumb|[[Nur ad-Din (died 1174)|Nūr-ad-Din's]] victory at the [[Battle of Inab]], 1149. Illustration from the ''[[Passages d'outremer]]'', {{circa|1490}}.]]

After the [[Siege of Ascalon]] ended on 22 August 1153 with a Crusader victory, Damascus was taken by Nūr-ad-Din the next year, uniting all of Syria under Zengid rule. In 1156, Baldwin III was forced into a treaty with Nūr-ad-Din, and later entered into an alliance with the [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem#Byzantine alliance|Byzantine Empire]]. On 18 May 1157, Nūr-ad-Din began a siege on the Knights Hospitaller contingent at [[Banias#Crusader/Ayyubid period|Banias]], with the Grand Master [[Bertrand de Blanquefort]] captured. Baldwin III was able to break the siege, only to be ambushed at [[Daughters of Jacob Bridge#Crusader and Ayyubid period|Jacob's Ford]] in June. Reinforcements from Antioch and Tripoli were able to relieve the besieged Crusaders, but they were defeated again that month at the [[Battle of Lake Huleh (1157)|Battle of Lake Huleh]]. In July 1158, the Crusaders were victorious at the [[Battle of Butaiha]]. Bertrand's captivity lasted until 1159, when emperor Manuel I negotiated an alliance with Nūr-ad-Din against the Seljuks.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=338–342|loc=The Rise of Nur ed-Din: The Capture of Ascalon, 1153}}

Baldwin III died on 10 February 1163, and [[Amalric of Jerusalem]] was crowned as king of Jerusalem eight days later.<ref>Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Amalric|Amalric]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''1.''' (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. pp. 778–779.</ref> Later that year, he defeated the Zengids at the [[Battle of al-Buqaia]]. Amalric then undertook a series of four [[Crusader invasions of Egypt|invasions of Egypt]] from 1163 to 1169, taking advantage of weaknesses of the Fatimids.<ref name="images.library.wisc.edu"/> Nūr-ad-Din's intervention in the first invasion allowed his general [[Shirkuh]], accompanied by his nephew [[Saladin]], to enter Egypt.<ref>Winifred Frances Peck (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Saladin|Saladin]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''24.''' (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press.</ref> [[Shawar]], the deposed vizier to the Fatimid caliph [[al-Adid]], allied with Amalric I, attacking Shirkuh at the second [[Bilbeis|Siege of Bilbeis]] beginning in August 1164, following Amalric's unsuccessful first siege in September 1163.{{sfn|Runciman|1952|pp=380–382|loc=Amalric advances on Cairo}} This action left the Holy Land lacking in defenses, and Nūr-ad-Din defeated a Crusader force at the [[Battle of Harim]] in August 1164, capturing most of the Franks' leaders.{{sfn|Barber|2012|p=240|loc=The Zengid Threat}}

After the sacking of Bilbeis, the Crusader-Fatimid force was to meet Shirkuh's army in the indecisive [[Battle of al-Babein]] on 18 March 1167. In 1169, both Shawar and Shirkuh died, and al-Adid appointed Saladin as vizier. Saladin, with reinforcements from Nūr-ad-Din, defeated a massive Crusader-Byzantine force at the [[Crusader invasions of Egypt#Siege of Damietta|Siege of Damietta]] in late October.<ref>Bird, Jessalynn (2006).  Damietta. In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 343–344.</ref> This gained Saladin the attention of the Assassins, with attempts on his life in January 1175 and again on 22 May 1176.{{sfn|Lewis|2003|pp=113–117|loc=The Old Man of the Mountain}}

[[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]]<ref>Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Baldwin IV.|Baldwin IV]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''3.''' (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. p. 247.</ref> became king on 5 July 1174 at the age of 13.<ref name=":22"/> As a leper he was not expected to live long, and served with a number of regents, and served as co-ruler with his nephew [[Baldwin V of Jerusalem]] beginning in 1183. Baldwin IV, [[Raynald of Châtillon]] and the Knights Templar defeated Saladin at the celebrated [[Battle of Montgisard]] on 25 November 1177. In June 1179, the Crusaders were defeated at the [[Battle of Marj Ayyun|Battle of Marj Ayyub]], and in August the unfinished castle at [[Siege of Jacob's Ford|Jacob's Ford]] fell to Saladin, with the slaughter of half its Templar garrison. However, the kingdom repelled his attacks at the [[Battle of Belvoir Castle (1182)|Battle of Belvoir Castle]] in 1182 and later in the [[Siege of Kerak]] of 1183.<ref>Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raynald of Châtillon|Raynald of Châtillon]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''22.''' (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. p. 936.</ref>

==== Fall of Jerusalem ====
Baldwin V became sole king upon the death of his uncle in 1185 under the regency of [[Raymond III of Tripoli]]. Raymond negotiated a truce with Saladin which went awry when the king died in the summer of 1186.<ref>Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Raymund of Tripoli|Raymund of Tripoli]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''22.''' (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press. p. 935.</ref> His mother [[Sibylla, Queen of Jerusalem|Sibylla of Jerusalem]] and her husband [[Guy of Lusignan]] were crowned as queen and king of Jerusalem in the summer of 1186, shortly thereafter. They immediately had to deal with the threat posed by Saladin.<ref>Gerish, Deborah (2006). Guy of Lusignan (d. 1194).  In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 549–551.</ref>

Despite his defeat at the [[Battle of al-Fule]] in the fall of 1183, Saladin increased his attacks against the Franks, leading to their defeat at the [[Battle of Cresson]] on 1 May 1187. Guy of Lusignan responded by raising the largest army that Jerusalem had ever put into the field. Saladin lured this force into inhospitable terrain without water supplies and routed them at the [[Battle of Hattin]] on 4 July 1187. One of the major commanders was [[Raymond III, Count of Tripoli#Hattin and its consequences|Raymond III of Tripoli]] who saw his force slaughtered, with some knights deserting to the enemy, and narrowly escaping, only to be regarded as a traitor and coward.{{sfn|Lewis|2017|pp=233–284|loc=The Regent Thwarted: Count Raymond III (1174–1187)}} Guy of Lusignan was one of the few captives of Saladin's after the battle, along with Raynald of Châtillon and [[Humphrey IV of Toron]]. Raynald was beheaded, settling an old score. Guy and Humphrey were imprisoned in Damascus and later released in 1188.<ref>Hoch, Martin (2006). Hattin, Battle of (1187). In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 559–561.</ref>

As a result of his victory, much of Palestine quickly fell to Saladin. The [[Siege of Jerusalem (1187)|siege of Jerusalem]] began on 20 September 1187 and the Holy City was surrendered to Saladin by [[Balian of Ibelin]] on 2 October. According to some, on 19{{nbsp}}October 1187, [[Pope Urban III|Urban III]] died upon of hearing of the defeat.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|p=367|loc=Called to Crusade}} Jerusalem was once again in Muslim hands. Many in the kingdom fled to Tyre, and Saladin's subsequent attack at the [[Siege of Tyre (1187)|siege of Tyre]] beginning in November 1187 was unsuccessful. The [[siege of Belvoir Castle]] began the next month and the Hospitaller stronghold finally fell a year later. The [[Siege of Laodicea (1188)|sieges of Laodicea]] and [[siege of Sahyun Castle|Sahyun Castle]] in July 1188 and the [[Siege of Al-Shughur|sieges of al-Shughur]] and [[Siege of Bourzey Castle|Bourzey Castle]] in August 1188  further solidified Saladin's gains. The [[Siege of Safed (1188)|siege of Safed]] in late 1188 then completed Saladin's conquest of the Holy Land.<ref name=":22">Baldwin, Marshall W. (1969). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0034.pdf Chapter XIX. The Decline and Fall of Jerusalem, 1174–1189] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601084304/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0001/reference/history.crusone.i0034.pdf |date=2023-06-01 }}". In Setton, Kenneth M.; Baldwin, Marshall W. (eds.). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume One. The First Hundred Years''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 590–621.</ref>

[[File:Crusader States 1190.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The Near East, {{circa|1190}}, at the inception of the Third Crusade]]

===Third Crusade===
{{main|Third Crusade}}

The years following the founding of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were met with multiple disasters. The [[Second Crusade]] did not achieve its goals, and left the Muslim East in a stronger position with the rise of [[Saladin]]. A united Egypt–Syria led to the loss of Jerusalem itself, and Western Europe had no choice but to launch the [[Third Crusade]], this time led by the kings of Europe.<ref name=":2">Nicholson, Helen (2006). "Third Crusade (1189–1192)". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 1174–1181.</ref>

The news of the disastrous defeat at the [[battle of Hattin]] and subsequent fall of Jerusalem gradually reached Western Europe. [[Pope Urban III|Urban III]] died shortly after hearing the news, and his successor [[Pope Gregory VIII|Gregory VIII]] issued the bull ''[[Audita tremendi]]'' on 29 October 1187 describing the events in the East and urging all Christians to take up arms and go to the aid of those in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, calling for a new crusade to the Holy Land{{snd}}the [[Third Crusade]]{{snd}}to be led by [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] and [[Richard I of England]].{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=375–401|loc=The Call of the Cross}}

[[File:Richard-Coeur-de-Lion-on-his-way-to-Jerusalem.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Richard the Lionheart on his way to Jerusalem, James William Glass (1850)]]

Frederick took the cross in March 1188.<ref name=":4">Johnson, Edgar N. (1977). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0017.pdf The Crusades of Frederick Barbarossa and Henry VI].". In Setton, K., ''A History of the Crusades: Volume II.'' pp. 87–122.</ref> Frederick sent an ultimatum to Saladin, demanding the return of Palestine and challenging him to battle and in May 1189, Frederick's host departed for Byzantium. In March 1190, Frederick embarked to Asia Minor. The armies coming from western Europe pushed on through Anatolia, defeating the Turks and reaching as far as [[Cilician Armenia]]. On 10 June 1190, Frederick drowned near [[Silifke Castle]]. His death caused several thousand German soldiers to leave the force and return home. The remaining German army moved under the command of the English and French forces that arrived shortly thereafter.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=420–422|loc=The Fate of the German Crusade}}

[[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] had already taken the cross as the [[Count of Poitiers|Count of Poitou]] in 1187. His father [[Henry II of England]] and [[Philip II of France]] had done so on 21 January 1188 after receiving news of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin.<ref>Painter, Sidney (1977). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0016.pdf The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted and Philip Augustus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000907/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0016.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}.". In Setton, K. ''A History of the Crusades: Volume II.'' pp. 45–86.</ref>{{sfn|Murray|2009}} Richard I and [[Philip II of France]] agreed to go on the Crusade in January 1188. Arriving in the Holy Land, Richard led his support to the stalemated [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)#The kings at Acre|siege of Acre]]. The Muslim defenders surrendered on 12 July 1191. Richard remained in sole command of the Crusader force after the departure of Philip II on 31 July 1191. On 20 August 1191, Richard had more than 2000 prisoners beheaded at the [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|massacre of Ayyadieh]]. Saladin subsequently ordered the execution of his Christian prisoners in retaliation.{{sfn|Norgate|1924|pp=152–175|loc=The Fall of Acre, 1191}}

Richard moved south, defeating Saladin's forces at the [[battle of Arsuf]] on 7 September 1191. Three days later, Richard took [[Jaffa#Crusader/Ayyubid period|Jaffa]], held by Saladin since 1187, and advanced inland towards Jerusalem.{{sfn|Oman|1924|pp=306–319|loc=Tactics of the Crusades: Battles of Arsouf and Jaffa (Volume I)}} On 12 December 1191 Saladin disbanded the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, to within 12 miles from Jerusalem before retreating back to the coast. The Crusaders made another advance on Jerusalem, coming within sight of the city in June before being forced to retreat again. [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh III of Burgundy]], leader of the Franks, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, and neither was strong enough to achieve its objective. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.<ref name=":2" />

On 27 July 1192, Saladin's army began the [[Battle of Jaffa (1192)|battle of Jaffa]], capturing the city. Richard's forces stormed Jaffa from the sea and the Muslims were driven from the city. Attempts to retake Jaffa failed and Saladin was forced to retreat.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=70–72|loc=Richard's Last Victory (1192)}} On 2 September 1192 Richard and Saladin entered into the [[Treaty of Jaffa (1192)|Treaty of Jaffa]], providing that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, while allowing unarmed Christian pilgrims and traders to freely visit the city. This treaty ended the Third Crusade.{{sfn|von Sybel|1861|pp=89–91|loc=Treaty with Saladin}}

===Crusade of 1197===
{{main|Crusade of 1197}}

Three years later, [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] launched the [[Crusade of 1197]]. While his forces were en route to the Holy Land, Henry VI died in Messina on 28 September 1197. The nobles that remained captured the Levant coast between Tyre and Tripoli before returning to Germany. The Crusade ended on 1 July 1198 after capturing [[Sidon#Crusader-Ayyubid period|Sidon]] and [[Beirut#Middle Ages|Beirut]].{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=97–98|loc=The German Crusade of 1197}}

===Fourth Crusade===
{{main|Fourth Crusade|Sack of Constantinople}}
[[File:ConquestOfConstantinopleByTheCrusadersIn1204.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Siege of Constantinople (1204)|Conquest]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]] city of [[Constantinople]] by the Crusaders in 1204 (BNF [[Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal|Arsenal MS]] 5090, 15th century)|alt=Image of siege of Constantinople]]
[[File:LatinEmpire2.png|thumb|290px|alt=Multi-coloured map of [[Latin Empire|Latin]] and [[Byzantine Empire]]s|[[Latin Empire]] and Byzantine states in 1205. Green marks Venetian acquisitions; pink the Byzantine states; purple the Latin Empire and its vassals]]
In 1198, the recently elected Pope Innocent III announced a new crusade, organised by three Frenchmen: [[Theobald III, Count of Champagne|Theobald of Champagne]]; [[Louis I, Count of Blois|Louis of Blois]]; and [[Baldwin I, Latin Emperor|Baldwin of Flanders]]. After Theobald's premature death, the Italian [[Boniface I, Marquess of Montferrat|Boniface of Montferrat]] replaced him as the new commander of the campaign. They contracted with the [[Republic of Venice]] for the transportation of 30,000 crusaders at a cost of 85,000 marks. However, many chose other embarkation ports and only around 15,000 arrived in Venice. The [[Doge of Venice]] [[Enrico Dandolo]] proposed that Venice would be compensated with the profits of future conquests beginning with the [[Siege of Zara|seizure]] of the Christian city of [[Zadar|Zara]]. Pope Innocent III's role was ambivalent. He only condemned the attack when the siege started. He withdrew his legate to disassociate from the attack but seemed to have accepted it as inevitable. Historians question whether for him, the papal desire to salvage the crusade may have outweighed the moral consideration of shedding Christian blood.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|p=168}}</ref> The crusade was joined by King [[Philip of Swabia]], who intended to use the Crusade to install his exiled brother-in-law, [[Alexios IV Angelos]], as Emperor. This required the overthrow of [[Alexios III Angelos]], the uncle of Alexios{{nbsp}}IV. Alexios IV offered the crusade 10,000 troops, 200,000 marks and the reunion of the Greek Church with Rome if they toppled his uncle [[Alexios III Angelos|Emperor Alexios III]].{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=240–242}} When the crusade entered [[Siege of Constantinople (1203)|Constantinople]], Alexios{{nbsp}}III fled and was replaced by his nephew. The Greek resistance prompted Alexios{{nbsp}}IV to seek continued support from the crusade until he could fulfil his commitments. This ended with his murder in a violent anti-Latin revolt. The crusaders were without seaworthy ships, supplies or food. Their only escape route was through the city, taking by force what Alexios had promised and the new anti-westerner Byzantine ruler{{snd}}[[Alexios V Doukas]]{{snd}}denied them. The [[Sack of Constantinople (1204)|Sack of Constantinople]] involved three days of pillaging churches and killing much of the Greek Orthodox Christian populace. This sack was not unusual considering the violent military standards of the time, but contemporaries such as Innocent III and [[Ali ibn al-Athir]] saw it as an atrocity against centuries of classical and Christian civilisation.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=249–250}}

===Fifth Crusade===
{{main|Fifth Crusade}}
The [[Fifth Crusade]] (1217–1221) was a campaign by Western Europeans to reacquire Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering Egypt, ruled by the sultan [[Al-Adil I|al-Adil]], brother of [[Saladin]]. In 1213, [[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]] called for another Crusade at the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran|Fourth Lateran Council]], and in the papal bull ''[[Quia maior]]''.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Summons to a Crusade, 1215|encyclopedia=Internet Medieval Sourcebook|publisher=Fordham University|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/inn3-cdesummons.asp|access-date=|first=|pages=337–344}}</ref> Innocent died in 1216 and was succeeded by [[Pope Honorius III|Honorius III]] who immediately called on [[Andrew II of Hungary]] and [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II of Germany]] to lead a Crusade.<ref>Michael Ott (1910). "[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Honorius III|Pope Honorius III]]". In ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''7.''' New York.</ref> Frederick had taken the cross in 1215, but hung back, with his crown still in contention, and Honorius delayed the expedition.<ref name=":23">Van Cleve, Thomas C. (1977). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0025.pdf The Fifth Crusade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032639/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0025.pdf |date=2023-03-26 }}". In Setton, K., ''A History of the Crusades: Volume II''. pp. 343–376.</ref>

[[File:Capturing_Damiate.jpg|thumb|Crusaders attack the tower of Damietta during the [[Siege of Damietta (1218–1219)|siege of Damietta]] in a painting by [[Cornelis Claesz van Wieringen]].]]

Andrew II left for Acre in August 1217, joining [[John of Brienne]], king of Jerusalem. The initial plan of a two-prong attack in Syria and in Egypt was abandoned and instead the objective became limited operations in Syria. After accomplishing little, the ailing Andrew returned to Hungary early in 1218. As it became clear that Frederick II was not coming to the east, the remaining commanders began the planning to attack the Egyptian port of [[Damietta]].<ref>Powell, James M. (2006). "The Fifth Crusade". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 427–432.</ref>

The fortifications of Damietta included the ''Burj al-Silsilah''{{snd}}the chain tower{{snd}}with massive chains that could stretch across the Nile. The [[Siege of Damietta (1218–19)|siege of Damietta]] began in June 1218 with a successful assault on the tower. The loss of the tower was a great shock to the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]], and the sultan al-Adil died soon thereafter.{{sfn|Gibb|pp=697–700|loc=The Ayyubids through 1221|1969}} He was succeeded as sultan by his son [[al-Kamil]]. Further offensive action by the Crusaders would have to wait until the arrival of additional forces, including legate [[Pelagius Galvani|Pelagius]] with a contingent of Romans.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=626–649|loc=The Fifth Crusade, 1213–1221}} A group from England arrived shortly thereafter.{{sfn|Tyerman|1996|p=97|loc=The Fifth Crusade}}

By February 1219, the Crusaders now had Damietta surrounded, and al-Kamil opened negotiations with the Crusaders, asking for envoys to come to his camp. He offered to surrender the kingdom of Jerusalem, less the fortresses of [[al-Karak]] and [[Montreal (castle)|Krak de Montréal]], guarding the road to Egypt, in exchange for the evacuation of Egypt. John of Brienne and the other secular leaders were in favor of the offer, as the original objective of the Crusade was the recovery of Jerusalem. But Pelagius and the leaders of the Templars and Hospitallers refused.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=132–179|loc=The Fifth Crusade}} Later, [[Francis of Assisi]] arrived to negotiate unsuccessfully with the sultan.<ref>Paschal Robinson (1909). "[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/St. Francis of Assisi|St. Francis of Assisi]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''6'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref>

In November 1219, the Crusaders entered Damietta and found it abandoned, al-Kamil having moved his army south. In the captured city, Pelagius was unable to prod the Crusaders from their inactivity, and many returned home, their vow fulfilled. Al-Kamil took advantage of this lull to reinforce his new camp at [[Mansoura, Egypt|Mansurah]], renewing his peace offering to the Crusaders, which was again refused. Frederick II sent troops and word that he would soon follow, but they were under orders not to begin offensive operations until he had arrived.{{sfn|Maalouf|2006|pp=218–226|loc=The Perfect and the Just}}

In July 1221, Pelagius began to advance to the south. John of Brienne argued against the move, but was powerless to stop it. Already deemed a traitor for opposing the plans and threatened with excommunication, John joined the force under the command of the legate. In the ensuing [[Battle of Mansurah (1221)|Battle of Mansurah]] in late August, al-Kamil had the sluices along the right bank of the Nile opened, flooding the area and rendering battle impossible.{{sfn|Christie|2014|loc=Document 16: Al-Kamil Muhammad and the Fifth Crusade}} Pelagius had no choice but to surrender.{{sfn|Perry|2013|loc=The Fifth Crusade|pp=89–121}}

The Crusaders still had some leverage as Damietta was well-garrisoned. They offered the sultan a withdrawal from Damietta and an eight-year truce in exchange for allowing the Crusader army to pass, the release of all prisoners, and the return of the relic of the [[True Cross]]. Prior to the formal surrender of Damietta, the two sides would maintain hostages, among them John of Brienne and [[Hermann von Salza|Hermann of Salza]] for the Franks side and a son of al-Kamil for Egypt.{{sfn|Richard|1999|pp=299–307|loc=The Egyptian Campaign of the Legate Pelagius}} The masters of the military orders were dispatched to Damietta, where the forces were resistant to giving up, with the news of the surrender, which happened on 8 September 1221. The Fifth Crusade was over, a dismal failure, unable to even gain the return of the piece of the True Cross.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=551–562|loc=The Fifth Crusade}}

===Sixth Crusade===
{{main|Sixth Crusade}}
[[File:Friedrich II. mit Sultan al-Kamil.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Manuscript illumination of five men outside a fortress|[[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Frederick{{nbsp}}II]] (left) meets [[al-Kamil]] (right), illumination from [[Giovanni Villani]]'s ''[[Nuova Cronica]]'' ([[Vatican Library]] ms. Chigiano L VIII 296, 14th{{nbsp}}century).]]

The [[Sixth Crusade]] (1228–1229) was a military expedition to recapture the city of Jerusalem. It began seven years after the failure of the Fifth Crusade and involved very little actual fighting. The diplomatic maneuvering of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]<ref name=":25">Franz Kampers (1909). "[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Frederick II|Frederick II]]". In ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''6'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> resulted in the Kingdom of Jerusalem regaining some control over Jerusalem for much of the ensuing fifteen years. The Sixth Crusade is also known as the Crusade of Frederick II.<ref name=":232">Van Cleve, Thomas C. (1977). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0026.pdf The Crusade of Frederick II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113040112/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0026.pdf |date=2024-01-13 }}". In Setton, K. ''A History of the Crusades: Volume II''. pp. 377–448.</ref>

Of all the European sovereigns, only Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, was in a position to regain Jerusalem. Frederick was, like many of the 13th-century rulers, a serial ''crucesignatus'',<ref>Markowski, Michael. "[https://www.academia.edu/33305983/Crucesignatus_its_origins_and_early_usage Crucesignatus: its origins and early usage]". ''Journal of Medieval History'' (1984), pp. 157–165.</ref> having taken the cross multiple times since 1215.<ref>Weiler, Björn K. (2006). "Crusade of Emperor Frederick II (1227–1229)". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 313–315.</ref> After much wrangling, an onerous agreement between the emperor and Pope [[Honorius III]] was signed on 25 July 1225 at San Germano. Frederick promised to depart on the Crusade by August 1227 and remain for two years. During this period, he was to maintain and support forces in Syria and deposit escrow funds at Rome in gold. These funds would be returned to the emperor once he arrived at Acre. If he did not arrive, the money would be employed for the needs of the Holy Land.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=171–205|loc=The Emperor Frederick}} Frederick II would go on the Crusade as king of Jerusalem. He married John of Brienne's daughter [[Isabella II of Jerusalem#Marriage with Frederick II|Isabella II]] by proxy in August 1225 and they were formally married on 9 November 1227. Frederick claimed the kingship of Jerusalem despite John having been given assurances that he would remain as king. Frederick took the crown in December 1225. Frederick's first royal decree was to grant new privileges on the Teutonic Knights, placing them on equal footing as the Templars and Hospitallers.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=739–780|loc=The Crusade of Frederick II, 1227–1229}}

After the Fifth Crusade, the Ayyubid sultan [[al-Kamil]] became involved in civil war in Syria and, having unsuccessfully tried negotiations with the West beginning in 1219, again tried this approach,{{sfn|Gibb|1969|pp=700–702|loc=The Ayyubids from 1221–1229}} offering return of much of the Holy Land in exchange for military support.{{sfn|Maalouf|2006|pp=226–227|loc=Fakhr ad-Din}} Becoming pope in 1227, [[Pope Gregory IX|Gregory IX]] was determined to proceed with the Crusade.<ref>Michael Ott (1909). "[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Gregory IX|Pope Gregory IX]]". In ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''6'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> The first contingents of Crusaders then sailed in August 1227, joining with forces of the kingdom and fortifying the coastal towns. The emperor was delayed while his ships were refitted. He sailed on 8 September 1227, but before they reached their first stop, Frederick was struck with the plague and disembarked to secure medical attention. Resolved to keep his oath, he sent his fleet on to Acre. He sent his emissaries to inform Gregory IX of the situation, but the pope did not care about Frederick's illness, just that he had not lived up to his agreement. Frederick was excommunicated on 29 September 1227, branded a wanton violator of his sacred oath taken many times.<ref name=":232" />

Frederick made his last effort to be reconciled with Gregory. It had no effect and Frederick sailed from [[Brindisi]] in June 1228. After a stop at Cyprus, Frederick II arrived in Acre on 7 September 1228 and was received warmly by the military orders, despite his excommunication. Frederick's army was not large, mostly German, Sicilian and English.{{sfn|Tyerman|1996|pp=99–101|loc=The Crusade of 1227–1229}} Of the troops he had sent in 1227 had mostly returned home. He could neither afford nor mount a lengthening campaign in the Holy Land given the ongoing [[War of the Keys]] with Rome. The Sixth Crusade would be one of negotiation.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=183–184|loc=Frederick at Acre (1228)}}

After resolving the internecine struggles in Syria, al-Kamil's position was stronger than it was a year before when he made his original offer to Frederick. For unknown reasons, the two sides came to an agreement. The resultant [[Treaty of Jaffa (1229)|Treaty of Jaffa]] was concluded on 18 February 1229, with al-Kamil surrendering Jerusalem, with the exception of some Muslim holy sites, and agreeing to a ten-year truce.{{sfn|Richard|1999|pp=312–318|loc=The Sixth Crusade and the Treaty of Jaffa}} Frederick entered Jerusalem on 17 March 1229 and received the formal surrender of the city by al-Kamil's agent and the next day, crowned himself.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=189–190|loc=Frederick at Jerusalem (1229)}} On 1 May 1229, Frederick departed from Acre and arrived in Sicily a month before the pope knew that he had left the Holy Land. Frederick obtained from the pope relief from his excommunication on 28 August 1230 at the [[Treaty of Ceprano (1230)|Treaty of Ceprano]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=562–571|loc=Frederick II's Crusade}}

The results of the Sixth Crusade were not universally acclaimed. Two letters from the Christian side tell differing stories,{{sfn|Munro|1902|pp=24–30|loc=Letters of the Sixth Crusade}} with Frederick touting the great success of the endeavor and the Latin patriarch painting a darker picture of the emperor and his accomplishments. On the Muslim side, al-Kamil himself was pleased with the accord, but others regarded the treaty as a disastrous event.{{sfn|Christie|2014|loc=Document 17: Two sources on the Handover of Jerusalem to Frederick II}} In the end, the Sixth Crusade successfully returned Jerusalem to Christian rule and had set a precedent, in having achieved success on crusade without papal involvement.<ref name=":232" />

===The Crusades of 1239–1241===
{{main|Barons' Crusade}}

The Crusades of 1239–1241, also known as the [[Barons' Crusade]], were a series of crusades to the Holy Land that, in territorial terms, were the most successful since the First Crusade.<ref>Burgturf, Jochen. "Crusade of 1239–1241". ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 309–311.</ref> The major expeditions were led separately by [[Theobald I of Navarre]] and [[Richard of Cornwall]].<ref>[[Sidney Painter|Painter, Sidney]] (1977). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0027.pdf The Crusade of Theobald of Champagne and Richard of Cornwall, 1239–1241] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601083652/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0027.pdf |date=2023-06-01 }}.". In Setton, K., ''A History of the Crusades: Volume II''. pp. 463–486.</ref> These crusades are sometimes discussed along with that of [[Baldwin II, Latin Emperor|Baldwin of Courtenay]] to Constantinople.<ref>Hendrickx, Benjamin. "Baldwin II of Constantinople". ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 133–135.</ref>

[[File:Beit_hanun_1239.jpg|thumb|The defeat of the Crusaders at Gaza, depicted in the ''Chronica majora'' of [[Matthew Paris]], 13th century]]

In 1229, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and the Ayyubid sultan [[al-Kamil]], had agreed to a ten-year truce. Nevertheless, [[Pope Gregory IX|Gregory IX]], who had condemned this truce from the beginning, issued the papal bull ''[[Rachel suum videns]]'' in 1234 calling for a new crusade once the truce expired. A number of English and French nobles took the cross, but the crusade's departure was delayed because Frederick, whose lands the crusaders had planned to cross, opposed any crusading activity before the expiration of this truce. Frederick was again excommunicated in 1239, causing most crusaders to avoid his territories on their way to the Holy Land.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=205–220|loc=Legalized Anarchy}}

The French expedition was led by [[Theobald I of Navarre]] and [[Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh of Burgundy]], joined by [[Amaury de Montfort (died 1241)|Amaury de Montfort]] and [[Peter I, Duke of Brittany|Peter of Dreux]].<ref name=":252">[[Peter Jackson (historian)|Jackson, Peter]]. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/616893 The Crusades of 1239–1241 and Their Aftermath]". ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', Vol. 50, No. 1 (1987). pp. 32–60.</ref> On 1 September 1239, Theobald arrived in Acre, and was soon drawn into the [[Ayyubid dynasty#Syro-Egyptian divide|Ayyubid civil war]], which had been raging since the death of al-Kamil in 1238.{{sfn|Gibb|1969|pp=703–709|loc=The Ayyubids from 1229–1244}} At the end of September, al-Kamil's brother [[As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus|as-Salih Ismail]] seized Damascus from his nephew, [[as-Salih Ayyub]], and recognised [[al-Adil II]] as sultan of Egypt. Theobald decided to fortify [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]] to protect the southern border of the kingdom and to move against Damascus later. While the Crusaders were marching from Acre to Jaffa, Egyptian troops moved to secure the border in what became the [[Battle at Gaza (1239)|Battle at Gaza]].<ref name=":233">Burgturf, Jochen. "Gaza, Battle of (1239)". ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 498–499.</ref> Contrary to Theobald's instructions and the advice of the military orders, a group decided to move against the enemy without further delay, but they were surprised by the Muslims who inflicted a devastating defeat on the Franks. The masters of the military orders then convinced Theobald to retreat to Acre rather than pursue the Egyptians and their Frankish prisoners. A month after the battle at Gaza, [[An-Nasir Dawud|an-Nasir Dā'ūd]], emir of [[Al-Karak|Kerak]], seized Jerusalem, virtually unguarded. The internal strife among the Ayyubids allowed Theobald to negotiate the return of Jerusalem. In September 1240, Theobald departed for Europe, while Hugh of Burgundy remained to help fortify Ascalon.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=755–780|loc=The Crusades of 1239–1241}}

On 8 October 1240, the English expedition arrived, led by Richard of Cornwall.{{sfn|Tyerman|1996|pp=101–107|loc=The Crusade of Richard of Cornwall}} The force marched to Jaffa, where they completed the negotiations for a truce with Ayyubid leaders begun by Theobald just a few months prior. Richard consented, the new agreement was ratified by Ayyub by 8 February 1241, and prisoners from both sides were released on 13 April. Meanwhile, Richard's forces helped to work on Ascalon's fortifications, which were completed by mid-March 1241. Richard entrusted the new fortress to an imperial representative, and departed for England on 3 May 1241.{{sfn|Richard|1999|pp=319–324|loc=The Barons' Crusade}}

In July 1239, Baldwin of Courtenay, the young heir to the Latin Empire, travelled to Constantinople with a small army. In the winter of 1239, Baldwin finally returned to Constantinople, where he was crowned emperor around Easter of 1240, after which he launched his crusade. Baldwin then besieged and captured [[Tzurulum]], a Nicaean stronghold seventy-five miles west of Constantinople.<ref>[[J. B. Bury]] (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Bury, John Bagnell|Baldwin II (emperor of Romania)]]" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''3.''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 867.</ref>

Although the Barons' Crusade returned the kingdom to its largest size since 1187, the gains would be dramatically reversed a few years later. On 15 July 1244, the city was reduced to ruins during the [[Siege of Jerusalem (1244)|siege of Jerusalem]] and its Christians massacred by the [[Khwarazmian army between 1231 and 1246|Khwarazmian army]]. A few months later, the [[Battle of La Forbie]] permanently crippled Christian military power in the Holy Land. The sack of the city and the massacre which accompanied it encouraged [[Louis IX|Louis IX of France]] to organise the [[Seventh Crusade]].{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=574–576|loc=The Bane of Palestine}}

===The Seventh Crusade===
{{Main|Seventh Crusade}}
[[File:Seventh crusade.jpg|thumb|300px|Louis IX during the Seventh Crusade]]

The [[Seventh Crusade]] (1248–1254) was the first of the two Crusades led by [[Louis IX of France]]. Also known as the Crusade of Louis IX to the Holy Land, its objective was to reclaim the Holy Land by attacking Egypt, the main seat of Muslim power in the Middle East, then under [[as-Salih Ayyub]], son of al-Kamil. The Crusade was conducted in response to setbacks in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, beginning with the loss of the Holy City in 1244, and was preached by [[Pope Innocent IV|Innocent IV]] in conjunction with a crusade against emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], the [[Prussian Crusade|Prussian crusades]] and Mongol incursions.<ref name=":0">Strayer, Joseph R. (1977). "[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0028.pdf Chapter XIV. The Crusades of Louis IX] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211207190824/https://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0002/reference/history.crustwo.i0028.pdf |date=2021-12-07 }}". In Wolff, Robert L. and Hazard, H. W. (eds.). ''A History of the Crusades: Volume II, The Later Crusades 1187–1311''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 487–521.</ref>

At the end of 1244, Louis was stricken with a severe malarial infection and he vowed that if he recovered he would set out for a Crusade. His life was spared, and as soon as his health permitted him, he took the cross and immediately began preparations.<ref name=":7">James Thomson Shotwell (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Louis IX. of France|Louis IX. of France]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. '''17.''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–38.</ref> The next year, the pope presided over [[First Council of Lyon]], directing a new Crusade under the command of Louis. With Rome under siege by Frederick, the pope also issued his ''[[Ad Apostolicae Dignitatis Apicem]]'', formally renewing the sentence of excommunication on the emperor, and declared him deposed from the imperial throne and that of Naples.<ref name=":42">Michael Ott (1910). "[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope Innocent IV|Pope Innocent IV]]". In ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''8.''' New York.</ref>

The recruiting effort under cardinal [[Odo of Châteauroux]] was difficult, and the Crusade finally began on 12 August 1248 when Louis IX left Paris under the insignia of a pilgrim, the ''[[Oriflamme]]''.<ref name=":6">Goldsmith, Linda (2006). ''Crusade of Louis IX to the East (1248–1254)''. In The Crusades – An Encyclopedia. pp. 321–324.</ref> With him were queen [[Margaret of Provence]] and two of Louis' brothers, [[Charles I of Anjou]] and [[Robert I, Count of Artois|Robert I of Artois]]. Their youngest brother [[Alfonso, Count of Poitou|Alphonse of Poitiers]] departed the next year. They were followed by [[Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh IV of Burgundy]], [[Peter I, Duke of Brittany|Peter Maulcerc]], [[Hugh X of Lusignan|Hugh XI of Lusignan]], royal companion and chronicler [[Jean de Joinville]], and an English detachment under [[William Longespée the Younger|William Longespée]], grandson of [[Henry II of England]].{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=256–257|loc=King Louis sails from Agues-Mortes (1248}}

The first stop was Cyprus, arriving in September 1248 where they experienced a long wait for the forces to assemble. Many of the men were lost ''en route'' or to disease.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=580–584|loc=The preparation for war}} The Franks were soon met by those from Acre including the masters of the Orders [[Jean de Ronay]] and [[Guillaume de Sonnac]]. The two eldest sons of John of Brienne, [[Alfonso of Brienne|Alsonso of Brienne]] and [[Louis of Brienne]], would also join as would [[John of Ibelin (jurist)|John of Ibelin]], nephew to the [[John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut|Old Lord of Beirut]].{{sfn|Riley-Smith|1973|pp=21–39|loc=Lords, Lordships and Vavasours}} [[William of Villehardouin]] also arrived with ships and Frankish soldiers from the [[Morea]]. It was agreed that Egypt was the objective and many remembered how the sultan's father had been willing to exchange Jerusalem itself for Damietta in the Fifth Crusade. Louis was not willing to negotiate with the infidel Muslims, but he did unsuccessfully seek a [[Franco-Mongol alliance]], reflecting what the pope had sought in 1245.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|p=259–260|loc=Negotiations with the Mongols}}

As-Salih Ayyub was conducting a campaign in Damascus when the Franks invaded as he had expected the Crusaders to land in Syria. Hurrying his forces back to Cairo, he turned to his vizier [[Fakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh]] to command the army that fortified [[Damietta]] in anticipation of the invasion. On 5 June 1249 the Crusader fleet began the landing and subsequent [[Siege of Damietta (1249)|siege of Damietta]]. After a short battle, the Egyptian commander decided to evacuate the city.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=262–263|loc=Louis at Damietta (1249)}} Remarkably, Damietta had been seized with only one Crusader casualty.{{sfn|Barber|1994|pp=148–151|loc=The last years of the Templars in Palestine and Syria}} The city became a Frankish city and Louis waited until the Nile floods abated before advancing, remembering the lessons of the Fifth Crusade. The loss of Damietta was a shock to the Muslim world, and as-Salih Ayyub offered to trade Damietta for Jerusalem as his father had thirty years before. The offer was rejected. By the end of October 1249 the Nile had receded and reinforcements had arrived. It was time to advance, and the Frankish army set out towards [[Mansoura, Egypt|Mansurah]].{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=264–265|loc=The Crusaders Advance towards Mansourah}}

The sultan died in November 1249, his widow [[Shajar al-Durr]] concealing the news of her husband's death. She forged a document which appointed his son [[al-Muazzam Turanshah]], then in Syria, as heir and Fakhr ad-Din as viceroy.{{sfn|Gibb|1969|p=712|loc=as-Salih Ayyub}} But the Crusade continued, and by December 1249, Louis was encamped on the river banks opposite to Mansurah.{{sfn|Barber|1994|pp=148–151|loc=The last years of the Templars in Palestine and Syria}} For six weeks, the armies of the West and Egypt faced each other on opposite sides of the canal, leading to the [[Battle of Mansurah (1250)|Battle of Mansurah]] that would end on 11 February 1250 with an Egyptian defeat. Louis had his victory, but a cost of the loss of much of his force and their commanders. Among the survivors were the Templar master Guillaume de Sonnac, losing an eye, [[Humbert V de Beaujeu]], constable of France, [[John II, Count of Soissons|John II of Soissons]], and the duke of Brittany, Peter Maulcerc. Counted with the dead were the king's brother [[Robert I, Count of Artois|Robert I of Artois]], [[William Longespée the Younger|William Longespée]] and most of his English followers, [[Peter of Courtenay, Lord of Conches|Peter of Courtenay]], and [[Raoul II, Lord of Coucy|Raoul II of Coucy]]. But the victory would be short-lived.<ref>Nicolle, David (2006). ''Mansurah''. In The Crusades – An Encyclopedia. pp. 794–795.</ref> On 11 February 1250, the Egyptians attacked again. Templar master Guillaume de Sonnac and acting Hospitaller master Jean de Ronay were killed. [[Alphonse, Count of Poitiers|Alphonse of Poitiers]], guarding the camp, was encircled and was rescued by the camp followers. At nightfall, the Muslims gave up the assault.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=793_802|loc=Defeat, February–March 1250}}
[[File:C_croisade7_prisonnier1.jpg|thumb|Louis IX being taken prisoner at the Battle of Fariskur ([[Gustave Doré]])]]

On 28 February 1250, Turanshah arrived from Damascus and began an Egyptian offensive, intercepting the boats that brought food from Damietta. The Franks were quickly beset by famine and disease.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=268–269|loc=Turanshah takes Command of the Moslems (1250)}} The [[Battle of Fariskur (1250)|Battle of Fariskur]] fought on 6 April 1250 would be the decisive defeat of Louis' army. Louis knew that the army must be extricated to Damietta and they departed on the morning of 5 April, with the king in the rear and the Egyptians in pursuit. The next day, the Muslims surrounded the army and attacked in full force. On 6 April, Louis' surrender was negotiated directly with the sultan by [[Philip of Montfort, Lord of Tyre|Philip of Montfort]]. The king and his entourage were taken in chains to Mansurah and the whole of the army was rounded up and led into captivity.{{sfn|Tyerman|2006|pp=793_802|loc=Defeat, February–March 1250}}

The Egyptians were unprepared for the large number of prisoners taken, comprising most of Louis' force. The infirm were executed immediately and several hundred were decapitated daily. Louis and his commanders were moved to Mansurah, and negotiations for their release commenced. The terms agreed to were harsh. Louis was to ransom himself by the surrender of Damietta and his army by the payment of a million [[bezant]]s (later reduced to 800,000).{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=270–271|loc=Louis in Prison (1250)}} Latin patriarch [[Robert of Nantes]] went under safe-conduct to complete the arrangements for the ransom. Arriving in Cairo, he found Turanshah dead, murdered in a coup instigated by his stepmother Shajar al-Durr. On 6 May, [[Geoffrey of Sergines]] handed Damietta over to the Moslem vanguard. Many wounded soldiers had been left behind at Damietta, and contrary to their promise, the Muslims massacred them all. In 1251, the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1251)|Shepherds' Crusade]], a popular crusade formed with the objective to free Louis, engulfed France.<ref>{{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Crusade of the Pastoureaux}}</ref> After his release, Louis went to Acre where he remained until 1254. This is regarded as the end of the Seventh Crusade.<ref name=":0" />

===The final crusades===
{{main|Eighth Crusade|Lord Edward's Crusade}}
After the defeat of the Crusaders in Egypt, Louis remained in Syria until 1254 to consolidate the crusader states.<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=606–608}}</ref> A brutal power struggle developed in Egypt between various [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]] leaders and the remaining weak Ayyubid rulers. The threat presented by an invasion by the Mongols led to one of the competing Mamluk leaders, [[Qutuz]], seizing the sultanate in 1259 and uniting with another faction led by [[Baibars]] to defeat the Mongols at [[Battle of Ain Jalut|Ain Jalut]]. The Mamluks then quickly gained control of Damascus and Aleppo before Qutuz was assassinated and Baibers assumed control.<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=616–621}}</ref>

Between 1265 and 1271, Baibars drove the Franks to a few small coastal outposts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman|2006|pp=816–817}}</ref> Baibars had three key objectives: to prevent an alliance between the Latins and the Mongols, to cause dissension among the Mongols (particularly between the [[Golden Horde]] and the Persian [[Ilkhanate]]), and to maintain access to a supply of slave recruits from the Russian steppes. He supported [[Manfred, King of Sicily|Manfred of Sicily's]] failed resistance to the attack of Charles and the papacy. Dissension in the crusader states led to conflicts such as the [[War of Saint Sabas]]. Venice drove the Genoese from Acre to Tyre where they continued to trade with Egypt. Indeed, Baibars negotiated free passage for the Genoese with [[Michael VIII Palaiologos|Michael{{nbsp}}VIII Palaiologos]], [[Empire of Nicaea|Emperor of Nicaea]], the newly restored ruler of Constantinople.<ref>{{harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=628–630}}</ref> In 1270 Charles turned his brother King Louis{{nbsp}}IX's crusade, known as the [[Eighth Crusade]], to his own advantage by persuading him to attack [[Tunis]]. The crusader army was devastated by disease, and Louis himself died at Tunis on 25{{nbsp}}August. The fleet returned to France. [[Edward I of England|Prince Edward]], the future king of England, and a small retinue arrived too late for the conflict but continued to the Holy Land in what is known as [[Lord Edward's crusade|Lord Edward's Crusade]].<ref>Henry Summerson (2005). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20230104205751/https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-94804 Lord Edward's crusade (act. 1270–1274)]". ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''.</ref> Edward survived an assassination attempt, negotiated a ten-year truce, and then returned to manage his affairs in England. This ended the last significant crusading effort in the eastern Mediterranean.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp=643–644}}</ref>

===Decline and fall of the Crusader States===
[[Image:1291 siège d'Acre.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Siege of Acre]] depicted in ''[[Matthew of Clermont|Matthieu de Clermont]] défend [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia|Ptolémaïs]] en 1291'', by [[Dominique Papety]] at [[Salles des Croisades]] in [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]]]]
{{main|Fall of Outremer}}
The years 1272–1302 include numerous conflicts throughout the Levant as well as the Mediterranean and Western European regions, and many crusades were proposed to free the Holy Land from [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk]] control. These include ones of [[Pope Gregory X|Gregory X]], [[Charles I of Anjou]] and [[Pope Nicholas IV|Nicholas IV]], none of which came to fruition. The major players fighting the Muslims included the kings of England and France, the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]] and [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]], the three [[Military orders of the Crusades|Military Orders]] and [[Ilkhanate|Mongol Ilkhanate]]. The end of Western European presence in the Holy Land was sealed with the [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|fall of Tripoli]] and their subsequent defeat at the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|siege of Acre]] in 1291. The Christian forces managed to survive until the final [[fall of Ruad]] in 1302.{{sfn|Runciman|1954|pp=387–426|loc=The Fall of Acre}}

The Holy Land would no longer be the focus of the West even though various crusades were proposed in the early years of the fourteenth century. The Knights Hospitaller would [[Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes|conquer Rhodes]] from Byzantium, making it the center of their activity for a hundred years. The Knights Templar, the elite fighting force in the kingdom, was disbanded. The Mongols converted to Islam, but [[Ilkhanate#Disintegration (1316–1357)|disintegrated]] as a fighting force. The Mamluk sultanate would continue for another century. The Crusades to liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Land were over.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=638–656|loc=The Holy Land Reclaimed}}

==Other crusades==

[[File:Deutscher Orden in Europa 1300.png|thumb|upright=1.35|left|Map of the branches of the [[Teutonic Order]] in Europe {{circa|1300}}. Shaded area is sovereign territory.]]

The military expeditions undertaken by European Christians in the 11th, 12th, and 13th{{nbsp}}centuries to recover the Holy Land from Muslims provided a template for warfare in other areas that also interested the Latin Church. These included the 12th and 13th{{nbsp}}century [[Reconquista|conquest of]] Muslim [[Al-Andalus]] by Spanish Christian kingdoms; 12th to 15th{{nbsp}}century German [[Northern Crusades]] expansion into the pagan [[Baltic region]]; the suppression of non-conformity, particularly in [[Languedoc]] during what has become called the [[Albigensian Crusade]] and for the Papacy's temporal advantage in Italy and Germany that are now known as political crusades. In the 13th and 14th centuries there were also unsanctioned, but related popular uprisings to recover Jerusalem known variously as Shepherds' or Children's crusades.{{sfn|Housley|1992}}

Urban II equated the crusades for Jerusalem with the ongoing Catholic invasion of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and crusades were preached in 1114 and 1118, but it was [[Pope Callixtus II]] who proposed dual fronts in Spain and the [[Middle East]] in 1122. In the spring of 1147, Eugene authorised the expansion of his mission into the Iberian peninsula, equating these campaigns against the [[Moors]] with the rest of the Second Crusade. The successful [[siege of Lisbon]], from 1 July to 25 October 1147, was followed by the six-month [[Siege of Tortosa (1148)|siege of Tortosa]], ending on 30 December 1148 with a defeat for the Moors.<ref>Jaspert, Nikolas (2006). "Tortosa (Spain)". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. p. 1186.</ref> In the north, some Germans were reluctant to fight in the Holy Land while the pagan [[Wends]] were a more immediate problem. The resulting [[Wendish Crusade]] of 1147 was partially successful but failed to convert the pagans to Christianity.<ref>Lind, John H. (2006). " Wendish Crusade (1147)". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 1265–1268.</ref> By the time of the Second Crusade the three Spanish kingdoms were powerful enough to conquer Islamic territory{{snd}}[[Crown of Castile|Castile]], [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=188}} In 1212 the Spanish were victorious at the [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] with the support of foreign fighters responding to the preaching of Innocent III. Many of these deserted because of the Spanish tolerance of the defeated Muslims, for whom the Reconquista was a war of domination rather than extermination.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=191}} In contrast the Christians formerly living under Muslim rule called [[Mozarabs]] had the [[Roman Rite]] relentlessly imposed on them and were absorbed into mainstream Catholicism.<ref name="Jotischky 2004 131">{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|p=131}}</ref> Al-Andalus, Islamic Spain, was completely suppressed in 1492 when the [[Emirate of Granada]] surrendered.{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=212–213}}

In 1147, [[Pope Eugene III]] extended Calixtus's idea by authorising a crusade on the German north-eastern frontier against the pagan [[Wends]] from what was primarily economic conflict.{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2001|p=2}}{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=199–205}} From the early 13th{{nbsp}}century, there was significant involvement of military orders, such as the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] and the [[Order of Dobrzyń]]. The Teutonic Knights diverted efforts from the Holy Land, absorbed these orders and established the [[State of the Teutonic Order]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=202–203}}{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=315–327}} This evolved the [[Duchy of Prussia]] and [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] in 1525 and 1562, respectively.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=328–333}}

[[File:Albigensian Crusade 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Two illuminations: the pope admonishing a group of people and mounted knights attacking unarmed people with swords|Miniatures showing [[Pope Innocent III]] excommunicating, and the crusaders massacring, Cathars (BL Royal 16 G VI, fol. 374v, 14th{{nbsp}}century)]]
By the beginning of the 13th{{nbsp}}century papal reticence in applying crusades against the papacy's political opponents and those considered heretics had abated. Innocent III proclaimed [[Albigensian Crusade|a crusade]] against Catharism that failed to suppress the heresy itself but ruined the culture of the [[Languedoc]].{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2001|pp=42–43}} This set a precedent that was followed in 1212 with pressure exerted on the city of [[History of Milan#Middle Ages|Milan]] for tolerating Catharism,{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=193}} in 1234 [[Stedinger Crusade|against]] the [[Stedingen|Stedinger]] peasants of north-western Germany, in 1234 and 1241 Hungarian crusades against [[Banate of Bosnia|Bosnian heretics]].{{sfn|Riley-Smith|2001|pp=42–43}} The historian [[Norman Housley]] notes the connection between [[heterodoxy]] and anti-papalism in Italy.{{sfn|Housley|1982}} [[Indulgence]] was offered to anti-heretical groups such as the [[Militia of Jesus Christ]] and the [[Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=193–196}} Innocent III declared the first political crusade against Frederick II's regent, [[Markward von Annweiler]], and when Frederick later threatened Rome in 1240, Gregory IX used crusading terminology to raise support against him. On Frederick II's death the focus moved to Sicily. In 1263, [[Pope Urban IV]] offered crusading indulgences to Charles of Anjou in return for Sicily's conquest. However, these wars had no clear objectives or limitations, making them unsuitable for crusading.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=195–198}} The [[Papal election, 1280–81|1281 election]] of a French pope, [[Pope Martin IV|Martin{{nbsp}}IV]], brought the power of the papacy behind Charles. Charles's preparations for a crusade against Constantinople were foiled by the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael VIII Palaiologos]], who instigated an uprising called the [[Sicilian Vespers]]. Instead, [[Peter III of Aragon]] was proclaimed king of Sicily, despite his excommunication and an unsuccessful [[Aragonese Crusade]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=198}} Political crusading continued against Venice over [[Ferrara]]; [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis IV, King of Germany]] when he [[Romzug|marched to Rome]] for his imperial coronation; and the [[Free company|free companies]] of mercenaries.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|pp=353–354}}

The Latin states established were a fragile patchwork of petty realms threatened by Byzantine successor states{{snd}}the [[Despotate of Epirus]], the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. [[Thessaloniki]] fell to Epirus in 1224, and Constantinople to Nicaea in 1261. Achaea and Athens survived under the [[Capetian House of Anjou|French]] after the [[Treaty of Viterbo]].{{sfn|Lock|2006|pp=125, 133, 337, 436–437}} The Venetians endured a long-standing conflict with the Ottoman Empire until the final possessions were lost in the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–1718)|Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War]] in the 18th{{nbsp}}century. This period of [[History of Greece|Greek history]] is known as the ''[[Frankokratia]]'' or ''Latinokratia'' ("Frankish or Latin rule") and designates a period when western European Catholics ruled [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] [[Byzantine Greeks]].<ref>Hendrickx, Benjamin (2006). "Constantinople, Latin Empire of". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 279–286.</ref>

The major [[Crusades after Acre, 1291–1399|crusades of the 14th century]] include: the [[Fra Dolcino|Crusade against the Dulcinians]]; the [[Crusade of the Poor]]; the [[Walter VI, Count of Brienne#Anti-Catalan crusade of 1331–1332|Anti-Catalan Crusade]]; the [[Shepherds' Crusade (1320)|Shepherds' Crusade]]; the [[Smyrniote crusades|Smyrniote Crusades]]; the [[Magnus IV of Sweden#Crusade against Novgorod|Crusade against Novgorod]]; the [[Savoyard Crusade]]; the [[Alexandrian Crusade]]; the [[Despenser's Crusade]]; the [[Barbary Crusade|Mahdia]], [[Crusade of Tedelis|Tedelis]], and [[Bona crusade|Bona Crusades]]; and the [[Battle of Nicopolis|Crusade of Nicopolis]].

The threat of the expanding [[Ottoman Empire]] prompted further [[Crusades of the 15th Century|crusades of the 15th century]]. In 1389, the Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the [[Battle of Kosovo]], won [[Ottoman conquest of the Balkans|control of the Balkans]] from the [[Danube]] to the [[Gulf of Corinth]], in 1396 defeated French crusaders and [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|King Sigismund of Hungary]] at the [[Battle of Nicopolis|Nicopolis]], in 1444 destroyed a crusading Polish and Hungarian force at [[Crusade of Varna|Varna]], four years later again defeated the Hungarians at [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Kosovo]] and in 1453 captured Constantinople. The 16th{{nbsp}}century saw growing rapprochement. The [[Habsburgs]], French, Spanish and Venetians and Ottomans all signed treaties. [[Francis I of France]] allied with all quarters, including from German Protestant princes and Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].{{sfn|Tyerman |2019|pp=406–408}}

Anti-Christian crusading declined in the 15th{{nbsp}}century, the exceptions were the [[Hussite Wars|six failed crusades]] against the religiously radical [[Hussites]] in [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] and attacks on the [[Waldensians]] in Savoy.{{sfn|Tyerman |2019|pp=358–359}} Crusading became a financial exercise; precedence was given to the commercial and political objectives. The military threat presented by the Ottoman Turks diminished, making anti-Ottoman crusading obsolete in 1699 with the final [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]].{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=257}}{{sfn|Tyerman |2019|pp=9, 257, 420–421}}


==Crusading movement==
{{Main|Crusading movement}}
Prior to the 11th{{nbsp}}century, the [[Latin Church]] had developed a system for the remission and absolution of sin in return for contrition, confession, and penitential acts. Reparation through abstinence from martial activity still presented a difficulty to the noble warrior class. It was revolutionary when Gregory VII offered absolution of sin earned through the Church-sponsored violence in support of his causes, if selflessly given at the end of the century.{{sfn|Tyerman|2011|p=61}}{{sfn|Latham|2012|p=123}} This was developed by subsequent Popes into the granting of plenary indulgences that reduced all God-imposed temporal penalties.{{sfn|Maier|2006a|pp=627–629}} The papacy developed "Political [[Augustinianism]]" into attempts to remove the Church from secular control by asserting ecclesiastical supremacy over temporal polities and the Orthodox Church. This was associated with the idea that the Church should actively intervene in the world to impose "justice".{{sfn|Latham|2012|p=118}}

A distinct ideology promoting and regulating crusading is evidenced in surviving texts. The Church defined this in legal and theological terms based on the theory of holy war and the concept of pilgrimage. Theology merged the Old Testament Israelite wars instigated and assisted by God with New Testament Christocentric views. Holy war was based on ancient ideas of just war. The fourth-century theologian [[Augustine of Hippo]] had Christianised this, and it eventually became the [[paradigm]] of Christian holy war. Theologians widely accepted the justification that holy war against pagans was good, because of their opposition to Christianity.{{sfn|Maier|2006a|pp=627–629}} The Holy Land was the patrimony of Christ; its recovery was on behalf of God. The Albigensian Crusade was a defence of the French Church, the Northern Crusades were campaigns conquering lands beloved of Christ's mother [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] for Christianity.{{sfn|Maier|2006a|pp=629–630}}

Inspired by the First Crusade, the crusading movement went on to define late medieval western culture and impacted the history of the western Islamic world.{{sfn|Riley-Smith|1995|pp=4–5, 36}} Christendom was geopolitical, and this underpinned the practice of the medieval Church. Reformists of the 11th{{nbsp}}century urged these ideas which declined following the Reformation. The ideology continued after the 16th{{nbsp}}century with the military orders but dwindled in competition with other forms of religious war and new ideologies.{{sfn|Maier|2006a|pp=630–631}}

==Military orders==
{{Main|Military order (religious society)|l1=Military orders}}[[Image:Baldwin II ceeding the Temple of Salomon to Ugo dei Pagani and Gaudefroy de Saint-Homer.jpg|thumb|13th-century miniature of [[Baldwin II of Jerusalem]] granting the captured [[Al-Aqsa|Al Aqsa Mosque]] to [[Hugues de Payns]]|alt=13th-century miniature of King Baldwin II granting the Al Aqsa Mosque to Hugues de Payens]] The military orders were forms of a religious order first established early in the twelfth century with the function of defending Christians, as well as observing monastic vows. The [[Knights Hospitaller]] had a medical mission in Jerusalem since before the [[First Crusade]], later becoming a formidable military force supporting the crusades in the Holy Land and Mediterranean. The [[Knights Templar]] were founded in 1119 by a band of knights who dedicated themselves to protecting pilgrims en{{nbsp}}route to Jerusalem.<ref>{{harvnb| Asbridge|2012| p= 168}}</ref> The [[Teutonic Order|Teutonic Knights]] were formed in 1190 to protect pilgrims in both the Holy Land and Baltic region.''<ref>Barker, Ernest (1911). "[[s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Teutonic Order, The|Teutonic Order, The]]". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' '''26''' (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 676–679.</ref>''

The Hospitallers and the Templars became supranational organisations as papal support led to rich donations of land and revenue across Europe. This, in turn, led to a steady flow of new recruits and the wealth to maintain multiple fortifications in the crusader states. In time, they developed into autonomous powers in the region.<ref>{{harvnb| Asbridge|2012|pp=169–170}}</ref> After the fall of Acre the Hospitallers relocated to Cyprus, then ruled [[Rhodes]] until the island was taken by the Ottomans in 1522. While there was talk of merging the Templars and Hospitallers in 1305 by [[Pope Clement V|Clement V]], ultimately the Templars were charged with heresy and disbanded. The Teutonic Knights supported the later Prussian campaigns into the fifteenth century.

==Art and architecture==
{{Main|Art of the Crusades}}

[[File:Crac des chevaliers syria.jpeg|thumb|12th-century [[Knights Hospitaller]] castle of [[Krak des Chevaliers]] in Syria, one of the first castles to use concentric fortification, i.e. concentric rings of defence that could all operate at the same time. It has two curtain walls and sits on a promontory.|alt=Photograph of 12th-century Hospitaller castle of Krak des Chevaliers in Syria showing concentric rings of defence, curtain walls and location sitting on a promontory.]]According to the historian Joshua Prawer no major European poet, theologian, scholar or historian settled in the crusader states. Some went on pilgrimage, and this is seen in new imagery and ideas in western poetry. Although they did not migrate east themselves, their output often encouraged others to journey there on pilgrimage.{{sfn|Prawer|1972|p=468}}

Historians consider the crusader military architecture of the Middle East to demonstrate a synthesis of the European, Byzantine and Muslim traditions and to be the most original and impressive artistic achievement of the crusades. Castles were a tangible symbol of the dominance of a Latin Christian minority over a largely hostile majority population. They also acted as centres of administration.{{sfn|Prawer|1972|pp=280–281}} Modern historiography rejects the 19th-century consensus that Westerners learnt the basis of military architecture from the Near East, as Europe had already experienced rapid development in defensive technology before the First Crusade. Direct contact with Arab fortifications originally constructed by the Byzantines did influence developments in the east, but the lack of documentary evidence means that it remains difficult to differentiate between the importance of this design culture and the constraints of situation. The latter led to the inclusion of oriental design features such as large water reservoirs and the exclusion of occidental features such as moats.{{sfn|Prawer|1972|pp=295–296}}
[[File:Egerton ms 1139!1 fse005r.jpg|thumb|The ivory front [[bookcover]] of the [[Melisende Psalter]]]]

Typically, crusader church design was in the [[French Romanesque architecture|French Romanesque]] style. This can be seen in the 12th-century rebuilding of the Holy Sepulchre. It retained some of the Byzantine details, but new arches and chapels were built to northern French, Aquitanian, and Provençal patterns. There is little trace of any surviving indigenous influence in sculpture, although in the Holy Sepulchre the [[Capital (architecture)|column capitals]] of the south facade follow classical Syrian patterns.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|p=146}}

In contrast to architecture and sculpture, it is in the area of visual culture that the assimilated nature of the society was demonstrated. Throughout the 12th{{nbsp}}and 13th{{nbsp}}centuries the influence of indigenous artists was demonstrated in the decoration of shrines, paintings and the production of illuminated manuscripts. Frankish practitioners borrowed methods from the Byzantines and indigenous artists and iconographical practice leading to a cultural synthesis, illustrated by the [[Church of the Nativity]]. Wall mosaics were unknown in the west but in widespread use in the crusader states. Whether this was by indigenous craftsmen or learnt by Frankish ones is unknown, but a distinctive original artistic style evolved.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=145–146}}

Manuscripts were produced and illustrated in workshops housing Italian, French, English and local craftsmen leading to a cross-fertilisation of ideas and techniques. An example of this is the [[Melisende Psalter]], created by several hands in a workshop attached to the Holy Sepulchre. This style could have both reflected and influenced the taste of patrons of the arts. But what is seen is an increase in stylised, Byzantine-influenced content. This extended to the production of [[icons]], unknown at the time to the Franks, sometimes in a Frankish style and even of western saints. This is seen as the origin of Italian panel painting.{{sfn|Jotischky|2004|pp=147–149}} While it is difficult to track illumination of manuscripts and castle design back to their origins, textual sources are simpler. The translations made in Antioch are notable, but they are considered of secondary importance to the works emanating from Muslim Spain and from the hybrid culture of Sicily.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=667–668}}

==Financing==
{{main|Papal income tax}}
Crusade finance and taxation left a legacy of social, financial, and legal institutions. Property became available while coinage and precious materials circulated more readily within Europe. Crusading expeditions created immense demands for food supplies, weapons, and shipping that benefited merchants and artisans. Levies for crusades contributed to the development of centralised financial administrations and the growth of papal and royal taxation. This aided development of representative bodies whose consent was required for many forms of taxation.<ref name=":3">Bird, Jessalynn (2006). "Finance of Crusades". In ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 432–436.</ref>

The Crusades strengthened exchanges between [[Orient]]al and [[Occident]]al economic spheres. The transport of pilgrims and crusaders notably benefitted Italian maritime cities, such as the trio of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. Having obtained commercial privileges in the fortified places of Syria, they became the favoured intermediaries for trade in goods such as silk, spices, as well as other raw alimentary goods and mineral products. Trade with the Muslim world was thus extended beyond existing limits. Merchants were further advantaged by technological improvements, and long-distance trade as a whole expanded.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cartwright |first1=Mark |title=Trade in Medieval Europe |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1301/trade-in-medieval-europe/ |website=World History Encyclopedia |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=en |date=8 January 2019}}</ref> The increased volume of goods being traded through ports of the Latin Levant and the Muslim world made this the cornerstone of a wider Middle Eastern economy, as manifested in important cities along the trade routes, such as Aleppo, Damascus, and Acre. It became increasingly common for European merchants to venture farther east, and business was conducted fairly despite religious differences, and continued even in times of political and military tensions.<ref name=":3" />

==Legacy==
{{See also|Crusading movement#Legacy}}
The Crusades created national mythologies, tales of heroism, and a few place names.{{sfn|Tyerman|2019|p=468}} Historical parallelism and the tradition of drawing inspiration from the Middle Ages have become keystones of [[political Islam]] encouraging ideas of a modern jihad and a centuries-long struggle against Christian states, while secular [[Arab nationalism]] highlights the role of western imperialism.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=675–680}} Modern Muslim thinkers, politicians and historians have drawn parallels between the crusades and political developments such as the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|establishment of Israel]] in 1948.{{sfn|Asbridge|2012|pp=674–675}}

Right-wing circles in the [[western world]] have drawn opposing parallels, considering Christianity to be under an Islamic religious and demographic threat that is analogous to the situation at the time of the crusades. Crusader symbols and [[Criticism of Islam|anti-Islamic]] rhetoric are presented as an appropriate response. These symbols and rhetoric are used to provide a religious justification and inspiration for a struggle against a religious enemy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Koch|2017|p=1}}</ref>

==Historiography==
{{main|Historiography of the Crusades}}The [[historiography of the Crusades]] is concerned with their "history of the histories" during the Crusader period. The subject is a complex one, with overviews provided in ''Select Bibliography of the Crusades,<ref name=":5">Zacour, N. P.; Hazard, H. W., Editor. [http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0006/reference/history.crussix.i0029.pdf Select Bibliography of the Crusades] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620044204/http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/HistCrus/0001/0006/reference/history.crussix.i0029.pdf |date=2020-06-20 }}. (A History of the Crusades, volume, VI) Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989, pp. 511–664.</ref> Modern Historiography'',<ref name=":65">Tyerman, Christopher (2006). "Historiography, Modern". ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia''. pp. 582–588.</ref> and ''Crusades (Bibliography and Sources'').<ref name=":332">Bréhier, Louis René (1908). "[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Crusades (Bibliography and Sources)|Crusades (Sources and Bibliography)]]". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''4'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> The histories describing the Crusades are broadly of three types: (1) The [[primary source]]s of the Crusades,{{sfn|Slack|2013|p=111|loc=Historians}} which include works written in the medieval period, generally by participants in the Crusade or written contemporaneously with the event, letters and documents in archives, and archaeological studies; (2) [[secondary source]]s, beginning with early consolidated works in the 16th century and continuing to modern times; and (3) [[tertiary source]]s, primarily encyclopedias, bibliographies and genealogies.''<ref name=":5" />''

[[File:William_of_tyre.jpg|alt=A miniature painting from a medieval manuscript, showing a man sitting at a desk writing a book.|right|thumb|William of Tyre writing his history, from a 13th-century [[Old French language|Old French]] translation, [[Bibliothèque Nationale]], Paris, MS 2631, f.1r]]

===Primary sources===
The primary sources for the Crusades are generally presented in the individual articles on each Crusade and summarised in the [[list of sources for the Crusades]].<ref>Halsall, Paul (ed.). "[https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/sbook1k.asp Selected Sources{{snd}}The Crusades]". ''[[Internet History Sourcebooks Project]]''. Fordham University.</ref> For the First Crusade, this includes the [[List of sources for the Crusades#Original Latin chronicles of the First Crusade|original Latin chronicles]], including the ''[[Gesta Francorum]]'', works by [[Albert of Aix|Albert of Aachen]] and [[Fulcher of Chartres]], the ''[[Alexiad]]'' by Byzantine princess [[Anna Komnene]], the [[The Complete History|''Complete Work of History'']] by Muslim historian [[Ali ibn al-Athir]], and the ''Chronicle'' of Armenian historian [[Matthew of Edessa]]. Many of these and related texts are found in the collections [[Recueil des historiens des croisades|''Recueil des historiens des croisades'' (RHC)]] and [[Crusade Texts in Translation]]. The work of [[William of Tyre]], ''Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum,'' and its continuations by later historians complete the foundational work of the traditional Crusade.<ref>Primary Bibliography. In Phillips, J., Holy Warriors (2009).</ref> Some of these works also provide insight into the later Crusades and Crusader states. Other works include:
* Eyewitness accounts of the Second Crusade by [[Odo of Deuil]] and [[Otto of Freising]]. The Arab view from Damascus is provided by [[ibn al-Qalanisi]].
* Works on the Third Crusade such as [[Libellus de expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum|''Libellus de Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum expeditione'']], the ''[[Itinerarium Regis Ricardi]],'' and the works of Crusaders [[Tageno]] and [[Roger of Howden]], and the narratives of [[Richard of Devizes]], [[Ralph de Diceto]], [[Ralph of Coggeshall]] and [[Arnold of Lübeck]]. The Arabic works by [[Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani|al-Isfahani]] and [[Diya al-Din al-Maqdisi|al-Maqdisi]] as well as the biography of Saladin by [[Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad]] are also of interest.
* The Fourth Crusade is described in the ''[[Devastatio Constantinopolitana]]'' and works of [[Geoffrey of Villehardouin]], in his chronicle ''[[De la Conquête de Constantinople]],'' [[Robert de Clari]] and [[Gunther of Pairis]]. The view of Byzantium is provided by [[Niketas Choniates]] and the Arab perspective is given by [[Abū Shāma]] and [[Abu'l-Fida]].
* The history of the Fifth and Sixth Crusades is well represented in the works of [[Jacques de Vitry]], [[Oliver of Paderborn]] and [[Roger of Wendover]], and the Arabic works of [[Badr al-Din al-Ayni]].
* Key sources for the later Crusades include ''[[Templar of Tyre|Gestes des Chiprois]]'', [[Jean de Joinville]]'s ''Life of Saint Louis,'' as well as works by [[Guillaume de Nangis]], [[Matthew Paris]], [[Fidentius of Padua]] and [[Al-Maqrizi|al-Makrizi]].

After the fall of Acre, the crusades continued through the 16th century. Principal references on this subject are the [[Wisconsin Collaborative History of the Crusades]]<ref name=":142">Setton, K. M. (Kenneth Meyer). (1969). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000328114/Home A history of the Crusades]. [2d ed.] Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.</ref> and [[Norman Housley]]'s ''The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar.''<ref>Housley, Norman (1992). ''The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar.'' Oxford University Press.</ref> Complete bibliographies are also given in these works.{{cn|date=March 2025}}

===Secondary sources===
The secondary sources of the Crusades began in the 16th century, with one of the first uses of the term ''crusades'' by 17th century French historian [[Louis Maimbourg]] in his ''Histoire des Croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte.''<ref>Maimbourg, L. (1677). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011820873/Home ''Histoire des croisades pour la délivrance de la Terre Sainte'']. 2d ed. Paris.</ref>{{sfn|Lock|2006|p=258|loc=Historiography}}  Other works of the 18th century include [[Voltaire]]'s ''Histoire des Croisades'',<ref>Voltaire (1751). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008428814/Home ''Histoire des croisades'']. Berlin.</ref> and Edward Gibbon's [[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]], excerpted as ''The Crusades, A.D. 1095–1261''.<ref name=":12">Gibbon, E., Kaye, J., Scott, W., Caoursin, G. (1870). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/005859904/Home The crusades]. London.</ref> This edition also includes an essay on [[chivalry]] by [[Walter Scott]], whose works helped popularize the Crusades. Early in the 19th century, the monumental ''Histoire des Croisades'' was published by the French historian [[Joseph François Michaud]], a major new narrative based on original sources.<ref name=":82">Michaud, J. Fr. (Joseph Fr.). (1841). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/008232607/Home ''Histoire des croisades'']. 6. éd. Paris.</ref><ref name=":311">Michaud, J. Fr., Robson, W. (1881). [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/006664455/Home The history of the crusades]. New ed. London.</ref>

These histories have provided evolving views of the Crusades as discussed in detail in the [[Crusading movement#Historiography|Historiography]] writeup in [[Crusading movement]]. Modern works that serve as secondary source material are listed in the Bibliography section below and need no further discussion here.<ref>Secondary Bibliography. In Phillips, J. Holy Warriors (2009).</ref>

===Tertiary sources===
Three such works are: [[Louis Bréhier|Louis Bréhier's]] multiple works on the Crusades<ref>''[[s:Author:Louis René Bréhier|Louis René Bréhier (1868–1951)]]'' (1913). In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). ''Catholic Encyclopedia''. '''4'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</ref> in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]; the works of [[Ernest Barker]]<ref>[[s:Author:Ernest Barker|Ernest Barker (1874–1960)]] (1911). In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Index (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press.</ref> in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]] (11th edition), later expanded into a separate publication;{{sfn|Barker|1923|pp=1–122|loc=The Crusades}} and ''The Crusades: An Encyclopedia'' (2006), edited by historian Alan V. Murray.{{sfn|Murray|2006}}

==See also==
* [[A History of the Crusades: list of contributions|''A History of the Crusades'': list of contributions]]
* [[Bibliography of the Crusades: modern works]]
* [[Chronologies of the Crusades]]
* [[Criticism of crusading]]
* [[Historians and histories of the Crusades]]
* [[History of Christianity]]
* [[History of the Knights Hospitaller in the Levant]]
* [[History of the Knights Templar]]
* [[Military history of the Crusader states]]
* [[Women in the Crusades]]

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

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* {{cite book|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|publisher=Belknap Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-674-02387-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ULDUopVCVPoC}}
* {{cite book|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|title=The Debate on the Crusades, 1099–2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_DEyAEACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-7320-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|title=The World of the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIOVDwAAQBAJ|year=2019|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-21739-1}}
* {{cite book|last=von Sybel|first=Heinrich|author-link=Heinrich von Sybel|title=The History and Literature of the Crusades|publisher=G. Routledge & Son, Limited|year=1861|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/012476975/Home}}
{{refend}}

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