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{{Short description|Philosophical study of morality}}

'''Ethics''' is the [[philosophy|philosophical]] study of [[Morality|moral]] phenomena. Also called '''moral philosophy''', it investigates [[Normativity|normative]] questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches include [[normative ethics]], [[applied ethics]], and [[metaethics]].

Normative ethics aims to find general principles that govern how people should act. Applied ethics examines concrete ethical problems in real-life situations, such as [[abortion]], [[treatment of animals]], and [[Business ethics|business practices]]. Metaethics explores the underlying assumptions and concepts of ethics. It asks whether there are objective moral facts, how moral knowledge is possible, and how moral judgments motivate people. Influential normative theories are [[consequentialism]], [[deontology]], and [[virtue ethics]]. According to consequentialists, an act is right if it leads to the best consequences. Deontologists focus on acts themselves, saying that they must adhere to [[Duty|duties]], like telling the truth and keeping promises. Virtue ethics sees the manifestation of [[virtue]]s, like [[courage]] and [[compassion]], as the fundamental principle of morality.

Ethics is closely connected to [[value theory]], which studies the nature and types of [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|value]], like the contrast between [[Instrumental and intrinsic value|intrinsic and instrumental value]]. [[Moral psychology]] is a related empirical field and investigates psychological processes involved in morality, such as [[moral reasoning|reasoning]] and the formation of [[moral character|character]]. [[Descriptive ethics]] describes the dominant moral codes and beliefs in different societies and considers their historical dimension.

The [[history of ethics]] started in the [[ancient period]] with the development of ethical principles and theories in [[ancient Egypt]], [[Ancient India|India]], [[Ancient China|China]], and [[Ancient Greece|Greece]]. This period saw the emergence of ethical teachings associated with [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Daoism]], and contributions of philosophers like [[Socrates]] and [[Aristotle]]. During the [[medieval period]], ethical thought was strongly influenced by religious teachings. In the [[modern period]], this focus shifted to a more [[Secular ethics|secular approach]] concerned with moral experience, [[practical reason|reasons for acting]], and the consequences of actions. An influential development in the 20th century was the emergence of metaethics.

== Definition {{anchor|Defining ethics}} ==
[[File:Head of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|alt=Bust of Aristotle|According to [[Aristotle]], how to lead a good life is one of the central questions of ethics.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Vogt|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DXAuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 42–43]}} | {{harvnb|Hollenbach|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QEKQxJZq-a8C&pg=PA3 3]}} }}</ref>]]

Ethics, also called moral philosophy, is the study of moral phenomena. It is one of the main branches of [[philosophy]] and investigates the nature of [[morality]] and the principles that govern the moral [[evaluation]] of [[Human behavior|conduct]], [[character traits]], and [[institution]]s. It examines what [[Moral obligation|obligations]] people have, what behavior is right and wrong, and how to lead a [[good]] life. Some of its key questions are "How should one live?" and "What gives [[Meaning of life|meaning to life]]?".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=622}} | {{harvnb|Nagel|2006|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|loc=§ 1. Ethics and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Deigh|1999|pp=284–285}} | {{harvnb|Mulvaney|2009|pp=vii–xi}} }}</ref> In contemporary philosophy, ethics is usually divided into [[normative ethics]], [[applied ethics]], and [[metaethics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pritchard|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EoH_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethic}} | {{harvnb|Jackson|Goldschmidt|Crummett|Chan|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SNlGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}}}}</ref>

Morality is about what people ought to do rather than what they actually do, what they want to do, or what [[social convention]]s require. As a rational and systematic field of inquiry, ethics studies practical reasons why people should act one way rather than another. Most ethical theories seek universal principles that express a general standpoint of what is objectively right and wrong.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nagel|2006|loc=§ What Is Morality?}} | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|loc=§ 1. Ethics and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Haiming|2021|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Paul|Elder|2005|loc=§ Why a Mini-Guide on Ethical Reasoning?}} }}</ref> In a slightly different sense, the term ''ethics'' can also refer to individual ethical theories in the form of a rational system of moral principles, such as [[Aristotelian ethics]], and to a moral code that certain societies, social groups, or professions follow, as in [[Protestant work ethic]] and [[medical ethics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|AHD staff|2022}} | {{harvnb|Crisp|2011|loc=§ 1. Ethics and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Deigh|1999|pp=284–285}} }}</ref>

The English word ''ethics'' has its roots in the [[Ancient Greek]] word {{tlit|grc|[[Ethos|êthos]]}} ({{lang|grc|ἦθος}}), meaning {{gloss|character}} and {{gloss|personal disposition}}. This word gave rise to the Ancient Greek word {{tlit|grc|ēthikós}} ({{lang|grc|ἠθικός}}), which was translated into [[Latin]] as {{lang|la|ethica}} and entered the English language in the 15th century through the [[Old French]] term {{lang|fr|éthique}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=156}} | {{harvnb|Liddell|Scott|1889|p=[https://archive.org/details/intermediategree00lidd/page/n353/mode/2up?view=theater 349]}} | {{harvnb|Proscurcin Junior|2014|pp=162–168}} }}</ref> The term ''morality'' originates in the Latin word {{lang|la|moralis}}, meaning {{gloss|manners}} and {{gloss|character}}. It was introduced into the English language during the [[Middle English]] period through the Old French term {{lang|fro|moralité}}.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|OED Staff|2002}} | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=300}} }}</ref>

The terms ''ethics'' and ''morality'' are usually used interchangeably but some philosophers distinguish between the two. According to one view, morality focuses on what moral obligations people have while ethics is broader and includes ideas about what is good and how to lead a meaningful life. Another difference is that codes of conduct in specific areas, such as business and environment, are usually termed ''ethics'' rather than morality, as in [[business ethics]] and [[environmental ethics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Athanassoulis|2012|pp=22–27}} | {{harvnb|Downie|2005|p=271}} | {{harvnb|Blum|2006}} }}</ref>

== Normative ethics ==
{{main|Normative ethics}}
Normative ethics is the philosophical study of ethical conduct and investigates the fundamental principles of [[morality]]. It aims to discover and justify general answers to questions like "How should one live?" and "How should people act?", usually in the form of universal or domain-independent principles that determine whether an act is right or wrong.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=1–2}} | {{harvnb|Gustafson|2020|pp=[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-23514-1_1222-1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Thomas|2022}} }}</ref> For example, given the particular impression that it is wrong to set a child on fire for fun, normative ethics aims to find more general principles that explain why this is the case, like the principle that one should not cause extreme [[suffering]] to the [[innocent]], which may itself be explained in terms of a more general principle.<ref>{{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=1–3}}</ref> Many theories of normative ethics also aim to guide behavior by helping people make moral [[Decision-making|decisions]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Barsh|Lisewski|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tSzdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=18–19}} }}</ref>

Theories in normative ethics state how people should act or what kind of behavior is correct. They do not aim to describe how people normally act, what moral beliefs ordinary people have, how these beliefs change over time, or what [[ethical code]]s are upheld in certain social groups. These topics belong to [[descriptive ethics]] and are studied in fields like [[anthropology]], [[sociology]], and [[history]] rather than normative ethics.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sims|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J6csDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Barsh|Lisewski|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tSzdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=7–10}} | {{harvnb|Sulmasy|Sugarman|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QPvoTjDn0B4C&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|Pera|Tonder|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S11Eg3KjcOAC&pg=PA7 7]}} }}</ref>

Some systems of normative ethics arrive at a single principle covering all possible cases. Others encompass a small set of basic rules that address all or at least the most important moral considerations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|p=2}} | {{harvnb|Gustafsson|Pietarinen|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UDUPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 125–126]}} }}</ref> One difficulty for systems with several basic principles is that these principles may conflict with each other in some cases and lead to [[ethical dilemma]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=2–3}}</ref>

Distinct theories in normative ethics suggest different principles as the foundation of morality. The three most influential schools of thought are [[consequentialism]], [[deontology]], and [[virtue ethics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thomas|2022}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=2, 11}} }}</ref> These schools are usually presented as exclusive alternatives, but depending on how they are defined, they can overlap and do not necessarily exclude one another.<ref>{{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}}</ref> In some cases, they differ in which acts they see as right or wrong. In other cases, they recommend the same course of action but provide different [[Justification (epistemology)|justifications]] for why it is right.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|p=11}} }}</ref>

=== Consequentialism ===
{{main|Consequentialism}}

Consequentialism, also called teleological ethics,<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 134]}}</ref>{{efn|According to some theorists, ''teleological ethics'' is a wider term than ''consequentialism'' because it also covers certain forms of virtue ethics.<ref>{{harvnb|McNaughton|Rawling|1998|loc=§ 1. Act-consequentialism}}</ref>}} says that morality depends on consequences. According to the most common view, an act is right if it brings the best future. This means that there is no alternative course of action that has better consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Haines|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|2023|loc=§ 1. Utilitarianism}} }}</ref> A key aspect of consequentialist theories is that they provide a characterization of what is good and then define what is right in terms of what is good.<ref name="Crisp 2005 200–201">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}} | {{harvnb|Murthy|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tzhEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} }}</ref> For example, classical [[utilitarianism]] says that pleasure is good and that the action leading to the most overall pleasure is right.<ref>{{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=§ 1. Classic Utilitarianism}}</ref> Consequentialism has been discussed indirectly since the formulation of classical utilitarianism in the late 18th century. A more explicit analysis of this view happened in the 20th century, when the term was coined by [[G. E. M. Anscombe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carlson|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHIlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}</ref>

Consequentialists usually understand the consequences of an action in a very wide sense that includes the totality of its effects. This is based on the idea that actions make a difference in the world by bringing about a [[Causality|causal]] chain of events that would not have existed otherwise.<ref>{{harvnb|Dorsey|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d0D8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 97–98]}}</ref> A core intuition behind consequentialism is that the future should be shaped to achieve the best possible outcome.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Haines|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

The act itself is usually not seen as part of the consequences. This means that if an act has [[Intrinsic value (ethics)|intrinsic value]] or disvalue, it is not included as a factor. Some consequentialists see this as a flaw, saying that all value-relevant factors need to be considered. They try to avoid this complication by including the act itself as part of the consequences. A related approach is to characterize consequentialism not in terms of consequences but in terms of outcome, with the outcome being defined as the act together with its consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|pp=162–164}} | {{harvnb|Zimmerman|2015|p=17}} }}</ref>

Most forms of consequentialism are agent-neutral. This means that the value of consequences is assessed from a neutral perspective, that is, acts should have consequences that are good in general and not just good for the agent. It is controversial whether agent-relative moral theories, like [[ethical egoism]], should be considered as types of consequentialism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|pp=162–164}} | {{harvnb|Edmundson|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QYh_vN7CqMEC&pg=PA158 158]}} | {{harvnb|Brink|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=U0D8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA382 382]}} }}</ref>

==== Types ====
There are many different types of consequentialism. They differ based on what type of entity they evaluate, what consequences they take into consideration, and how they determine the value of consequences.<ref>{{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=Lead section}}</ref> Most theories assess the moral value of acts. However, consequentialism can also be used to evaluate [[motivation|motives]], [[character trait]]s, rules, and [[policies]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=Lead section, § 5. Consequences of What? Rights, Relativity, and Rules}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|pp=162–164}} }}</ref>

Many types assess the value of consequences based on whether they promote happiness or suffering. But there are also alternative evaluative principles, such as [[desire]] satisfaction, [[autonomy]], [[freedom]], [[knowledge]], [[friendship]], [[beauty]], and self-perfection.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Haines|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=Lead section, § 3. What Is Good? Hedonistic Vs. Pluralistic Consequentialisms}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|pp=162–164}} }}</ref> Some forms of consequentialism hold that there is only a [[Axiology#Monism and pluralism|single source of value]].<ref name="Alexander 2021 loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism">{{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}}</ref> The most prominent among them is classical [[utilitarianism]], which states that the moral value of acts only depends on the [[pleasure]] and [[suffering]] they cause.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|pp=162–164}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}} }}</ref> An alternative approach says that there are many different sources of value, which all contribute to one overall value.<ref name="Alexander 2021 loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism"/> Before the 20th century, consequentialists were only concerned with the total of value or the aggregate good. In the 20th century, alternative views were developed that additionally consider the distribution of value. One of them states that an equal distribution of goods is better than an unequal distribution even if the aggregate good is the same.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|pp=162–164}} | {{harvnb|Cummiskey|1996|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYPmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157 157–158]}} }}</ref>

There are disagreements about which consequences should be assessed. An important distinction is between act consequentialism and rule consequentialism. According to act consequentialism, the consequences of an act determine its moral value. This means that there is a direct relation between the consequences of an act and its moral value. Rule consequentialism, by contrast, holds that an act is right if it follows a certain set of rules. Rule consequentialism determines the best rules by considering their outcomes at a community level. People should follow the rules that lead to the best consequences when everyone in the community follows them. This implies that the relation between an act and its consequences is indirect. For example, if telling the truth is one of the best rules, then according to rule consequentialism, a person should tell the truth even in specific cases where lying would lead to better consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=5. Consequences of What? Rights, Relativity, and Rules}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|2023|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Haines|loc=§ 1f. Rule Consequentialism}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|p=164}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}} }}</ref>

Another disagreement is between actual and expected consequentialism. According to the traditional view, only the actual consequences of an act affect its moral value. One difficulty of this view is that many consequences cannot be known in advance. This means that in some cases, even well-planned and intentioned acts are morally wrong if they inadvertently lead to negative outcomes. An alternative perspective states that what matters are not the actual consequences but the expected consequences. This view takes into account that when deciding what to do, people have to rely on their limited knowledge of the total consequences of their actions. According to this view, a course of action has positive moral value despite leading to an overall negative outcome if it had the highest [[expected value]], for example, because the negative outcome could not be anticipated or was unlikely.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|pp=162–164}} | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=§ 1. Classic Utilitarianism, § 4. Which Consequences? Actual Vs. Expected Consequentialisms}} }}</ref>

A further difference is between [[Maximization (psychology)|maximizing]] and [[satisficing]] consequentialism. According to maximizing consequentialism, only the best possible act is morally permitted. This means that acts with positive consequences are wrong if there are alternatives with even better consequences. One criticism of maximizing consequentialism is that it demands too much by requiring that people do significantly more than they are socially expected to. For example, if the best action for someone with a good salary would be to donate 70% of their income to charity, it would be morally wrong for them to only donate 65%. Satisficing consequentialism, by contrast, only requires that an act is "good enough" even if it is not the best possible alternative. According to this view, it is possible to do more than one is morally required to do.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hooker|2005|p=164}} | {{harvnb|Slote|2005|pp=938–939}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}} | {{harvnb|Singer|2016|pp=47–48}} | {{harvnb|Byron|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bRFFsQE2BrQC&pg=PA9 9]}} }}</ref>{{efn|This state is known as [[supererogation]].<ref>{{harvnb|Heyd|2019|loc=Lead section}}</ref>}}

[[Mohism]] in ancient [[Chinese philosophy]] is one of the earliest forms of consequentialism. It arose in the 5th century BCE and argued that political action should promote justice as a means to increase the welfare of the people.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 1c. Mozi (c. 470-391 B.C.E.) and Mohism}} | {{harvnb|Zhang|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2ka8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96]}} }}</ref>

==== Utilitarianism ====
{{main|Utilitarianism}}
The most well-known form of consequentialism is utilitarianism. In its classical form, it is an act consequentialism that sees [[happiness]] as the only source of intrinsic value. This means that an act is morally right if it produces "the greatest good for the greatest number" by increasing happiness and reducing suffering. Utilitarians do not deny that other things also have value, like health, friendship, and knowledge. However, they deny that these things have intrinsic value. Instead, they say that they have extrinsic value because they affect happiness and suffering. In this regard, they are desirable as a means but, unlike happiness, not as an end.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Slote|2005|pp=936, 938}} | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2023|loc=§ 1. Classic Utilitarianism}} }}</ref> The view that pleasure is the only thing with intrinsic value is called ethical or [[evaluative hedonism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|2019|loc=Lead section, § 2. Ethical Hedonism}}</ref>

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|footer=[[Jeremy Bentham]] and [[John Stuart Mill]] are the founding fathers of classical utilitarianism.<ref>{{harvnb|Suikkanen|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=343mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}</ref>
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Classical utilitarianism was initially formulated by [[Jeremy Bentham]] at the end of the 18th century and further developed by [[John Stuart Mill]]. Bentham introduced the [[hedonic calculus]] to assess the value of consequences. Two key aspects of the hedonic calculus are the intensity and the duration of pleasure. According to this view, a pleasurable experience has a high value if it has a high intensity and lasts for a long time. A common criticism of Bentham's utilitarianism argued that its focus on the intensity of pleasure promotes an immoral lifestyle centered around indulgence in sensory gratification. Mill responded to this criticism by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures. He stated that higher pleasures, like the intellectual satisfaction of reading a book, are more valuable than lower pleasures, like the sensory enjoyment of food and drink, even if their intensity and duration are the same.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Slote|2005|pp=936, 938}} | {{harvnb|Mendus|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wYWGIpa7Qr4C&pg=PA141 141]}} | {{harvnb|Kivy|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-c7ThZc5Rv0C&pg=PA238 238]}} }}</ref> Since its original formulation, many variations of utilitarianism have developed, including the difference between [[Act utilitarianism|act]] and [[rule utilitarianism]] and between maximizing and satisficing utilitarianism.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Slote|2005|p=938}} | {{harvnb|Hooker|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z3zBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA281 281]}} | {{harvnb|Satyanarayana|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gjiBTNR1g0kC&pg=PT76 76]}} }}</ref>

=== Deontology ===
{{main|Deontology}}
Deontology assesses the moral rightness of actions based on a set of [[Norm (philosophy)|norms]] or principles. These norms describe the requirements that all actions need to follow.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 2. Deontological Theories}} }}</ref> They may include principles like telling the truth, keeping [[promise]]s, and not intentionally harming others.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Simpson|loc=§ 6c. Deontological Pluralism and Prima Facie Duties}} | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} }}</ref> Unlike consequentialists, deontologists hold that the validity of general moral principles does not directly depend on their consequences. They state that these principles should be followed in every case since they express how actions are inherently right or wrong. According to moral philosopher [[W. D. Ross|David Ross]], it is wrong to break a promise even if no harm comes from it.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} | {{harvnb|Simpson|loc=§ 6c. Deontological Pluralism and Prima Facie Duties}} }}</ref> Deontologists are interested in which actions are right and often allow that there is a gap between what is right and what is good.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism, § 2. Deontological Theories}} | {{harvnb|Murthy|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tzhEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74]}} }}</ref> Many focus on prohibitions and describe which acts are forbidden under any circumstances.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 2. Deontological Theories}} | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} }}</ref>

==== Agent-centered and patient-centered ====
Agent-centered deontological theories focus on the [[moral agency|person who acts]] and the [[Duty|duties]] they have. Agent-centered theories often focus on the motives and intentions behind people's actions, highlighting the importance of acting for the right reasons. They tend to be agent-relative, meaning that the reasons for which people should act depend on personal circumstances. For example, a parent has a special obligation to their child, while a stranger does not have this kind of obligation toward a child they do not know. Patient-centered theories, by contrast, focus on the people affected by actions and the rights they have. An example is the requirement to treat other people as ends and not merely as a means to an end.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 2. Deontological Theories}} | {{harvnb|Hale|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CQNLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA216 216]}} | {{harvnb|Kumm|Walen|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DXs9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 81]}} }}</ref> This requirement can be used to argue, for example, that it is wrong to kill a person against their will even if this act would save the lives of several others. Patient-centered deontological theories are usually agent-neutral, meaning that they apply equally to everyone in a situation, regardless of their specific role or position.<ref>{{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 2. Deontological Theories}}</ref>

==== Kantianism ====
{{main|Kantian ethics}}
[[File:Immanuel Kant - Gemaelde 1.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Oil painting of Immanuel Kant|[[Immanuel Kant]] formulated a deontological system based on universal laws that apply to all [[Rationality|rational]] creatures.]]

[[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804) is one of the most well-known deontologists.<ref>{{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 2.4 Deontological Theories and Kant}}</ref> He states that reaching outcomes that people desire, such as being happy, is not the main purpose of moral actions. Instead, he argues that there are universal principles that apply to everyone independent of their desires. He uses the term ''[[categorical imperative]]'' for these principles, saying that they have their source in the structure of [[practical reason]] and are true for all [[Rationality|rational]] agents. According to Kant, to act morally is to act in agreement with reason as expressed by these principles<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Johnson|Cureton|2022|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|O'Neill|loc=§ 1. Kant's Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Jankowiak|loc=§ 5. Moral Theory}} | {{harvnb|Nadkarni|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aoM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT20 20]}} }}</ref> while violating them is both immoral and irrational.<ref>{{harvnb|Johnson|Cureton|2022|loc=Lead section}}</ref>

Kant provided several formulations of the categorical imperative. One formulation says that a person should only follow [[Maxim (philosophy)|maxims]]{{efn|A maxim is a rule that people can adopt to guide their action, like "If you want to make big money, you should go into sales" or "Thou shalt not commit murder".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kerstein|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqemab0aXx8C&pg=PA128 128]}} | {{harvnb|Cardwell|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iEbKBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 85]}} }}</ref>}} that can be [[Universalizability|universalized]]. This means that the person would want everyone to follow the same maxim as a universal law applicable to everyone. Another formulation states that one should treat other people always as ends in themselves and never as mere means to an end. This formulation focuses on respecting and valuing other people for their own sake rather than using them in the pursuit of personal goals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|O'Neill|loc=§ 1. Kant's Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Jankowiak|loc=§ 5. Moral Theory}} }}</ref>

In either case, Kant says that what matters is to have a good will. A person has a good will if they respect the moral law and form their intentions and motives in agreement with it. Kant states that actions motivated in such a way are unconditionally good, meaning that they are good even in cases where they result in undesirable consequences.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Jankowiak|loc=§ 5. Moral Theory}} | {{harvnb|Johnson|Cureton|2022|loc=§ 2. Good Will, Moral Worth and Duty, § 3. Duty and Respect for Moral Law}} }}</ref>

==== Others ====
{{main|Divine command theory|Contractualism|Discourse ethics}}
Divine command theory says that God is the source of morality. It states that moral laws are divine commands and that to act morally is to obey and follow [[God's will]]. While all divine command theorists agree that morality depends on God, there are disagreements about the precise content of the divine commands, and theorists belonging to different religions tend to propose different moral laws.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Austin|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Murphy|2019|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> For example, Christian and Jewish divine command theorists may argue that the [[Ten Commandments]] express God's will<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=87hQ2AjcttEC&pg=PA13 13]}} | {{harvnb|Flynn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pl3bToUqdAIC&pg=PA167 167]}} }}</ref> while Muslims may reserve this role for the teachings of the [[Quran]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Flynn|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pl3bToUqdAIC&pg=PA167 167]}} | {{harvnb|Myers|Noebel|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hzeACgAAQBAJ&pg=PA241 241]}} }}</ref>

Contractualists reject the reference to God as the source of morality and argue instead that morality is based on an explicit or implicit [[social contract]] between humans. They state that actual or hypothetical [[consent]] to this contract is the source of moral norms and duties. To determine which duties people have, contractualists often rely on a [[thought experiment]] about what rational people under ideal circumstances would agree on. For example, if they would agree that people should not lie then there is a moral obligation to refrain from lying. Because it relies on consent, contractualism is often understood as a patient-centered form of deontology.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 2.3 Contractualist Deontological Theories}} | {{harvnb|Sullivan|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1vkgWX7GRr0C&pg=PA118 118]}} | {{harvnb|Ashford|Mulgan|2018|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>{{efn|Some ethicists state that contractualism is not a normative ethical theory but a metaethical theory because of its emphasis on how moral norms are justified.<ref>{{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 2.3 Contractualist Deontological Theories}}</ref>}} Famous social contract theorists include [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], and [[John Rawls]].<ref>{{harvnb|Friend|loc=Lead section}}</ref>

[[File:JuergenHabermas.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of Jürgen Habermas|According to [[discourse ethics]], as formulated by [[Jürgen Habermas]], moral norms are justified by [[Communicative rationality|rational discourse]] within society. ]]

Discourse ethics also focuses on social agreement on moral norms but says that this agreement is based on [[communicative rationality]]. It aims to arrive at moral norms for pluralistic modern societies that encompass a diversity of viewpoints. A universal moral norm is seen as valid if all rational discourse participants do or would approve. This way, morality is not imposed by a single moral authority but arises from the moral discourse within society. This discourse should aim to establish an [[ideal speech situation]] to ensure fairness and inclusivity. In particular, this means that discourse participants are [[Freedom of speech|free to voice]] their different opinions without coercion but are at the same time required to justify them using rational argumentation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chakraborti|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 39]}} | {{harvnb|Metselaar|Widdershoven|2016|pp=[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-09483-0_145 895–896]}} | {{harvnb|Finlayson|Rees|2023|loc=§ 3.3 The Principles of Discourse Ethics and Their Justification}} }}</ref>

=== Virtue ethics ===
{{main|Virtue ethics}}
The main concern of virtue ethics is how [[virtue]]s are expressed in actions. As such, it is neither directly interested in the consequences of actions nor in universal moral duties.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Slote|2005a|pp=947–948}} | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Virtues are positive character traits like [[honesty]], [[courage]], [[kindness]], and [[compassion]]. They are usually understood as [[disposition]]s to feel, decide, and act in a certain manner by being wholeheartedly committed to this manner. Virtues contrast with [[vice]]s, which are their harmful counterparts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1.1 Virtue}} | {{harvnb|Slote|2005a|pp=947–948}} }}</ref>

Virtue theorists usually say that the mere possession of virtues by itself is not sufficient. Instead, people should manifest virtues in their actions. An important factor is the practical wisdom, also called ''[[phronesis]]'', of knowing when, how, and which virtue to express. For example, a lack of practical wisdom may lead courageous people to perform morally wrong actions by taking unnecessary risks that should better be avoided.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=§ 1.2 Practical Wisdom}} | {{harvnb|Caro|Marraffa|Vaccarezza|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QL4sEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT31 31–33]}} }}</ref>

Different types of virtue ethics differ on how they understand virtues and their role in practical life. [[Eudaimonia|Eudaimonism]] is the original form of virtue theory developed in Ancient Greek philosophy and draws a close relation between virtuous behavior and happiness. It states that people flourish by living a virtuous life. Eudaimonist theories often hold that virtues are positive potentials residing in human nature and that actualizing these potentials results in leading a good and happy life.<ref name="Hursthouse 2023 loc=§ 2. Forms of Virtue Ethics">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=§ 2. Forms of Virtue Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Athanassoulis|loc=§ 3. Virtue Ethical Theories}} }}</ref> Agent-based theories, by contrast, see happiness only as a side effect and focus instead on the admirable traits and motivational characteristics expressed while acting. This is often combined with the idea that one can learn from [[role model|exceptional individuals]] what those characteristics are.<ref name="Hursthouse 2023 loc=§ 2. Forms of Virtue Ethics"/> Feminist [[ethics of care]] are another form of virtue ethics. They emphasize the importance of [[interpersonal relationship]]s and say that benevolence by caring for the [[well-being]] of others is one of the key virtues.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Athanassoulis|loc=§ 3c. The Ethics of Care}} | {{harvnb|Sander-Staudt|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

Influential schools of virtue ethics in ancient philosophy were [[Aristotelianism]] and [[Stoicism]]. According to [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), each virtue{{efn|The ancient Greeks used the word {{lang|grc|arête}}, which has the meaning of both 'virtue' and 'excellence'.<ref>{{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2023|loc=§ 1. Preliminaries}}</ref>}} is a [[Golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] between two types of vices: excess and deficiency. For example, courage is a virtue that lies between the deficient state of [[cowardice]] and the excessive state of [[Recklessness (psychology)|recklessness]]. Aristotle held that virtuous action leads to happiness and makes people flourish in life.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Skirbekk|Gilje|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_I00e3SQAwMC&pg=PA81 81]}} | {{harvnb|Kraut|2022|loc=Lead section, § 5. The Doctrine of the Mean}} }}</ref> Stoicism emerged about 300 BCE<ref>{{harvnb|Hill|Blazejak|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UQE5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}}</ref> and taught that, through virtue alone, people can achieve happiness characterized by a [[Apatheia|peaceful state of mind]] free from emotional disturbances. The Stoics advocated rationality and self-mastery to achieve this state.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stephens|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|1985|pp=327–328}} }}</ref> In the 20th century, virtue ethics experienced a resurgence thanks to philosophers such as [[Elizabeth Anscombe]], [[Philippa Foot]], [[Alasdair MacIntyre]], and [[Martha Nussbaum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hursthouse|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EbHmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}}</ref>

=== Other traditions ===
There are many other schools of normative ethics in addition to the three main traditions. [[Pragmatist ethics]] focuses on the role of practice and holds that one of the key tasks of ethics is to solve practical problems in concrete situations. It has certain similarities to utilitarianism and its focus on consequences but concentrates more on how morality is embedded in and relative to social and cultural contexts. Pragmatists tend to give more importance to [[habit]]s than to conscious deliberation and understand morality as a habit that should be shaped in the right way.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Peterson|2020|pp=[https://academic.oup.com/book/40526/chapter-abstract/347844589?redirectedFrom=fulltext 65–66]}} | {{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=§ 6.2 Ethics}} | {{harvnb|LaFollette|2007|loc=§ The Primacy of Habits, § Morality Is a Habit}} }}</ref>

[[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] ethics agrees with pragmatist ethics about the [[cultural relativity]] of morality. It rejects the idea that there are objective moral principles that apply universally to all cultures and traditions. It asserts that there is no one coherent ethical code since morality itself is irrational and humans are morally ambivalent beings.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bauman|1993|pp=8–13}} | {{harvnb|Kendall|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VyRIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 195–196]}} }}</ref> Postmodern ethics instead focuses on how moral demands arise in specific situations as one encounters other people.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Connor|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dfpJqgYC7x8C&pg=PA15 15]}} | {{harvnb|Eaglestone|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dfpJqgYC7x8C&pg=PA182 182, 186–187]}} }}</ref>

[[File:EMB - Buddha stehend.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Photo of Buddha statue|The practices of [[Karuṇā|compassion]] and [[Mettā|loving-kindness]] are key elements of [[Buddhist ethics]].]]

Ethical egoism is the view that people should act in their [[self-interest]] or that an action is morally right if the person acts for their own benefit. It differs from [[psychological egoism]], which states that people actually follow their self-interest without claiming that they should do so. Ethical egoists may act in agreement with commonly accepted moral expectations and benefit other people, for example, by keeping promises, helping friends, and cooperating with others. However, they do so only as a means to promote their self-interest. Ethical egoism is often criticized as an immoral and [[contradictory]] position.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Shaver|2023|loc=Lead section, § 2. Ethical Egoism}} | {{harvnb|McEwan|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ebzqK53ay8C&pg=PA87 87]}} | {{harvnb|Fernando|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_32bJs_nfNIC&pg=SA2-PA6 2.6]}} }}</ref>

Normative ethics has a central place [[Ethics in religion|in most religions]]. Key aspects of [[Jewish ethics]] are to follow the [[613 commandments|613 commandments of God]] according to the ''[[Mitzvah]]'' duty found in the [[Torah]] and to [[Tikkun Olam|take responsibility for societal welfare]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bollag|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zMs-_Giyk6QC&pg=PA15 15–16]}} | {{harvnb|Blidstein|1995|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/23260803 5–6]}} }}</ref> [[Christian ethics]] puts less emphasis on following precise laws and teaches instead the practice of [[agape|selfless love]], such as the [[Great Commandment]] to "Love your neighbor as yourself".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Beach|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OUtss9YhnvEC&pg=PA36 36]}} | {{harvnb|Porter|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KF6MauIHGKgC&pg=PA73 73]}} }}</ref> The [[Five Pillars of Islam]] constitute a basic framework of Muslim ethics and focus on the practice of [[Shahada|faith]], [[Salat|prayer]], [[Zakat|charity]], [[Sawm|fasting during Ramadan]], and [[Hajj|pilgrimage to Mecca]].<ref>{{harvnb|Verhoeven|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RYpTAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}}</ref>

Buddhists emphasize the importance of [[Karuṇā|compassion]] and [[Mettā|loving-kindness]] towards all sentient entities.<ref>{{harvnb|Chowdhury|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qy2bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA494 494]}}</ref> A similar outlook is found in [[Jainism]], which has [[Ahimsa|non-violence]] as its principal virtue.<ref>{{harvnb|Beaman|Strumos|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0OV5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}}</ref> [[Dharma|Duty]] is a central aspect of [[Hindu ethics]] and is about fulfilling social obligations, which may vary depending on [[Caste system in India|a person's social class]] and [[Āśrama (stage)|stage of life]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chakraborti|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122]}}</ref> [[Confucianism]] places great emphasis on harmony in society and sees [[Ren (philosophy)|benevolence]] as a key virtue.<ref>{{harvnb|Wu|Wokutch|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5m9yq0Eu-vsC&pg=PT474 404]}}</ref> [[Taoism]] extends the importance of living in harmony to the whole world and teaches that people should practice [[Wu wei|effortless action]] by following [[Tao|the natural flow of the universe]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ames|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KfeOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1685 1681]}} | {{harvnb|Brannigan|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=axvPxswqNLQC&pg=PA145 145]}} }}</ref> Indigenous belief systems, like [[Native American philosophy]] and the African [[Ubuntu philosophy]], often emphasize the interconnectedness of all living beings and the environment while stressing the importance of living in harmony with nature.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ntuli|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h9HDYNhYqfAC&pg=PA58 58–60]}} | {{harvnb|Sinclair|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yhwrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 96–97]}} }}</ref>

== Metaethics ==
{{main|Metaethics}}

Metaethics is the branch of ethics that examines the nature, foundations, and scope of [[Moral reasoning|moral judgments]], concepts, and values. It is not interested in which [[Action (philosophy)|actions]] are right but in what it means for an action to be right and whether moral judgments are [[Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)|objective]] and can be true at all. It further examines the [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] of ''morality'' and other moral terms.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Harrison|2005|pp=588–589}} | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Metaethics is a [[metatheory]] that operates on a higher level of abstraction than normative ethics by investigating its underlying assumptions. Metaethical theories typically do not directly judge which normative ethical theories are correct. However, metaethical theories can still influence normative theories by examining their foundational principles.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 2. The Normative Relevance of Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1. General Observations}} }}</ref>

Metaethics overlaps with various branches of philosophy. On the level of [[ontology]],{{efn|Ontology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and categories of being.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1806 671]}} | {{harvnb|Campbell|2006|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Craig|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>}} it examines whether there are [[Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)|objective]] moral facts.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 4. Ontological Issues in Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead section, § 3. Naturalism and Non-naturalism}} }}</ref> Concerning [[semantics]], it asks what the meaning of moral terms are and whether moral statements have a [[truth value]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 3. Semantic Issues in Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead section, § 4. Is/Ought and the Open Question Argument}} }}</ref> The [[epistemological]] side of metaethics discusses whether and how people can acquire moral knowledge.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 6. Epistemological Issues in Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead section, § 5. Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref> Metaethics overlaps with [[psychology]] because of its interest in how moral judgments motivate people to act. It also overlaps with [[anthropology]] since it aims to explain how [[Cultural diversity|cross-cultural differences]] affect moral assessments.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 5. Psychology and Metaethics, 7. Anthropological Considerations}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead section, § 6. Morals, Motives, and Reasons, § 7. Freedom and Responsibility}} }}</ref>

=== Basic concepts ===
[[File:Deontic square.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Diagram of the deontic square|The deontic square visualizes the relations between possible moral statuses of an act.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNamara|Van De Putte|2022|loc=Lead section, § 1.2 The Traditional Scheme and the Modal Analogies}} | {{harvnb|Ribino|Lodato|2019|p=3}} }}</ref>]]

Metaethics examines basic ethical concepts and their relations. Ethics is primarily concerned with [[normative statement]]s about what [[Is–ought problem|ought]] to be the case, in contrast to [[Positive statement|descriptive statements]], which are about what is the case.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=1–4}} | {{harvnb|Lloyd|Hansen|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=agwMiPq5R1QC&pg=PA21 21]}} }}</ref>{{efn|This contrast is closely related to the [[is–ought problem]] problem, first articulated by [[David Hume]], which states that one cannot deduce a normative statement from a descriptive statement.<ref>{{harvnb|Fieser|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jl2x7G1G90C&pg=PA159 159]}}</ref> The exact relation between these types of statements is disputed.<ref>{{harvnb|Hudson|1969|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=m_-vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11–13]}}</ref>}} [[Duty|Duties]] and [[obligation]]s express requirements of what people ought to do.<ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KfeOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA423 423–424 ]}}</ref> Duties are sometimes defined as counterparts of the [[rights]] that always accompany them. According to this view, someone has a duty to benefit another person if this other person has the right to receive that benefit.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Stoljar|1984|pp=36–37}} | {{harvnb|Feibleman|2012|pp=121–122}} | {{harvnb|Corbin|1924|pp=501–502}} }}</ref>

''Obligation'' and ''[[Permission (philosophy)|permission]]'' are contrasting terms that can be defined through each other: to be obligated to do something means that one is not permitted not to do it and to be permitted to do something means that one is not obligated not to do it.<ref name="auto">{{multiref | {{harvnb|McNamara|Van De Putte|2022|loc=§ 1.2 The Traditional Scheme and the Modal Analogies}} | {{harvnb|Belzer|loc=§ 1. Standard Deontic Logic (SDL)}} }}</ref>{{efn|[[Deontic logic]] provides a [[formal system]] describing the logical relations between these and similar concepts.<ref name="auto"/>}} Some theorists define obligations in terms of [[Value (ethics)|values]] or what is [[good]]. When used in a general sense, ''good'' contrasts with ''bad''. When describing people and their intentions, the term ''[[evil]]'' rather than ''bad'' is often employed.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Haiming|2021|pp=75–76}} | {{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=4–5}} | {{harvnb|Calder|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

Obligations are used to assess the moral status of actions, [[Motivation|motives]], and [[character trait]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=4–5}}</ref> An action is morally right if it is in tune with a person's obligations and morally wrong if it violates them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pick|2004|pp=159–160}} | {{harvnb|Haiming|2021|pp=88–89}} | {{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=5–6}} }}</ref> [[Supererogation]] is a special moral status that applies to cases in which the agent does more than is morally required of them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Heyd|2019|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=5–6}} }}</ref> To be [[Moral responsibility|morally responsible]] for an action usually means that the person possesses and exercises certain capacities or some form of [[Control (psychology)|control]].{{efn|Some philosophers suggest that there is [[moral luck]], which occurs when factors outside a person's control influence the moral status of that person.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Latus|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Nelkin|2023|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>}} If a person is morally responsible then it is appropriate to respond to them in certain ways, for example, by [[praise|praising]] or [[blame|blaming]] them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Talbert|2019|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Williams|loc=Lead section, § 1. Introduction}} }}</ref>

=== Realism, relativism, and nihilism ===
A major debate in metaethics is about the ontological status of morality, questioning whether ethical values and principles are real. It examines whether moral [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] exist as objective features independent of the human [[mind]] and [[culture]] rather than as subjective constructs or expressions of personal preferences and [[Social norm|cultural norms]].<ref name="ReferenceB">{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=Lead section, § 4a. Moral Realisms}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023a|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref>

[[Moral realism|Moral realists]] accept the claim that there are objective moral facts. This view implies that moral values are mind-independent aspects of reality and that there is an absolute fact about whether a given action is right or wrong. A consequence of this view is that moral requirements have the same ontological status as non-moral facts: it is an objective fact whether there is an obligation to keep a promise just as it is an objective fact whether a thing is rectangular.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Moral realism is often associated with the claim that there are universal ethical principles that apply equally to everyone.<ref>{{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 4a. Moral Realisms}}</ref> It implies that if two people disagree about a moral evaluation then at least one of them is wrong. This observation is sometimes taken as an argument against moral realism since moral disagreement is widespread in most fields.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023a|loc=§ 1. Moral Disagreement}} | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 4a. Moral Realisms}} }}</ref>

[[Moral relativism|Moral relativists]] reject the idea that morality is an objective feature of reality. They argue instead that moral principles are human inventions. This means that a behavior is not objectively right or wrong but only subjectively right or wrong relative to a certain standpoint. Moral standpoints may differ between persons, cultures, and historical periods.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 4b. Moral Relativisms}} | {{harvnb|Gowans|2021|loc=Lead section, § 2. Forms and Arguments}} | {{harvnb|Westacott|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Dreier|2007|pp=240–241}} }}</ref> For example, moral statements like "Slavery is wrong" or "Suicide is permissible" may be true in one culture and false in another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Westacott|loc=§ 2g. Moral Relativism}} | {{harvnb|Gowans|2021|loc=§ 6. Metaethical Moral Relativism}} }}</ref>{{efn|This position can be understood by analogy to [[Einstein's theory of relativity]], which states that the magnitude of physical properties like mass, length, and duration depends on the [[frame of reference]] of the observer.<ref>{{harvnb|Dreier|2007|pp=240–241}}</ref>}} Some moral relativists say that moral systems are constructed to serve certain goals such as social coordination. According to this view, different societies and different social groups within a society construct different moral systems based on their diverging purposes.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 4b. Moral Relativisms}} | {{harvnb|Gowans|2021|loc=§ 6. Metaethical Moral Relativism}} }}</ref> [[Emotivism]] provides a different explanation, stating that morality arises from moral emotions, which are not the same for everyone.<ref>{{harvnb|Dreier|2007|p=241}}</ref>

[[Moral nihilism|Moral nihilists]] deny the existence of moral facts. They reject the existence of both objective moral facts defended by moral realism and subjective moral facts defended by moral relativism. They believe that the basic assumptions underlying moral claims are misguided. Some moral nihilists conclude from this that anything is allowed. A slightly different view emphasizes that moral nihilism is not itself a moral position about what is allowed and prohibited but the rejection of any moral position.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dreier|2007|pp=240–241}} | {{harvnb|Krellenstein|2017|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/44631529 75–90]}} }}</ref> Moral nihilism, like moral relativism, recognizes that people judge actions as right or wrong from different perspectives. However, it disagrees that this practice involves morality and sees it as just one type of human behavior.<ref>{{harvnb|Dreier|2007|pp=241–242}}</ref>

==== Naturalism and non-naturalism ====
{{main|Ethical naturalism|Ethical non-naturalism|l1=Naturalism|l2=Non-naturalism}}

A central disagreement among moral realists is between naturalism and non-naturalism. Naturalism states that moral properties are [[Naturalism (philosophy)|natural]] properties accessible to [[Empirical evidence|empirical observation]]. They are similar to the natural properties investigated by the [[natural sciences]], like color and shape.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lutz|2023|loc=Lead section, § 1. What Is Moral Naturalism?}} | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 4a. Moral Realisms}} }}</ref> Some moral naturalists hold that moral properties are a unique and basic type of natural property.{{efn|For example, [[natural law]] ethics, an influential position in [[Christian ethics]], says that morality is based on a natural law created by God.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Murphy|2019a|loc=§ 1. Key Features of Natural Law Theories}} | {{harvnb|Lisska|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cgg1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA635 635]}} | {{harvnb|DeNicola|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5uCGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 66]}} }}</ref>}} Another view states that moral properties are real but not a fundamental part of reality and can be reduced to other natural properties, such as properties describing the causes of [[pleasure]] and [[pain]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lutz|2023|loc=§ 1. What Is Moral Naturalism?, § 2. Descriptivism and Reductivism}} | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 4a. Moral Realisms}} }}</ref>

Non-naturalism argues that moral properties form part of reality and that moral features are not identical or reducible to natural properties. This view is usually motivated by the idea that moral properties are unique because they express what should be the case.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|FitzPatrick|2011|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230294899_2 7–8]}} | {{harvnb|Ridge|2019|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Proponents of this position often emphasize this uniqueness by claiming that it is a [[Naturalistic fallacy|fallacy to define ethics in terms of natural entities]] or to infer prescriptive from descriptive statements.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ridge|2019|loc=§ 1. The Naturalistic Fallacy}} | {{harvnb|Werner|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWjxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA148 148]}} }}</ref>

=== Cognitivism and non-cognitivism ===
{{main|Cognitivism (ethics)|Non-cognitivism|l1=Cognitivism}}

The metaethical debate between cognitivism and non-cognitivism is about the meaning of moral statements and is a part of the study of semantics. According to cognitivism, moral statements like "Abortion is morally wrong" and "Going to war is never morally justified" are truth-apt, meaning that they all have a truth value: they are either true or false. Cognitivism claims that moral statements have a truth value but is not interested in which truth value they have. It is often seen as the default position since moral statements resemble other statements, like "Abortion is a medical procedure" or "Going to war is a political decision", which have a truth value.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 3a. Cognitivism Versus Non-Cognitivism}} | {{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=14–15}} }}</ref>

There is a close relation between the semantic theory of cognitivism and the ontological theory of moral realism. Moral realists assert that moral facts exist. This can be used to explain why moral statements are true or false: a statement is true if it is consistent with the facts and false otherwise. As a result, philosophers who accept one theory often accept the other as well. An exception is [[error theory]], which combines cognitivism with moral nihilism by claiming that all moral statements are false because there are no moral facts.<ref name="books.google.com">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=14–15}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-msmrkE-67IC&pg=PA10 10]}} }}</ref>

Non-cognitivism is the view that moral statements lack a truth value. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" is neither true nor false. Some non-cognitivists claim that moral statements have no meaning at all. A different interpretation is that they have another type of meaning. Emotivism says that they articulate emotional attitudes. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" expresses that the speaker has a negative moral attitude towards murder or disapproves of it. [[Universal prescriptivism|Prescriptivism]], by contrast, understands moral statements as [[Imperative mood|commands]]. According to this view, stating that "Murder is wrong" expresses a command like "Do not commit murder".<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Miller|2023|pp=14–15}} | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 3a. Cognitivism Versus Non-Cognitivism}} | {{harvnb|Moreland|Craig|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=deDeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA417 417]}} }}</ref>

=== Moral knowledge ===
The epistemology of ethics studies whether or how one can know moral truths. [[Foundationalism|Foundationalist]] views state that some moral beliefs are basic and do not require further justification. [[Ethical intuitionism]] is one such view that says that humans have a [[Intuition|special cognitive faculty]] through which they can know right from wrong. Intuitionists often argue that general moral truths, like "Lying is wrong", are [[self-evident]] and that it is possible to [[A priori and a posteriori|know them without relying on empirical experience]]. A different foundationalist position focuses on particular observations rather than general intuitions. It says that if people are confronted with a concrete moral situation, they can perceive whether right or wrong conduct was involved.<ref name="Sayre-McCord 2023 loc=§ 5. Moral Epistemology">{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 6. Epistemological Issues in Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=§ 5. Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref>

In contrast to foundationalists, [[Coherentism|coherentists]] say that there are no basic moral beliefs. They argue that beliefs form a complex network and mutually support and justify one another. According to this view, a moral belief can only amount to knowledge if it coheres with the rest of the beliefs in the network.<ref name="Sayre-McCord 2023 loc=§ 5. Moral Epistemology"/> [[Moral skepticism|Moral skeptics]] say that people are unable to distinguish between right and wrong behavior, thereby rejecting the idea that moral knowledge is possible. A common objection by critics of moral skepticism asserts that it leads to [[immoral]] behavior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sinnott-Armstrong|2019|loc=Lead section, § 1. Varieties of Moral Skepticism, § 2. A Presumption Against Moral Skepticism?}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=§ 5. Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref>

[[File:Trolley Problem.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Diagram depicting a trolley that is headed towards a group of people. There is an alternate track with only one person and a switch to change tracks.|The [[trolley problem]] is a thought experiment about the moral difference between doing and allowing harm.]]

[[Thought experiment]]s are used as a [[Philosophical methodology|method]] in ethics to decide between competing theories. They usually present an imagined situation involving an [[ethical dilemma]] and explore how people's intuitions of right and wrong change based on specific details in that situation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brun|2017|pp=195–196}} | {{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Baggini|Fosl|2024|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mZvfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 284]}} }}</ref> For example, in [[Philippa Foot]]'s [[trolley problem]], a person can flip a switch to redirect a trolley from one track to another, thereby sacrificing the life of one person to save five. This scenario explores how the difference between doing and allowing harm affects moral obligations.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brun|2017|p=195}} | {{harvnb|Woollard|Howard-Snyder|2022|loc=§ 3. The Trolley Problem and the Doing/Allowing Distinction}} | {{harvnb|Rini|loc=§ 8. Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology}} }}</ref> Another thought experiment, proposed by [[Judith Jarvis Thomson]], examines the moral implications of [[abortion]] by imagining a situation in which a person gets connected without their consent [[A Defense of Abortion#The violinist|to an ill violinist]]. In this scenario, the violinist dies if the connection is severed, similar to how a fetus dies in the case of abortion. The thought experiment explores whether it would be morally permissible to sever the connection within the next nine months.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brun|2017|p=195}} | {{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=§ 1. Important Characteristics of Thought Experiments}} }}</ref>

=== Moral motivation ===
On the level of psychology, metaethics is interested in how moral beliefs and experiences affect behavior. According to [[Internalism and externalism#Moral philosophy|motivational internalists]], there is a direct link between moral judgments and action. This means that every judgment about what is right motivates the person to act accordingly. For example, [[Socrates]] defends a strong form of motivational internalism by holding that a person can only perform an evil deed if they are [[ignorance|unaware]] that it is evil. Weaker forms of motivational internalism say that people can act against their own moral judgments, for example, because of the [[weakness of the will]]. Motivational externalists accept that people can judge an act to be morally required without feeling a reason to engage in it. This means that moral judgments do not always provide motivational force.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|DeLapp|loc=§ 5. Psychology and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=§ 6. Morals, Motives, and Reasons}} | {{harvnb|Rosati|2016|loc=Lead section, § 3. Moral Judgment and Motivation}} | {{harvnb|Reilly|1977|pp=101–102}} | {{harvnb|Milevski|2017|p=3}} }}</ref> A closely related question is whether moral judgments can provide motivation on their own or need to be accompanied by other [[mental states]], such as a [[desire]] to act morally.<ref>{{harvnb|Rosati|2016|loc=Lead section, § 3. Moral Judgment and Motivation}}</ref>

== Applied ethics ==
{{main|Applied ethics}}

Applied ethics, also known as practical ethics,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Darwall|2003|p=17}} | {{harvnb|Chakraborti|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA619 619–620]}} }}</ref> is the branch of ethics and [[applied philosophy]] that examines concrete moral problems encountered in real-life situations. Unlike normative ethics, it is not concerned with discovering or justifying universal ethical principles. Instead, it studies how those principles can be applied to specific domains of practical life, what consequences they have in these fields, and whether additional domain-specific factors need to be considered.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=Lead section, § 1. Definitions}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead section, § 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} | {{harvnb|Petersen|Ryberg|2022}} | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 174–175]}} }}</ref>

[[File:Cesarean section.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of surgery|One of the difficulties of applied ethics is to determine how to apply general ethical principles to concrete situations, like [[medical procedure]]s.]]

One of the main challenges of applied ethics is to breach the gap between abstract universal theories and their application to concrete situations.<ref>{{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 175–176]}}</ref> For example, an in-depth understanding of Kantianism or utilitarianism is usually not sufficient to decide how to analyze the moral implications of a [[medical procedure]] like abortion. One reason is that it may not be clear how the Kantian requirement of respecting everyone's [[personhood]] applies to a fetus or, from a utilitarian perspective, what the long-term consequences are in terms of the greatest good for the greatest number.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 175–176]}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Abortion''"|ref=Gordon, "''Abortion''"|loc=Lead section, § 2. Personhood}} }}</ref> This difficulty is particularly relevant to applied ethicists who employ a top-down [[methodology]] by starting from universal ethical principles and applying them to particular cases within a specific domain.<ref>{{harvnb|Beaucham|2003|pp=7–9}}</ref> A different approach is to use a bottom-up methodology, known as [[casuistry]]. This method does not start from universal principles but from moral intuitions about particular cases. It seeks to arrive at moral principles relevant to a specific domain, which may not be applicable to other domains.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Beaucham|2003|pp=7–9}} | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 176–117]}} | {{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=§ 2. Theory and Practice}} | {{harvnb|Fives|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f78YDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 171]}} }}</ref> In either case, inquiry into applied ethics is often triggered by [[ethical dilemma]]s in which a person is subject to conflicting moral requirements.<ref>{{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=§ 2. Theory and Practice}}</ref>

Applied ethics covers issues belonging to both the [[private sphere]], like right conduct in the family and close relationships, and the [[public sphere]], like moral problems posed by new technologies and duties toward future generations.<ref>{{harvnb|Almond|1998|loc=§ 1. Definitions}}</ref> Major branches include [[bioethics]], [[business ethics]], and [[professional ethics]]. There are many other branches, and their domains of inquiry often overlap.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ryberg|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsCRosM367gC&pg=PA3 3]}} | {{harvnb|Meynell|Paron|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VrTFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|Chakraborti|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA620 620]}} | {{harvnb|Winkler|1998|pp=[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168 174–175]}} }}</ref>

=== Bioethics ===
{{main|Bioethics}}
Bioethics covers moral problems associated with [[Life|living organisms]] and [[biological]] disciplines.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gillon|1998|pp=267–268}} }}</ref> A key problem in bioethics is how features such as [[consciousness]], being able to feel pleasure and pain, [[rationality]], and personhood affect the moral status of entities. These differences concern, for example, how to treat non-living entities like rocks and non-sentient entities like plants in contrast to animals, and whether humans have a different moral status than other animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 4. The Idea of Moral Status in Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 4a. Theories of Moral Standing and Personhood}} }}</ref> According to [[anthropocentrism]], only humans have a basic moral status. This suggests that all other entities possess a derivative moral status only insofar as they impact human life. [[Sentientism]], by contrast, extends an inherent moral status to all sentient beings. Further positions include [[Biocentrism (ethics)|biocentrism]], which also covers non-sentient lifeforms, and [[ecocentrism]], which states that all of nature has a basic moral status.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=288–289}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} }}</ref>

Bioethics is relevant to various aspects of life and many professions. It covers a wide range of moral problems associated with topics like [[abortion]], [[cloning]], [[stem cell research]], [[euthanasia]], [[suicide]], [[animal testing]], [[intensive animal farming]], [[nuclear waste]], and [[air pollution]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 1. Preliminary Distinctions}} }}</ref>

Bioethics can be divided into [[medical ethics]], [[animal ethics]], and [[environmental ethics]] based on whether the ethical problems relate to humans, other animals, or nature in general.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3a. Introduction}} | {{harvnb|Peppard|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qFBgL8b4_JgC&pg=PR18 xviii]}} | {{harvnb|Frey|1998|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Medical ethics is the oldest branch of bioethics. The [[Hippocratic Oath]] is one of the earliest texts to engage in medical ethics by establishing ethical guidelines for medical practitioners like a [[Medical ethics#Non-maleficence|prohibition to harm the patient]].<ref name="ReferenceC">{{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics}}</ref> Medical ethics often addresses issues related to the start and end of life. It examines the moral status of fetuses, for example, whether they are full-fledged persons and whether abortion is a form of [[murder]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics}} }}</ref> Ethical issues also arise about whether a person has the right to end their life in cases of terminal illness or chronic suffering and if [[Assisted suicide|doctors may help them do so]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 3. Bioethics}} | {{harvnb|Delden|1998|pp=200–201}} }}</ref> Other topics in medical ethics include [[medical confidentiality]], [[informed consent]], research on human beings, [[organ transplantation]], and access to [[healthcare]].<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

[[File:Battery hens -Bastos, Sao Paulo, Brazil-31March2007.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Photo of battery hens in Brazil|Harm done to animals is a particular concern in animal ethics, for example, as a result of [[intensive animal farming]].]]

Animal ethics examines how humans should treat other animals. This field often emphasizes the importance of [[animal welfare]] while arguing that humans should avoid or minimize the harm done to animals. There is wide agreement that it is wrong to [[Cruelty to animals|torture animals]] for fun. The situation is more complicated in cases where harm is inflicted on animals as a side effect of the pursuit of human interests. This happens, for example, during factory farming, when using animals as food, and for research experiments on animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wilson|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=Lead section, § 3c. Animal Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=317–319}} }}</ref> A key topic in animal ethics is the formulation of [[animal rights]]. Animal rights theorists assert that animals have a certain moral status and that humans should respect this status when interacting with them.<ref>{{harvnb|Holmes|2018|pp=333–334}}</ref> Examples of suggested animal rights include the right to life, the right to be free from unnecessary suffering, and the right to natural behavior in a suitable environment.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Francione|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ocbdJD2oUW0C&pg=PA115 115–116]}} | {{harvnb|Yount|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=R4jQ_upQZroC&pg=PA26 26]}} }}</ref>

Environmental ethics deals with moral problems relating to the natural environment including animals, plants, [[natural resource]]s, and [[ecosystem]]s. In its widest sense, it covers the whole [[cosmos]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Sandler|1998|pp=105–106}} | {{harvnb|Brennan|Lo|2022|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> In the domain of [[agriculture]], this concerns the circumstances under which the vegetation of an area may be cleared to use it for farming and the implications of planting [[genetically modified crops]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brennan|Lo|2022|loc=§ 1. Introduction: The Challenge of Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 3d. Environmental Ethics}} }}</ref> On a wider scale, environmental ethics addresses the problem of [[global warming]] and people's responsibility on the individual and [[Collective responsibility|collective levels]], including topics like [[climate justice]] and duties towards future generations. Environmental ethicists often promote [[Sustainability|sustainable practices]] and policies directed at protecting and conserving ecosystems and [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|ref=Gordon, "''Bioethics''"|loc=§ 1. Preliminary Distinctions, § 3d. Environmental Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Cochrane|loc=§ 2. Radical Ecology}} | {{harvnb|Smith|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LFBVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} | {{harvnb|Roser|Seidel|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gislDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1 i]}} }}</ref>

=== Business and professional ethics ===
{{main|Business ethics|Professional ethics}}
Business ethics examines the moral implications of business conduct and how ethical principles apply to corporations and organizations.<ref name="Rendtorff 1998 365–366">{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rendtorff|1998|pp=365–366}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 2. Business Ethics}} }}</ref> A key topic is [[corporate social responsibility]], which is the responsibility of corporations to act in a manner that benefits society at large. Corporate social responsibility is a complex issue since many stakeholders are directly and indirectly involved in corporate decisions, such as the [[CEO]], the [[board of directors]], and the [[shareholders]]. A closely related topic is the question of whether corporations themselves, and not just their stakeholders, have moral agency.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 2. Business Ethics}} | {{harvnb|Rendtorff|1998|pp=365–366}} }}</ref> Business ethics further examines the role of honesty and fairness in business practices as well as the moral implications of [[bribery]], [[conflict of interest]], protection of investors and consumers, [[worker's rights]], [[ethical leadership]], and corporate [[philanthropy]].<ref name="Rendtorff 1998 365–366"/>

Professional ethics is a closely related field that studies ethical principles applying to members of a specific [[profession]], like [[engineer]]s, [[medical doctor]]s, [[lawyer]]s, and [[teacher]]s. It is a diverse field since different professions often have different responsibilities.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Airaksinen|1998|p=}} | {{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=§ 5. Professional Ethics}} }}</ref> Principles applying to many professions include that the professional has the required expertise for the intended work and that they have personal integrity and are trustworthy. Further principles are to serve the interest of their target group, follow [[client confidentiality]], and respect and uphold the client's rights, such as informed consent.<ref>{{harvnb|Airaksinen|1998|pp=617–620}}</ref> More precise requirements often vary between professions. A cornerstone of [[engineering ethics]] is to protect public safety, health, and well-being.<ref>{{harvnb|Catalano|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bYhyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17]}}</ref> [[Legal ethics]] emphasizes the importance of respect for justice, personal integrity, and confidentiality.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|Evans|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-3dVoptUyrwC&pg=PA22 22–23]}}</ref> Key factors in [[journalism ethics]] include accuracy, truthfulness, independence, and [[impartiality]] as well as proper [[Attribution (journalism)|attribution]] to avoid [[plagiarism]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Medvecky|Leach|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NpO7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35]}} | {{harvnb|Mentan|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OwbOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA280 280]}} | {{harvnb|Patching|Hirst|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FFclAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 69]}} }}</ref>

=== Other subfields ===
Many other fields of applied ethics are discussed in the academic literature. [[Communication ethics]] covers moral principles of [[Communication|communicative conduct]]. Two key issues in it are [[freedom of speech]] and speech responsibility. Freedom of speech concerns the ability to articulate one's opinions and ideas without the threats of punishment and censorship. Speech responsibility is about being accountable for the consequences of communicative action and inaction.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kvalnes|2023|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-28971-2_12 101, 105]}} | {{harvnb|Christians|2005}} }}</ref> A closely related field is [[information ethics]], which focuses on the moral implications of creating, controlling, disseminating, and using [[information]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|ten Have|Patrão Neves|2021|p=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-54161-3_310 633]}} | {{harvnb|Elrod|Smith|2005}} }}</ref>

[[File:Little Boy bomb.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a nuclear weapon|[[Nuclear ethics]] addresses the moral implications of nuclear technology, such as [[atom bomb]]s.]]

The [[ethics of technology]] examines the moral issues associated with the creation and use of any artifact, from simple spears to high-tech computers and [[nanotechnology]].<ref>{{harvnb|Braunack-Mayer|Street|Palmer|1998|pp=321–322}}</ref> Central topics in the ethics of technology include the risks associated with creating new technologies, their responsible use, and questions about human enhancement through technological means, such as [[performance-enhancing drugs]] and [[Human genetic enhancement|genetic enhancement]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Braunack-Mayer|Street|Palmer|1998|pp=323–326}} | {{harvnb|Robson|Tsou|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3gumEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16–17]}} }}</ref> Important subfields include [[computer ethics]], [[ethics of artificial intelligence]], [[machine ethics]], [[Ethics of nanotechnologies|ethics of nanotechnology]], and [[nuclear ethics]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Tzafestas|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EdpECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} | {{harvnb|Mitcham|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0uF-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 101]}} }}</ref>

{{anchor|Military ethics}}
The [[ethics of war]] investigates moral problems of war and violent conflicts. According to [[just war theory]], waging war is morally justified if it fulfills certain conditions. These conditions are commonly divided into requirements concerning the [[Jus ad bellum|cause to initiate violent activities]], such as self-defense, and the [[Jus in bello|way those violent activities are conducted]], such as [[Proportionality (law)#International humanitarian law|avoiding excessive harm to civilians]] in the pursuit of [[legitimate military target]]s.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Frowe|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Lazar|2020|loc=Lead section, § 3. Jus Ad Bellum, § 4. Jus in Bello}} | {{harvnb|Sorabji|Rodin|2007|pp=2–3}} }}</ref> Military ethics is a closely related field that is interested in the conduct of [[military personnel]]. It governs questions of the circumstances under which they are permitted to kill enemies, destroy infrastructure, and put the lives of their own troops at risk.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Wolfendale|2007|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230592803_4 47–78]}} | {{harvnb|Baumann|2007|pp=34–35}} }}</ref> Additional topics are the recruitment, training, and discharge of military personnel.<ref>{{harvnb|Fotion|1998|pp=121, 123–124, 126}}</ref>

Other fields of applied ethics include [[political ethics]], which examines the moral dimensions of political decisions,<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hall|Sabl|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4bhiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Gay|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VKprw2w_IJQC&pg=PA189 189]}} }}</ref> educational ethics, which covers ethical issues related to proper teaching practices,<ref>{{harvnb|Maxwell|2023|pp=[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-22767-8_1323 609–610]}}</ref> and [[sexual ethics]], which addresses the moral implications of [[Human sexual activity|sexual behavior]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boonin|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8L1dEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}</ref>

== Related fields ==
=== Value theory ===
{{main|Value theory}}
Value theory, also called axiology,{{efn|There are disagreements in the academic literature about whether they are synonyms or whether one or the other is the wider term.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Hirose|Olson|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Grenz|Guretzki|Nordling|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv-LCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18]}} }}</ref>}} is the philosophical study of value. It examines the nature and types of value.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smith|Thomas|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Hirose|Olson|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}</ref> A central distinction is between [[Instrumental and intrinsic value|intrinsic and instrumental value]]. An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself or good for its own sake. An entity has instrumental value if it is valuable as a means to something else, for example, by causing something that has intrinsic value.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=§ 2.1 Intrinsic Value}} | {{harvnb|Zimmerman|Bradley|2019|loc=Lead section}} }}</ref> Other topics include what kinds of things have value and how valuable they are. For instance, axiological hedonists say that [[pleasure]] is the only source of intrinsic value and that the magnitude of value corresponds to the degree of pleasure. Axiological pluralists, by contrast, hold that there are different sources of intrinsic value, such as happiness, knowledge, and beauty.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=§ 2.2 Monism/Pluralism}} | {{harvnb|Zimmerman|Bradley|2019|loc=§ 1. What Has Intrinsic Value?}} | {{harvnb|de Bres|2014|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-rawls-lexicon/hedonism/602FBE3D4ACFED4422C43BCCBA3BAB48 336–338]}} }}</ref>

There are disagreements about the exact relation between value theory and ethics. Some philosophers characterize value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics while others see value theory as the broader term that encompasses other fields besides ethics, such as [[aesthetics]] and [[political philosophy]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Cowan|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 17–18]}} | {{harvnb|Stecker|2010|pp=525–526}} }}</ref> A different characterization sees the two disciplines as overlapping but distinct fields.<ref>{{harvnb|Hirose|Olson|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}}</ref> The term [[axiological ethics]] is sometimes used for the discipline studying this overlap, that is, the part of ethics that studies values.<ref>{{harvnb|Kupperman|2005|pp=73–74}}</ref> The two disciplines are sometimes distinguished based on their focus: ethics is about moral behavior or what is right while value theory is about value or what is [[good]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Calida|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2LVrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77–79]}} | {{harvnb|Grenz|Guretzki|Nordling|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv-LCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18]}} }}</ref> Some ethical theories, like consequentialism, stand very close to value theory by defining what is right in terms of what is good. But this is not true for ethics in general and deontological theories tend to reject the idea that what is good can be used to define what is right.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crisp|2005|pp=200–201}} | {{harvnb|Alexander|Moore|2021|loc=§ 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism}} | {{harvnb|Schroeder|2021|loc=§ 3. Relation to the Deontic}} }}</ref>{{efn|For example, the deontologist [[W. D. Ross|David Ross]] holds that the principles of right actions are distinct from the principles of value. He says that the terms ''good'' and ''right'' mean different things and should not be confused with one another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Skelton|2022|loc=§ 4. Ross's Distinctive Moral Framework: The Right and the Good}} | {{harvnb|Simpson|loc=§ 6. Ross's Ethical Theory: Main Components and Principles}} }}</ref>}}

=== Moral psychology ===
{{main|Moral psychology}}
Moral psychology explores the psychological foundations and processes involved in moral behavior. It is an [[empirical science]] that studies how humans think and act in moral contexts. It is interested in how [[moral reasoning]] and judgments take place, how [[moral character]] forms, what sensitivity people have to moral evaluations, and how people attribute and react to [[moral responsibility]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Doris|Stich|Phillips|Walmsley|2020|loc=Lead section, § Introduction: What Is Moral Psychology?}} | {{harvnb|Thoma|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SqBhCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 230–231]}} | {{harvnb|Rudy-Hiller|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=j81kEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA509 509]}} }}</ref>

One of its key topics is [[moral development]] or the question of how morality develops on a psychological level from infancy to adulthood.<ref>{{harvnb|Puka|loc=Lead section, § 1. What It Is}}</ref> According to [[Lawrence Kohlberg]], children go through different [[Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development|stages of moral development]] as they understand moral principles first as fixed rules governing reward and punishment, then as conventional social norms, and later as abstract principles of what is objectively right across societies.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Linn|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vayVldaXP-0C&pg=PA330 330]}} | {{harvnb|Eysenck|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rU9MRvYIh5YC&pg=PA586 586–588]}} }}</ref> A closely related question is whether and how people can be [[Moral education|taught to act morally]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meyer|2023|loc=Abstract, lead section}} | {{harvnb|Matsuba|Murzyn|Hart|2011|pp=181–182}} }}</ref>

[[Evolutionary ethics]], a closely related field, explores how [[Evolution of morality|evolutionary processes have shaped ethics]]. One of its key ideas is that [[natural selection]] is responsible for moral behavior and moral sensitivity. It interprets morality as an [[adaptation]] to [[evolutionary pressure]] that augments [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]] by offering a selective advantage.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Schroeder|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Mesoudi|Danielson|2008|pp=229–230}} | {{harvnb|Rice|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRcAVvmE6eMC&pg=PA153 153]}} }}</ref> [[Altruism]], for example, can provide benefits to group survival by improving cooperation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Rice|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YRcAVvmE6eMC&pg=PA153 153]}} | {{harvnb|Post|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PnP6yF_3gfYC&pg=PA118 118]}} }}</ref> Some theorists, like [[Mark Rowlands]], argue that morality is not limited to humans, meaning that some non-human animals act based on [[moral emotions]]. Others explore evolutionary precursors to morality in non-human animals.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Monsó|Benz-Schwarzburg|Bremhorst|2018|p=283}} | {{harvnb|Fitzpatrick|2017|pp=1151–1152}} }}</ref>

=== Descriptive ethics ===
{{main|Descriptive ethics}}
Descriptive ethics, also called comparative ethics,<ref>{{harvnb|Chism|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIaHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA207 207]}}</ref> studies existing moral codes, practices, and beliefs. It investigates and compares moral phenomena in different [[societies]] and different groups within a society. It aims to provide a [[value-neutral]] and empirical description without judging or justifying which practices are objectively right. For instance, the question of how nurses think about the ethical implications of abortion belongs to descriptive ethics. Another example is descriptive business ethics, which describes ethical standards in the context of business, including common practices, official policies, and employee opinions. Descriptive ethics also has a historical dimension by exploring how moral practices and beliefs have changed over time.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sims|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J6csDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} | {{harvnb|Barsh|Lisewski|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tSzdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} | {{harvnb|Sulmasy|Sugarman|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QPvoTjDn0B4C&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|Pera|Tonder|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S11Eg3KjcOAC&pg=PA7 7]}} | {{harvnb|Kagan|1998|pp=7–10}} }}</ref>

Descriptive ethics is a multidisciplinary field that is covered by disciplines such as [[anthropology]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], and [[history]]. Its empirical outlook contrasts with the philosophical inquiry into normative questions, such as which ethical principles are correct and how to justify them.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sulmasy|Sugarman|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QPvoTjDn0B4C&pg=PA11 11]}} | {{harvnb|Pera|Tonder|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S11Eg3KjcOAC&pg=PA7 7]}} | {{harvnb|Funk|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kK4SEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA475 175]}} }}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of ethics}}
[[File:Head of Laozi marble Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE) Shaanxi Province China.jpg|thumb|alt=Head of Laozi marble Tang Dynasty (618–906 CE) Shaanxi Province China|According to [[Laozi]]'s teachings, which are central to conceptions of ethics in [[Daoism]], humans should aim to live in harmony with the [[Dao|natural order of the universe]].]]
The history of ethics studies how moral philosophy has developed and evolved in the course of history.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|p=394}} | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=622}} }}</ref> It has its origin in ancient civilizations. In [[ancient Egypt]], the concept of [[Maat]] was used as an ethical principle to guide behavior and maintain order by emphasizing the importance of truth, balance, and harmony.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Brandon|1975|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eBy8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA474 474]}} | {{harvnb|Ortiz|2020|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=he7QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT7 Preface]}} | {{harvnb|Karenga|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ams2OPbmHMUC&pg=PA175 175–176]}} | {{harvnb|Armour|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3z5OzHgtK4sC&pg=PA134 134]}} }}</ref>{{efn|The first explicit discussions of Maat as a concept date to about 2100&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Lipson|Binkley|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uVt7c3UX-zMC&pg=PA80 80]}}</ref>}} In [[ancient India]] starting in the 2nd millennium&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{harvnb|Doniger|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nNsXZkdHvXUC&pg=PA103 103]}}</ref> the [[Vedas]] and later [[Upanishads]] were composed as the foundational texts of [[Hindu philosophy]] and discussed the role of [[Dharma|duty]] and the [[Karma|consequences of one's actions]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Pappu|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sn-qD-gCX18C&pg=PA400 400]}} | {{harvnb|Sinha|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 81–82]}} }}</ref> [[Buddhist ethics]] originated in ancient India between the 6th and 5th centuries&nbsp;BCE and advocated [[Karuṇā|compassion]], [[Ahimsa|non-violence]], and the pursuit of [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Thapar|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fK3VTUrWsD0C&pg=PA48 48]}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Dalai Lama|2007}} }}</ref> [[Ancient China]] in the 6th century&nbsp;BCE{{efn|Dates for the emergence of Daoism are disputed and some theorists suggest a later date between the 4th and 3rd centuries&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dynes|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pxjOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 2. Classical Sources for Our Understanding of Daoism}} }}</ref>}} saw the emergence of [[Confucianism]], which focuses on moral conduct and [[self-cultivation]] by acting in agreement with virtues, and [[Daoism]], which teaches that human behavior should be in harmony with the [[Dao|natural order of the universe]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Littlejohn|loc=§ 1b. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) of the Analects, § 1e. The Daodejing}} | {{harvnb|Boyd|Timpe|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OIskEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64]}} | {{harvnb|Slingerland|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PA77 77]}} | {{harvnb|Junru|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jaOZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT87 87]}} }}</ref>

In [[ancient Greece]], [[Socrates]] ({{circa|469–399&nbsp;BCE}})<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=178}}</ref> emphasized the importance of inquiry into what a good life is by critically questioning established ideas and exploring concepts like virtue, justice, courage, and wisdom.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=623}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=394–396, 398}} }}</ref> According to [[Plato]] ({{circa|428–347&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}}),<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=156}}</ref> to lead a good life means that the different parts of the soul are in harmony with each other.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=623}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=396–398}} }}</ref> For [[Aristotle]] (384–322&nbsp;BCE),<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=13}}</ref> a good life is associated with being happy by cultivating virtues and flourishing.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=623}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=397–398}} }}</ref> Starting in the 4th century&nbsp;BCE, the close relation between right action and happiness was also explored by the [[Hellenistic]] schools of [[Epicureanism]], which recommended a simple lifestyle without indulging in sensory pleasures, and [[Stoicism]], which advocated living in tune with reason and virtue while practicing self-mastery and becoming immune to disturbing emotions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=623}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=399–400}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=§ Epicureanism, § Stoicism}} }}</ref>

Ethical thought in the [[medieval period]] was strongly influenced by religious teachings. [[Christian philosophy|Christian philosophers]] interpreted moral principles as [[divine command]]s originating from God.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=623}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|p=401}} }}</ref> [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1224–1274&nbsp;CE)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=185}}</ref> developed [[natural law]] ethics by claiming that ethical behavior consists in following the laws and order of nature, which he believed were created by God.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=623}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=403–404}} }}</ref> In the Islamic world, philosophers like [[Al-Farabi]] ({{circa|878–950&nbsp;CE|lk=no}})<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=63}}</ref> and [[Avicenna]] (980–1037&nbsp;CE)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=19}}</ref> synthesized ancient Greek philosophy with the ethical teachings of Islam while emphasizing the harmony between reason and faith.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mattila|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5rptEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} | {{harvnb|Sajoo|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C7aKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} }}</ref> In medieval India, Hindu philosophers like [[Adi Shankara]] ({{circa|700–750&nbsp;CE|lk=no}})<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=175}}</ref> and [[Ramanuja]] (1017–1137&nbsp;CE)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=160}}</ref>{{efn|Modern scholars have questioned these traditionally cited dates, suggesting that Ramanuja's life ran from 1077 to 1157.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Ranganathan|loc=1. Rāmānuja's Life and Works}} | {{harvnb|Sydnor|2012|p=20}} }}</ref>}} saw the practice of spirituality to attain [[Moksha|liberation]] as the highest goal of human behavior.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Ranganathan|loc=Lead section, § 4b. Rāmānuja's Soteriology}} | {{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} | {{harvnb|Dalal|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA465 465]}} }}</ref>

[[File:1914 George Edward Moore (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Photo of George Edward Moore|[[G. E. Moore]]'s book ''[[Principia Ethica]]'' was partly responsible for the emergence of metaethics in the 20th century.]]

Moral philosophy in the modern period was characterized by a shift toward a secular approach to ethics. [[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588–1679)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=88}}</ref> identified self-interest as the primary drive of humans. He concluded that it would lead to "a war of every man against every man" unless a [[social contract]] is established to avoid this outcome.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=624}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=404–406}} }}</ref> [[David Hume]] (1711–1776)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=91}}</ref> thought that only moral sentiments, like [[empathy]], can motivate ethical actions while he saw reason not as a motivating factor but only as what anticipates the consequences of possible actions.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=624}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=408–409}} }}</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]] (1724–1804),<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=105}}</ref> by contrast, saw reason as the source of morality. He formulated a [[Deontology|deontological theory]], according to which the ethical value of actions depends on their conformity with moral laws independent of their outcome. These laws take the form of [[categorical imperative]]s, which are universal requirements that apply to every situation.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=625}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=410–412}} }}</ref>

[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (1770–1831)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=82}}</ref> saw Kant's categorical imperative on its own as an empty formalism and emphasized the role of social institutions in providing concrete content to moral duties.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=625}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=414–415}} }}</ref> According to the Christian philosophy of [[Søren Kierkegaard]] (1813–1855),<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=110}}</ref> the [[Fear and Trembling#Teleological suspension of the ethical|demands of ethical duties are sometimes suspended]] when doing God's will.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cuneo|2020|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191835759.001.0001/acref-9780191835759-e-117 Teleological Suspension of the Ethical]}} | {{harvnb|Gellman|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LYOpcYXhCkMC&pg=PA45 45]}} }}</ref> [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] (1844–1900)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=144}}</ref> formulated criticisms of both Christian and Kantian morality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Leiter|2021|loc=§ 1.1 Scope of the Critique: Morality in the Pejorative Sense}} | {{harvnb|Bailey|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xXyHAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 147]}} }}</ref> Another influential development in this period was the formulation of [[utilitarianism]] by [[Jeremy Bentham]] (1748–1832)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=25}}</ref> and [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873).<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=132}}</ref> According to the utilitarian doctrine, actions should promote happiness while reducing suffering and the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|pp=624–625}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=412–414}} }}</ref>

[[File:Simone de Beauvoir2.png|thumb|upright=.8|alt=Photo of Simone de Beauvoir|[[Simone de Beauvoir]] explored moral philosophy from the perspective of [[existentialism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bergoffen|Burke|2023|loc=Lead section, § 5. ''The Ethics of Ambiguity'': Bad Faith, the Appeal, the Artist}}</ref>]]

An important development in [[Contemporary ethics|20th-century ethics]] in [[analytic philosophy]] was the emergence of metaethics.<ref>{{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=626}}</ref> Significant early contributions to this field were made by [[G. E. Moore]] (1873–1958),<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=443}}</ref> who argued that moral values are essentially different from other [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] found in the natural world.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=626}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=418–419}} }}</ref> [[R. M. Hare]] (1919–2002)<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=294}}</ref> followed this idea in formulating his [[Universal prescriptivism|prescriptivism]], which states that moral statements are commands that, unlike regular [[judgment]]s, are neither true nor false.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=626}} | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=429–430}} }}</ref> [[J. L. Mackie]] (1917–1981)<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=406}}</ref> suggested that every moral statement is false since there are no moral facts.<ref name="books.google.com"/> An influential argument for moral realism was made by [[Derek Parfit]] (1942–2017),<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=504}}</ref> who argued that morality concerns objective features of reality that give people reasons to act in one way or another.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|McDonald|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zCAxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT95 95–96]}} | {{harvnb|Lazari-Radek|Singer|2017|pp=282–283}} }}</ref> [[Bernard Williams]] (1929–2003)<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=737}}</ref> agreed with the close relation between reasons and ethics but defended a subjective view instead that sees reasons as internal [[mental states]] that may or may not reflect external reality.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chappell|Smyth|2023|loc=§ 5. Internal and External Reasons}} | {{harvnb|Kriegel|1999|pp=281–282}} }}</ref>

Another development in this period was the revival of ancient [[virtue ethics]] by philosophers like [[Philippa Foot]] (1920–2010).<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=262}} | {{harvnb|Norman|2005|p=627}} }}</ref> In the field of political philosophy, [[John Rawls]] (1921–2002)<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=589}}</ref> relied on [[Kantian ethics]] to analyze [[social justice]] as [[Justice as Fairness|a form of fairness]].<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Das|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a4w4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT118 118–119]}} | {{harvnb|Wenar|2021|loc=§ 4. Justice as Fairness: Justice Within a Liberal Society}} }}</ref> In continental philosophy, [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenologists]] such as [[Max Scheler]] (1874–1928)<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=620}}</ref> and [[Nicolai Hartmann]] (1882–1950)<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=296}}</ref> built ethical systems based on the claim that values have objective reality that can be investigated using the phenomenological method.<ref>{{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=421–422}}</ref> Existentialists like [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] (1905–1980)<ref>{{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=168}}</ref> and [[Simone de Beauvoir]] (1908–1986),<ref>{{harvnb|Bunnin|Yu|2009|p=74}}</ref> by contrast, held that values are created by humans and explored the consequences of this view in relation to individual freedom, responsibility, and authenticity.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Abelson|Nielsen|2006|pp=426–428}} | {{harvnb|Bergoffen|Burke|2023|loc=Lead section, § 5. ''The Ethics of Ambiguity'': Bad Faith, the Appeal, the Artist}} }}</ref> This period also saw the emergence of [[feminist ethics]], which questions traditional ethical assumptions associated with a male perspective and puts alternative concepts, like [[Ethics of care|care]], at the center.<ref>{{multiref | {{harvnb|Norlock|2019|loc=Lead section}} | {{harvnb|Imafidon|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5_i_CQAAQBAJ&pg=PT211 211]}} }}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal |Philosophy}}
{{Div col|colwidth=27em}}
* [[Ethics committee]]
* [[Index of ethics articles]]
* [[Outline of ethics]]
* [[Practical philosophy]]
* [[Science of morality]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist|30em}}

===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{PhilPapers|category|meta-ethics|Meta-Ethics}}
* {{PhilPapers|category|normative-ethics|Normative Ethics}}
* {{PhilPapers|category|applied-ethics|Applied Ethics}}
* {{InPho|taxonomy|2243}}

{{Ethics}}
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{{Social philosophy}}
{{Subject bar |commonscat=yes |b=Subject:Ethics |c=Ethics |d=Q9465 |m=no |mw=no |n=no |q=Ethics |s=Portal:Ethics |species=no |v=Ethics |wikt=ethics}}
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[[Category:Ethics| ]]