View source for Ethiopian Empire

{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Short description|1270–1974 state in the Horn of Africa}}

{{For|the commonly used exonym|Abyssinia}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = {{native name|gez|መንግሥተ ኢትዮጵያ |italics=no}}<br/>{{resize|80%|{{nobold|{{transliteration|gez|Mängəśtä ʾItyop̣p̣ya}}}}}}<br/>{{native name|am|የኢትዮጵያ ንጉሠ ነገሥት መንግሥት |italics=no}}<br/>{{resize|80%|{{nobold|{{transliteration|gez|Yäʾityop̣p̣ya Nägusä Nägäst Mängəśt}}}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Ethiopian Empire
| era                    = [[Middle Ages]] to [[Cold War]]
| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]] {{small|(1270–1931)}}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nathaniel T. Kenney |title=Ethiopian Adventure |journal=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |volume=127 |year=1965 |page=555 }}</ref>
* under a [[Zemene Mesafint|decentralized aristocracy]] {{small|(1769–1855)}}
<br />[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]] {{small|(1931–1974)}}
| life_span              = 1270–1974<br/>{{nowrap|{{small|{{nobold|1936–1941: [[Government-in-exile]]}}}}}}
| event_start            = [[Yekuno Amlak#Reign|Ascension]] of [[Yekuno Amlak]]
| date_start             = 
| year_start             = 1270
| event1                 = [[Amda Seyon I's Expansions|Conquests]] of [[Amda Seyon I]]
| date_event1            = 1314–1344
| event2                 = [[Ethiopian–Adal War]]
| date_event2            = 1529–1543
| event3                 = [[Ottoman–Ethiopian War (1557–1589)|Ottoman-Ethiopian War]]
| date_event3            = 1557–1589)
| event4                 = [[Gondarine period]]
| date_event4            = 1632–1769
| event5                 = [[Zemene Mesafint]]
| date_event5            = 1769–1855
| event6                 = [[Menelik II's conquests]]
| date_event6            = 1878–1904
| event7                 = [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]]
| date_event7            = 1895–1896
| event8                 = [[1931 Constitution of Ethiopia|Constitution adopted]]
| date_event8            = 16 July 1931
| event9                 = [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] (annexed into [[Italian East Africa]])
| date_event9            = 3 October 1935
| event10                = [[East African campaign (World War II)|Sovereignty restored]]
| date_event10           = 5 May 1941
| event11                = [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea]]
| date_event11           = 11 September 1952
| event_end              = {{lang|fr|[[1974 Ethiopian coup d'état|Coup d'état]]}} by the [[Derg]]
| date_end               = 12 September
| year_end               = 1974
| event_post             = [[#Fall of monarchy|Monarchy abolished]]
| date_post              = {{nowrap|21 March 1975<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethiopia Ends 3,000 Year Monarchy |work=[[Milwaukee Sentinel]] |date=22 March 1975 |page=3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1915&dat=19750322&id=S-sgAAAAIBAJ&pg=2528,3614199 |title=Ethiopia ends old monarchy |work=The Day |date=22 March 1975 |page=7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Henc van Maarseveen |author2=Ger van der Tang |title=Written Constitutions: A Computerized Comparative Study |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=1978 |page=47 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/stream/worldfactbook87nati#page/74/mode/2up |title=Ethiopia |encyclopedia=[[The World Factbook]] |year=1987 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] }}
</ref>}}
| stat_year1             = 1954
| stat_area1             = 1,221,900
| p1                     = Zagwe dynasty
| s1                     = Derg
| flag_s1                = Flag of Ethiopia (1975–1987, with emblem).svg
| image_coat             = Ethiopian Empire COA.svg
| symbol                 = Emblem of Ethiopia#History
| symbol_type            = Coat of arms
| flag_caption           = Top: [[Flag of Ethiopia#Historical flags|State Flag]]<br>Bottom: [[Flag of Ethiopia#Historical flags|Civil Flag]]
| image_flag             = Flag of Ethiopia (1897–1974).svg
| image_flag2            = Flag of Ethiopia (Blank).svg
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Pdr ethiopia.png|frameless]]|20th-century boundaries|[[File:Menelik II conquests map on world sphere.svg|frameless]]{{Parabr}}The location of the Ethiopian Empire during the reign of [[Yohannes IV]] (dark orange) compared with modern day Ethiopia (orange){{Parabr}}|19th-century boundaries|default=1}}
| capital                = {{nowrap|''None''{{refn|group=note|The old tradition of the Ethiopian emperors was travelling around the country accompanied by their many courtiers and innumerable soldiers, living off the produce of peasants, and dwelling in fortified encampments known as [[katama]]s. These [[katama]]s would serve as the headquarters of the empire.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |year=1982 |title=History Of Ethiopian Towns |page=41 |publisher=Steiner |isbn=978-3-515-03204-9 }}</ref> Despite this several Ethiopian rulers had attempted to establish fixed capitals such as [[Termaber|Tegulet]], [[Emfraz]] and [[Debre Birhan]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=Barara, the Royal City of 15th and Early 16th Century (Ethiopia). Medieval and Other Early Settlements Between Wechecha Range and Mt Yerer |journal=Annales d'Éthiopie |year=2009 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=209–249 |doi=10.3406/ethio.2009.1394 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ethio_0066-2127_2009_num_24_1_1394}}</ref>}}}} {{small|(1270–1635)}}<br/>[[Gondar]] {{small|(1635–1855)}}<br/>[[Debre Tabor]] {{small|(1855–1881)}}<br/>[[Mekelle]] {{small|(1881–1889)}}<br/>[[Addis Ababa]] {{small|(1889–1974)}}
| national_motto         = {{lang|am|ኢትዮጵያ ታበፅዕ እደዊሃ ኀበ እግዚአብሔር}}<br />{{lang|am-Latn|Ityopia tabetsih edewiha ḫabe Igziabiher}}<br />({{langx|en|"[[Ethiopia Stretches Her Hands unto God]]"}})<br />{{small|([[Psalm 68|Psalm 68:31]])}}
| national_anthem        = <br />ኢትዮጵያ ሆይ ደስ ይበልሽ<br />{{lang|am-Latn| Ityoṗya hoy des ybelish}}<br />({{Langx|en|"[[Ethiopia, Be happy]]"}})<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Ityopp'ya Hoy dess yibelish.ogg|center]]</div>
| common_languages       = [[Amharic]] (dynastic, official, court)<ref>''The Southern Marches of Imperial Ethiopia: Essays in History and Social Anthropology'', Donham Donald Donham, Wendy James,  Christopher Clapham, Patrick Manning. CUP Archive, Sep 4, 1986, p. 11, https://books.google.com/books?id=dvk8AAAAIAAJ&q=Lisane+amharic#v=snippet&q=Lisane%20amharic&f=false {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228065900/https://books.google.com/books?id=dvk8AAAAIAAJ&q=Lisane+amharic#v=snippet&q=Lisane%20amharic&f=false |date=28 December 2022 }}</ref><ref>''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'', Paul B. Henze, November 18, 2008, p. 78, https://books.google.com/books?id=3VYBDgAAQBAJ&q=Lisane#v=snippet&q=Lisane&f=false {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228065900/https://books.google.com/books?id=3VYBDgAAQBAJ&q=Lisane#v=snippet&q=Lisane&f=false |date=28 December 2022 }}</ref><br />[[Ge'ez]] ([[liturgical language]], literature)<br/>[[Languages of Ethiopia|many others]]
| religion               = {{Ublist|'''[[State religions]]:'''|[[Christianity]]|—[[Orthodox Tewahedo|Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] {{small|(1270–1622 and 1632–1974)}}|–[[Catholic Church]] {{small|(1622–1632)}}|'''Unofficial:'''|[[P'ent'ay|P'ent'ay Evangelicalism]]|[[Sunni Islam]]|[[Judaism]]|[[Traditional African religions#East Africa|Traditional African religions]]}}
| currency               = {{Plainlist}}
* [[Gold]] tax<ref name="Richard K. P 1967">The Royal Chronicle of his reign is translated in part by Richard K. P. Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles'' (Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, 1967).</ref>
* [[Salt|Salt blocks (Amoleh)]]
* [[Dinar]]<ref name="Richard K. P 1967"/>
* [[Maria Theresa thaler]] {{small|({{circa}} 18th–19th century)}}
* [[Ethiopian birr|Ethiopian birr, thaler, or dollar]] {{small|(from 1894)}}
{{Endplainlist}}
| leader1                = {{nowrap|[[Yekuno Amlak]]}}<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 40761842|title = The Zagwe Period and the Zenith of Urban Culture in Ethiopia, Ca. 930–1270 AD|journal = [[Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione|Africa: Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazione dell'Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente]] |volume = 61|issue = 1|pages = 120–137|last1 = Negash|first1 = Tekeste|year = 2006}}</ref>
| leader2                = [[Haile Selassie]]
| year_leader1           = 1270–1285 {{small|(first)}}
| year_leader2           = 1930–1974 {{small|(last)}}
| title_leader           = [[Emperor of Ethiopia|Emperor]]
| deputy1                = [[Habte Giyorgis]]
| deputy2                = [[Mikael Imru]]
| year_deputy1           = 1909–1927 {{small|(first)}}
| year_deputy2           = 1974 {{small|(last)}}
| title_deputy           = [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]]
| legislature            = None ([[rule by decree]])<br />{{small|(until 1931)}}<br />[[Imperial Parliament of Ethiopia|Parliament]]<br />{{small|(1931–1974)}}<ref>Constitution of Ethiopia, 4 November 1955, Article 76 (source: ''Constitutions of Nations: Volume I, Africa'' by Amos Jenkins Peaslee)</ref>
| house1                 = [[Imperial Parliament of Ethiopia#Senate|Senate]]<br />{{small|(1931–1974)}}
| house2                 = [[Imperial Parliament of Ethiopia#Chamber of Deputies|Chamber of Deputies]]<br />{{small|(1931–1974)}}
| demonym                = Endonym: Ethiopian<br/>Exonym: Abyssinian
| patron_saint           = [[Saint George|St. George]] ([[Patronages of Saint George]])<ref>Markessini, Joan (2012). ''Around the World of Orthodox Christianity – Five Hundred Million Strong: The Unifying Aesthetic Beauty''. Dorrance Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1-4349-1486-6}}.</ref><ref>Morgan, Giles (2017). ''St George: The patron saint of England''. Oldcastle Books. {{ISBN|978-1-84344-967-6}}.</ref>
| sovereignty_type       = <!-- This infobox intentionally does not contain a "today part of" section. Please do not add one without establishing consensus on the talk page. -->
| today                  = [[Eritrea]]<br />[[Ethiopia]]
}}

The '''Ethiopian Empire''',{{efn|{{Langx|gez|መንግሥተ ኢትዮጵያ|lit=Kingdom of Ethiopia|translit=Mängəśtä ʾItyop̣p̣ya}}}} historically known as '''Abyssinia''' or simply '''Ethiopia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˌ|iː|θ|i|ˈ|oʊ|p|i|ə}}; [[Amharic]] and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]: {{lang|am|ኢትዮጵያ|italic=no}} {{lang|am-Latn|ʾĪtyōṗṗyā}}, {{audio|Ityopya.ogg|listen}}, [[Oromo language|Oromo]]: {{Lang|om|Itoophiyaa}}, [[Somali language|Somali]]: {{Lang|so|Itoobiya}}, [[Afar language|Afar]]: ''{{Lang|aa|Itiyoophiyaa}}''<ref>{{cite book |author=E. A. Wallis Budge |title=A History of Ethiopia|volume =I: Nubia and Abyssinia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWQtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7 |date= 2014 |publisher=Routledge |page=7 |isbn=978-1-317-64915-1 }}</ref>}} was a sovereign state<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=William H. |date=1956 |title=The Ethiopian Empire: Progress and Problems |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4322824 |journal=Middle East Journal |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=257–268 |issn=0026-3141 |jstor=4322824}}</ref> that encompassed the present-day territories of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]. It existed from the establishment of the [[Solomonic dynasty]] by [[Yekuno Amlak]]  around 1270 until the [[1974 Ethiopian coup d'état|1974 coup d'état]] by the [[Derg]], which ended the reign of the final Emperor, [[Haile Selassie]]. In the late 19th century, under Emperor [[Menelik II]], the [[Menelik II's conquests|empire expanded significantly]] to the south, and in 1952, [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea|Eritrea was federated]] under Selassie's rule. Despite being surrounded by hostile forces throughout much of its history, the empire maintained a kingdom centered on its [[Orthodox Tewahedo|ancient Christian heritage]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hathaway |first1=Jane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rcZmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 |title=The Chief Eunuch of the Ottoman Harem: From African Slave to Power-Broker |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-10829-5 |page=26}}</ref>

Founded in 1270 by [[Yekuno Amlak]], who claimed to descend from the last [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] king and ultimately King [[Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]], it replaced the [[Agaw people|Agaw]] [[Zagwe Kingdom|kingdom of the Zagwe]]. While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the Empire managed to expand significantly under the [[crusades]] of [[Amda Seyon I]] (1314–1344) and [[Dawit I]] (1382–1413), temporarily becoming the dominant force in the [[Horn of Africa]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Barsbay |publisher=Encyclopedia Aethiopica |url=https://en.sewasew.com/p/barsbay}}</ref> The Ethiopian Empire would reach its peak during the long reign of Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]] (1434–1468). He consolidated the conquests of his predecessors, built numerous churches and monasteries, encouraged literature and art, centralized imperial authority by substituting regional warlords with administrative officials, and significantly expanded his hegemony over adjacent Islamic territories.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlikh |first1=Hagai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&pg=PA41 |title=The Nile Histories, Cultures, Myths |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-55587-672-2 |page=41}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hassen |first1=Mohammed |title=Oromo of Ethiopia with special emphasis on the Gibe region |publisher=University of London |page=22 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf}}</ref><ref>J. Spencer Trimingham, ''Islam in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 75</ref>

The neighboring Muslim [[Adal Sultanate]] began to threaten the empire by repeatedly attempting to invade it, finally succeeding under [[Imam]] [[Mahfuz]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&pg=PA167 |title=The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |page=167}}</ref> Mahfuz's ambush and defeat by Emperor [[Lebna Dengel]] brought about the early 16th-century [[Abyssinian–Adal war|jihad]] of the Ottoman-supported Adalite Imam [[Ahmed Gran]], who was [[Battle of Wayna Daga|defeated in 1543]] with the help of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Adal |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Adal |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> Greatly weakened, much of the Empire's southern territory and vassals were lost due to the [[Oromo migrations]]. In the north, in what is now Eritrea, Ethiopia managed to repulse [[Ottoman conquest of Habesh|Ottoman invasion]] attempts, although losing its access to the [[Red Sea]] to them.<ref>Pankhurst, ''History'', p. 70; Özbaran, 87</ref> Reacting to these challenges, in the 1630s Emperor [[Fasilides]] founded the new capital of [[Gondar]], marking the start of a new golden age known as the [[Gondarine period]]. It saw relative peace, the successful integration of the Oromo and a flourishing of culture. With the deaths of Emperor [[Iyasu II]] (1755) and [[Iyoas I]] (1769) the realm eventually entered a period of decentralization, known as the [[Zemene Mesafint]] where regional warlords fought for power, with the emperor being a mere puppet.<ref>Pankhurst, ''History'', p. 119</ref>

Emperor [[Tewodros II]] (r. 1855–1868) put an end to the [[Zemene Mesafint]], reunified the Empire and led it into the modern period before dying during the [[British Expedition to Abyssinia]]. His successor [[Yohannes IV]] engaged primarily in war and successfully fought [[Ethiopian-Egyptian War|the Egyptians]] and [[Mahdist Sudan|Mahdists]] before dying against the latter in 1889. Emperor [[Menelik II]], now residing in [[Addis Ababa]], subjugated many peoples and kingdoms in what is now western, southern, and eastern Ethiopia, like [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]], [[Kingdom of Wolaita|Welayta]], [[Emirate of Harar|Harar]], and other kingdoms. Thus, by 1898 Ethiopia expanded into its modern territorial boundaries. In the northern region, he confronted [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]]'s expansion. Through a resounding victory over the Italians at the [[Battle of Adwa]] in 1896, utilizing modern imported weaponry, Menelik ensured Ethiopia's independence and [[Italian Eritrea|confined Italy to Eritrea]].

Later, after the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]], Benito Mussolini's [[Italian Empire]] occupied Ethiopia and established [[Italian East Africa]], merging it with neighboring [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] and the [[Italian Somaliland]] colonies to the south-east. During [[World War II]], the Italians were driven out of Ethiopia with the help of the British army. The Emperor returned from exile and the country became one of the founding members of the [[United Nations]]. However, the [[1958–1975 Wollo–Tigray famine|1973 Wollo famine]] and domestic discontent led to the fall of the Empire in 1974 and the rise of the [[Derg]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Salvano |first=Tadese Tele |title=የደረግ አነሳስና (የኤርትራና ትግራይ እንቆቅልሽ ጦርነት) |date=2018 |publisher=Tadese Tele Salvano |isbn=978-0-7915-9662-3 |pages=81–97 |trans-title=The Derg Initiative (The Eritrean-Tigray Mysterious War)}}</ref>

==History==
===Background===
{{Main article|History of Ethiopia}}
After the fall of the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] in the 10th century AD, the Ethiopian Highlands would fall under the rule of the [[Zagwe Dynasty]]. The new rulers were [[Agaw people|Agaws]] that had come from the [[Lasta]] region, later ecclesiastical texts accused this dynasty of not having pure "Solomonic" stock and derided their achievements. Even at the zenith of their power, most Christians would consider them to be usurpers. However, the architecture of the Zagwe shows a connotation of earlier Aksumite traditions, among those can be seen in [[Lalibela]], the building of rock hewn churches first appeared in the late Aksumite era and reached its peak under the Zagwe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopians: A History |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-631-22493-9 |page=45}}</ref>

The Zagwe were not able to stop squabbling over the throne, diverting men, energy and resources that could have been used to affirm the dynasty's authority. By the late 13th century, a young [[Amhara people|Amhara]] nobleman named [[Yekuno Amlak]] rose to power in [[Bete Amhara]]. He was strongly supported by the Orthodox Church as he promised to make the church a semi independent institution, he had also enjoyed support from the neighboring Muslim [[Makhzumi dynasty]]. Yekuno Amlak then rebelled against the Zagwe king and defeated him at the [[Battle of Ansata]]. [[Taddesse Tamrat]] argued that this king was [[Yetbarak]], but due to a local form of ''[[damnatio memoriae]]'', his name was removed from the official records.<ref>Taddesse Tamrat, ''Church and State in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 68 n.1 {{ISBN?}}</ref>  A more recent chronicler of [[Wollo]] history, Getatchew Mekonnen Hasen, states that the last Zagwe king deposed by Yekuno Amlak was [[Na'akueto La'ab]].<ref>Getachew Mekonnen Hasen, ''Wollo, Yager Dibab'' (Addis Ababa: Nigd Matemiya Bet, 1992), pp. 28–29 {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopians: A History |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-631-22493-9 |page=46}}</ref>

===Early Solomonic Period===
{{main article|Solomonic Dynasty}}
[[File:Yekuno Amlak.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Non-contemporary portrait painting of Emperor [[Yekuno Amlak]] from the 17th century]]
[[Yekuno Amlak]] would rise to the throne by 1270 AD. He was allegedly a descendant of the last king of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksum]], [[Dil Na'od]], and hence the royal kings of Aksum. Through the Aksumite royal lineage, it was also claimed that Yekuno Amlak was a descendant of the biblical king [[Solomon]]. The canonical form of the claim was set out in legends recorded in the ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'', a 14th century text. According to this, the [[Queen of Sheba]], who supposedly came from Aksum, visited [[Jerusalem]] where she conceived a son with King Solomon. On her return to her homeland of Ethiopia, she gave birth to the child, [[Menelik I]]. He and his descendants (which included the Aksumite royal house) ruled Ethiopia until overthrown by the Zagwe usurpers. Yekuno Amlak, as a supposed direct descendant of Menelik I, was therefore claimed to have "restored" the Solomonic line.<ref name="Hurst & Company">{{cite book |last1=Henze |first1=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=1-85065-393-3 |page=58}}</ref>

Throughout [[Yekuno Amlak]]'s reign he would enjoy friendly relations with the Muslims. He not only had established close ties with the neighboring [[Makhzumi dynasty]] but had also made contact with the [[Rasulid dynasty|Rasulids]] in Yemen and the Egyptian [[Mamluk Sultanate]]. In a letter sent to the Mamluke Sultan [[Baybars]], he would state his intention of friendly cooperation with the Muslims of Arabia, and described himself as being a protector of all Muslims in Abyssinia. A devout Christian, he would order the construction of the church of Genneta Maryam, commemorating his work with an inscription that reads, "By the grace of God, I king Yekuno Amlak, after I had come to the throne by the will of God, built this church."<ref name="Hurst & Company"/><ref name="The Ethiopians: A History">{{cite book |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopians: A History |date=2001 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=0-631-22493-9 |page=57}}</ref>

In 1285 Yekuno Amlak was succeeded by his son [[Yagbe'u Seyon]], who wrote a letter the Mamluke Sultan, [[Qalawun]] asking him to allow the patriarch of Alexandria to send an ''[[abuna]]'' or [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] for the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]], but also protesting the Sultan's treatment of his Christian subjects in Egypt, stating that he was a protector of his own Muslim subjects in Ethiopia.<ref>Cited in [[Henry Yule]], ''The Travels Of Marco Polo'' (London, 1871), in his notes to [[s:The Travels of Marco Polo/Book 3/Chapter 35|Book 3, Chapter 35]].</ref> Towards the end of his reign, Yagbe'u refused to appoint one of his sons to be his successors and instead decreed that each of them should rule for one year, he was succeeded by his sons in 1294 but this agreement immediately broke down, by 1299 one of his sons [[Wedem Arad]] seized the throne. Wedem Arad seems to have been in conflict with the neighbouring [[Sultanate of Ifat]] who were trying to expand in eastern [[Shewa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Henze |first1=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=1-85065-393-3 |page=59}}</ref>

====Amda Seyon's Conquests====
{{main article|Amda Seyon I|Amda Seyon I's Expansions}}
[[File:Map of the Ethiopian empire under Amda Seyon.jpg|thumb|The Ethiopian Empire under Emperor [[Amda Seyon I]]|270x270px]]
[[Wedem Arad]] was succeeded by his son, [[Amda Seyon I]], whose reign witnessed the composition of a very detailed and seemingly accurate account of the monarch's various campaigns against his Muslim enemies. This was the first of a series of royal chronicles which were written for the Ethiopian Emperors until modern times. These royal chronicles provided an unbroken chronological record of the entire medieval period in the [[Horn of Africa]]. A no less important work produced during his reign was the [[Fetha Nagast]] or "Law of the Kings," which served as the country's legal code. Largely based on biblical principles, it codified the legal and social ideas of the time and remained in use until the early 20th century.<ref name="The Ethiopians: A History"/>

The warlike emperor of [[Amda Seyon I]] conducted many campaigns in [[Gojjam]], [[Damot (historical region)|Damot]] and [[Eritrea]], but his most important campaigns were  against his Muslim enemies to the east, which shifted the balance of power in favour of the Christians for the next two centuries. Around 1320, Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad of the Mamluk Sultanate based in Cairo began persecuting Copts and destroying their churches. Amda Seyon then threatened to divert the flow of the Nile if the sultan did not stop his persecution. [[Haqq ad-Din I]], sultan of Ifat, seized and imprisoned an Ethiopian envoy on his way back from [[Cairo]]. Amda Seyon responded by invading the [[Sultanate of Ifat]], killing the sultan, sacking the capital and ravaging the Muslim territories, taking livestock, killing many inhabitants, destroying towns and mosques, and taking slaves.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |year=1997 |publisher=Red Sea Press |page=42 |isbn=978-0-932415-19-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC}}</ref>

The Ifat sultan was succeeded by [[Sabr ad-Din I]] who rallied the Muslims and waged a rebellion against the Ethiopian occupation. Amda Seyon responded by launching another campaign against his Muslim adversaries to the east, killing the Sultan and campaigning as far as [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]], [[Dawaro]] and [[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bali]] in present day eastern Ethiopia. Amda Seyon's conquests significantly expanded the territory of the Ethiopian Empire, more than doubling it by size and establishing complete hegemony over the region. Relations between the Muslims of the Horn and the Ethiopian Empire seems to have broken down completely around this era, with the chronicler referring to the Muslims in the east and along the coast as "liars, hyenas, dogs, children of evil who deny the son of Christ."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pankhurst |first1=Richard |title=The Ethiopian Borderlands Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century |year=1997 |publisher=Red Sea Press |page=67 |isbn=978-0-932415-19-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlikh |first1=Ḥagai |title=The Cross and the River Ethiopia, Egypt, and the Nile |date=2002 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |page=48 |isbn=978-1-55587-970-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mhCN2qo43jkC&q=contemporary+ethiopian+attitudes}}</ref>

====Golden age of Solomonic Rule====
[[File:Zara Yacob.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Painting of Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]] at his coronation]]
Following Amda Seyon's campaigns to the east. Most of the Muslims in the Horn would become tributaries to the Ethiopian Empire, among them being the [[Ifat Sultanate]]. Amda Seyon was succeeded by his son [[Newaya Krestos]] in 1344. Newaya Krestos would put down several Muslim revolts in [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]] and [[Mora (historical region)|Mora]]. Towards the end of his reign he aggressively helped the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] [[Pope Mark IV of Alexandria|Mark IV]], who had been imprisoned by [[As-Salih Salih]], the [[Sultan of Egypt]]. One step Newaya Krestos took was to imprison the Egyptian merchants in his kingdom. The Sultan was forced to back down.<ref name="Layers of Time: A History of Ethiop">{{cite book |last1=Henze |first1=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=1-85065-393-3 |page=67}}</ref>

In 1382, [[Dawit I]] succeeded the son of Newaya Krestos, [[Newaya Maryam]], as Emperor of Ethiopia. The tributary state of the [[Ifat Sultanate]] had begun to resist Ethiopian hegemony and assert their independence under Sultan [[Sa'ad ad-Din II]]. Sultan Sa'ad as-Din would then raid the Ethiopian frontier provinces capturing much loot and slaves. This resulted in Emperor [[Dawit I]] declaring all the Muslims of the surrounding region to be "enemies of the Lord" and invading the [[Ifat Sultanate]]. After a battle between Sa'ad ad-Din and the Emperor, in which the Ifat army was defeated and "no less [sic] than 400 elders, each of whom carried an iron bar as his insignia of office" were killed, Sa'ad ad-Din with his remaining supporters were chased to as far as [[Zeila]] on the coast of [[Somaliland]]. There, the Ethiopian army besieged Zeila, finally capturing the city and killing Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din, ending the [[Ifat Sultanate]]. After Sa'ad ad-Din's death "the strength of the Muslims was abated", as Egyptian historian [[al-Maqrizi]] states, and then the [[Amhara people|Amhara]] settled in the Muslim territories "and from the ravaged mosques they made churches". The followers of Islam were said to have been harassed for over twenty years.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |year=1982 |title=History Of Ethiopian Towns |page=58 |publisher=Steiner |isbn=978-3-515-03204-9 }}</ref> Following this victory, Ethiopian power would reach its zenith and this era would become legendary as a golden age of peace and stability for the Ethiopian Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Henze |first1=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=1-85065-393-3 |page=68}}</ref>

However, the remaining [[Walashma dynasty|Walashma]] returned from their exile in 1415 and established the [[Adal Sultanate]] centred around the [[Harar]] region. The Muslims then began to harass Christian held territories in the east prompting Emperor [[Yeshaq I]] to dedicate much of his time to defending his eastern peripheral territories. He seems to have employed several Egyptian Christian advisors to drill his army and teach them how to make Greek fire. These advances were not enough to keep the Muslims at bay, and Emperor Yeshaq was soon killed fighting the Adalites in 1429. Yeshaq's death was followed by several years of dynastic confusion during which 5 emperors succeeded each other in 5 years. However in 1434, [[Zara Yaqob]] of Ethiopia would establish himself on the throne.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mordechai |first1=Abir |title=Ethiopia And The Red Sea |publisher=Hebrew University of Jerusalem |pages=26–27 |url=https://zelalemkibret.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/ethiopia-and-the-red-sea-mordichi-abir.pdf}}</ref>

During his first years on the throne, [[Zara Yaqob]] launched a strong campaign against survivals of pagan worship and "un-Christian practices" within the church. He also took measures to greatly centralize the administration of the country, bringing regions under much tighter imperial control. After hearing about the demolition of the Egyptian Debre Mitmaq monastery, he ordered a period of national mourning and built a church of the same name in [[Termaber|Tegulet]]. He then sent envoys to Egyptian Sultan, [[Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq]] strongly protesting against the persecution of Egyptian Copts and threatening to divert the flow of the Nile. The Sultan then encouraged the [[Adal Sultanate]] to invade the province of [[Dawaro]] to distract the Emperor. However, this invasion was repulsed by the Emperor at the [[Battle of Gomit]]. The Egyptian sultan then had the Patraich of Alexandria severely beaten and threatened to execute him. Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]] decided to back down and did not move into Adal territory. Zara Yaqob persecuted those who admitted to worshipping pagan gods, many of whom were decapitated in public. [[Zara Yaqob]] later founded [[Debre Berhan]] after seeing a [[miraculous]] light in the sky. Believing this was a sign from [[God]] showing approval for his persecution of pagans, the emperor ordered a church built on the site, and later constructed an extensive palace nearby, and a second church dedicated to [[Saint Cyriacus]].<ref name="Layers of Time: A History of Ethiop"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=A. Wallace Budge |first=E. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.499166/page/n392/mode/1up |title=History Of Ethiopia Nubia And Abyssinia |publisher=Methuen & co. |year=1828 |volume=1 |page=300}}</ref>

[[Zara Yaqob]] was succeeded by [[Baeda Maryam I]]. Emperor Baeda Maryam would give the title of the Queen Mother to [[Eleni of Ethiopia]], one of his father's wives. She proved to be an effective member of the royal family; [[Paul B. Henze]] comments that she "was practically co-monarch" during his reign. After the death of Baeda Maryam in 1478 he was succeeded by his 7-year-old son [[Eskender]], whom [[Eleni of Ethiopia|Eleni]] would serve as his regent. She attempted to establish peace with the Adal Sultan [[Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din|Muhammad]], but could not prevent [[Mahfuz]] the Emir of [[Harar]] from making raids into Ethiopian territory. When [[Eskender]] was of age, he invaded Adal and sacked its capital, [[Dakkar]], but was killed in an ambush returning home. His successor, Emperor [[Na'od]], was eventually killed defending Ethiopian territory from Adalite raids. In 1517 [[Mahfuz]] invaded the Ethiopian province of [[Fatager]] but was killed and ambushed by Emperor [[Dawit II]] (Lebna Dengel). His chronicles state that the Muslim threat was finished and the Emperor returned to the highlands as a hero.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Henze |first1=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |date=2000 |publisher=Hurst & Company |isbn=1-85065-393-3 |page=75}}</ref>

====Adal Sultanate Invasion====
{{further||Ethiopian-Adal War}}
[[File:Cristofano dell’Altissimo, Portrait of Lebnä-Dengel. c. 1552-1568.jpg|thumb|left|[[Dawit II|Emperor Dawit II]] (Lebna Dengel)|alt=|207x207px]]
In 1527 a young imam by the name of [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] rose to power in Adal after years of internal strife. The Adal Sultanate stockpiled imported firearms, cannons and other advanced weaponry from Arabia and the [[Ottoman Empire]], and invaded Ethiopia in 1529, inflicting a heavy defeat on Emperor [[Dawit II]], but later withdrew. He returned two years later to begin a definite invasion of the empire, burning churches, forcibly converting Christians and massacring the inhabitants. According to the chroniclers, everywhere he went his men "slew every adult Christian they found, and carried off the youths and the maidens and sold them as slaves." By the mid 1530s most of Ethiopia was under Adalite occupation and Lebna Dengel fled from mountain fortress to mountain fortress until he finally died of natural causes in [[Debre Damo]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=87 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=978-0-7146-1731-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cerulli |first1=Enrico |title=Islam Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber |pages=376–381 |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g-LkxaXWZopjLCFEuWm8wnly2lh4WvFp/view}}</ref>

The Emperor was succeeded by his 18-year-old son, [[Gelawdewos]], who faced a desperate situation but rallied his soldiers and people to resist the Muslim invasion. By 1540 Gelawdewos led a small force of around 70 men resisting in the highlands of [[Shewa]]. However, in 1541 four hundred well armed Portuguese musketeers had arrived in [[Massawa]] where they were reinforced by small contingents of Ethiopian warriors. This modest force made their way across [[Tigray province|Tigray]] where they would defeat much larger contingents of Adalite men. Alarmed by the success of the Portuguese, Gragn sent a petition to the [[Ottoman Empire]] and received 2,900 musket-armed reinforcements. Together with his Turkish allies Gragn attacked the Portuguese camp at [[Battle of Wofla|Wofla]], killing 200 of their rank and file, including their commander, [[Cristóvão da Gama]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=88 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=978-0-7146-1731-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref>

After the catastrophe at Wofla, the surviving Portuguese were able to meet up with [[Gelawdewos]] and his army in the [[Semien Mountains]]. The Emperor did not hesitate to take the offensive and won a major victory at the [[Battle of Wayna Daga]], when the fate of Abyssinia was decided by the death of the Imam and the flight of his army. The invasion force collapsed and all the Abyssinians who had been cowed by the invaders returned to their former allegiance. The reconquest of Christian territories proceeded without encountering any effective opposition.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimmingham |first1=John Spencer |title=Islam in Ethiopia |date=1952 |page=89 |publisher=Frank Cass & Company |isbn=978-0-7146-1731-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbVmNAAACAAJ}}</ref>

In 1559 Gelawdewos was killed attempting to invade [[Adal Sultanate]] at the [[Battle of Fatagar]], and his severed head was paraded in Adal's capital [[Harar]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Akyeampong |first1=Emmanuel |title=Dictionary of African Biography |publisher=OUP USA |volume=1-6 |page=451 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&q=gelawdewos+killed+harar&pg=RA1-PA451|isbn=978-0-19-538207-5 |date=2 February 2012 }}</ref>

===Early modern period===
[[File:Fasilides Palace 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Fasil Ghebbi]] in [[Gonder]]]]
{{further|Ottoman conquest of Habesh|Oromo migrations|Gondarine period}}
The [[Ottoman Empire]] occupied parts of Ethiopia, from 1557, establishing [[Habesh Eyalet]], the province of Abyssinia, by conquering [[Massawa]], the Empire's main port and seizing [[Suakin]] from the allied [[Funj Sultanate]] in what is now [[Sudan]]. In 1573 the [[Adal Sultanate]] attempted to invade Ethiopia again; however, Sarsa Dengel successfully defended the Ethiopian frontier at the [[Battle of Webi River]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pankhurst|first1=Richard|title=The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century|date=1997|publisher=The Red Sea Press|page=375|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&q=harar+sarsa+dengel&pg=PA375|isbn=978-0-932415-19-6}}</ref>

The Ottomans were checked by [[Sarsa Dengel|Emperor Sarsa Dengel's]] victory and sacking of [[Arqiqo]] in 1589, thus containing them on a narrow coastline strip. The Afar Sultanate maintained the remaining Ethiopian port on the Red Sea at [[Beilul|Baylul]].<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to The End of the 18th Century Asmara.'' Red Sea Press, Inc., 1997. p. 390 {{ISBN?}}</ref> [[Oromo migrations]] through the same period occurred, with the movement of a large pastoral population from the southeastern provinces of the Empire. A contemporary account was recorded by the monk [[Bahrey|Abba Bahrey]] from the Gamo region. Subsequently, the empire organization changed progressively, with faraway provinces taking more independence. A remote province such as [[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bale]] is last recorded paying tribute to the imperial throne during [[Yaqob of Ethiopia|Yaqob]]'s reign (1590–1607).<ref>''Braukämper'', Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays (Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 2002), p. 82</ref>

In 1636, Emperor [[Fasilides]] founded [[Gondar]] as a permanent capital, which became a highly stable, prosperous commercial center. This period saw profound achievements in [[Ethiopian art]] and [[Architecture of Ethiopia|architecture]], and innovations such as the construction of the royal complex [[Fasil Ghebbi]], and 44 churches<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Gonder|title=Gonder| publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref> that were established around [[Lake Tana]]. In the arts, the Gondarine period saw the creation of [[diptych]]s and [[triptych]]s, [[murals]] and [[illuminated manuscript]]s, mostly with religious motifs. The reign of [[Iyasu I|Iyasu the Great]] (1682-1706) was a major period of consolidation. It also saw the dispatching of embassies to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV's France]] and to [[Dutch India]]. The Early Modern period was one of intense cultural and artistic creation. Notable philosophers from that area are [[Zera Yacob (philosopher)|Zera Yacob]] and [[Walda Heywat]]. After the death of Iyasu I the empire fell into a period of political turmoil.

===Modern era===
{{Main|Zemene Mesafint|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}
[[File:Menelik - Adoua-2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Menelik II]] at the [[Battle of Adwa]]]]
From 1769 to 1855, the Ethiopian empire passed through a period known as the ''Princes Era'' (in Amharic: ''Zemene Mesafint''). This was a period of Ethiopian history with numerous conflicts between the various [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Ras|Ras]] (equivalent to the English [[duke]]s) and the Emperor, who had only limited power and only dominated the area around the contemporary capital of [[Gondar]]. The development of society and culture stagnated in this period. Religious conflict, both within the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] and between them and the Muslims, was often used as a pretext for mutual strife. The Princes Era ended with the reign of Emperor [[Tewodros II]].

In 1868, following the imprisonment of several [[Missionary|missionaries]] and representatives of the [[United Kingdom|British]] government, the British engaged in the punitive [[British Expedition to Abyssinia|Expedition to Abyssinia]] against Emperor Tewodros. With the backing of most nobles in Ethiopia, the campaign was a success for Britain, and the Ethiopian Emperor committed suicide rather than surrender.

From 1874 to 1876, the Empire expanded into [[Eritrea]], under [[Yohannes IV]] King of [[Tembien]], whose forces led by [[Ras Alula]] won the [[Ethiopian-Egyptian War]], decisively beating the Egyptian forces at the [[Battle of Gundet]] in [[Hamasien]]. In 1887 Menelik, king of [[Shewa]], invaded the [[Emirate of Harar]] after his victory at the [[Battle of Chelenqo]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caulk |first1=Richard|title=The Occupation of Harar: January 1887 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |year=1971 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=1–20 |jstor=41967469 }}</ref> In 1889 Menelik's general [[Gobana Dacche]] also defeated the [[Hadiya people|Hadiya]] leader [[Hassan Enjamo]] and annexed [[Hadiya (historical region)|Hadiya]] territory.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Zewde |first1=Bahru |title=Society, State, and History Selected Essays |date=25 March 2024 |publisher=Addis Ababa University Printing Press |page=52 |isbn=978-99944-52-15-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9B41AQAAIAAJ&q=hassan+enjamo%27s+jihad}}</ref>

The 1880s were marked by the [[Scramble for Africa]]. Italy, seeking a [[Colonialism|colonial presence]] in Africa, was awarded Eritrea by Britain, which led to the [[Italo-Ethiopian War of 1887–1889]] and the scramble for Eritrea's coastal regions between King Yohannes IV of Tembien and Italy. After the death of Emperor Yohannes IV, Italy signed a [[Treaty of Wuchale|treaty]] with [[Shewa]] (an autonomous kingdom within the empire), creating the protectorate of Abyssinia.

Due to significant differences between the Italian and [[Amharic]] translations of the treaty, Italy believed they had subsumed Ethiopia as a [[protectorate]], while [[Menelik II]] of Shewa repudiated the protectorate status in 1893. Insulted, Italy declared war on Ethiopia in 1895. The [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]] resulted in the 1896 [[Battle of Adwa]], in which Italy was decisively defeated by the numerically superior Ethiopians. As a result, the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] was signed in October, which strictly delineated the borders of Eritrea and forced Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia. Due to the Entoto Reforms, which provided the Ethiopian Military with modern rifles, many Italian Commanders expressed shock upon seeing that some Ethiopians had more advanced rifles than the average Italian infantryman.

Beginning in the 1890s, under the reign of [[Menelik II|Emperor Menelik II]], the empire's forces set off from the central province of [[Shoa, Ethiopia|Shewa]] to incorporate through conquest inhabited lands to the west, east and south of its realm.<ref>{{cite journal |author=John Young |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=1998 |page=192 |jstor=3993156 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415}}</ref> The territories that were annexed included those of the western Oromo (non-Shoan Oromo), Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta,<ref name="International Crisis Group 2009 p. 2">International Crisis Group, "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents". Issue 153 of ICG Africa report (4 September 2009) p. 2.</ref> and Dizi.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Haberland|first1=Eike|title=An Amharic Manuscript on the Mythical History of the Adi kyaz (Dizi, South-West Ethiopia)|journal= Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|date=1983|volume=46|issue=2|page=240|url=http://docdro.id/LTiVtxU|access-date=18 December 2017|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00078836|s2cid=162587450 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Among the imperial troops was [[Ras Gobena]]'s Shewan Oromo militia. Many of the lands that they annexed had never been under the empire's rule, with the newly incorporated territories resulting in the modern borders of Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire |author=Edward C. Keefer |journal=International Journal of African Studies |volume=6 |issue=3 |year=1973 |page=470 |jstor=216612|doi=10.2307/216612 }}</ref>

Delegations from the United Kingdom and [[France]]{{snd}}European powers whose colonial possessions lay next to Ethiopia{{snd}}soon arrived in the Ethiopian capital to negotiate their own treaties with this newly-proven power.

===Italian invasion and World War II===
{{further|Second Italo-Ethiopian War|East African Campaign (World War II)|Haile Selassie#Exile}}
[[File:ETH-BIB-Kaiserpalast, "der grosse Gibi" aus der Luft-Abessinienflug 1934-LBS MH02-22-0222.tif|thumb|The Emperor's palace, 1934]]
In 1935, Italian soldiers under the command of [[Marshal of Italy|Marshal]] [[Emilio De Bono]] began what is known as the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]]. During the conflict, both Ethiopian and Italian troops committed war crimes. Ethiopian troops are known to have made use of [[Expanding bullet|Dum-Dum bullets]] (in violation of the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|Hague Conventions]]) and mutilated captured soldiers (often with castration).{{sfn|Antonicelli|1975|p=79}} Italian troops used [[sulfur mustard]] in [[chemical warfare]], ignoring the [[Geneva Protocol]] that it had signed seven years earlier. The Italian military dropped mustard gas in bombs, sprayed it from airplanes and spread it in powdered form on the ground. 150,000 chemical casualties were reported, mostly from mustard gas.

On May 1, 1936, [[Haile Selassie]] took a train to [[French Somaliland|Djibouti]] and then boarded a British ship to [[Jerusalem]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9obAAAAIAAJ |title=The New International Year Book |date=1941 |publisher=Dodd, Mead and Company |language=en}}</ref> spending the majority of his time in the city with Ethiopian monks, praying with them at the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://embassies.gov.il/addis_ababa/NewsAndEvents/Pages/The-Lion-of-Judah.aspx#:~:text=Jerusalem%20was%20a%20sanctuary%20to,trying%20to%20restore%20his%20kingdom. | title=The Lion of Judah and Jerusalem |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=embassies.gov.il}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bowers |first=Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dyDfvgEACAAJ&q=haile+selassie+exile |title=Imperial Exile: Emperor Haile Selassie in Britain 1936-1940 |date=2016 |publisher=TSEHAI Publishers & Distributors |isbn=978-1-59907-168-8 |language=en}}</ref> He then fled to [[Fairfield House, Bath|Bath]], where he was granted asylum by British authorities who did not want him to stay in [[London]], due to this being perceived as "politically embarrassing". Upon arrival, he stayed at a hotel, purchasing [[Fairfield House, Bath|Fairfield House]] shortly afterward to spend the remainder of his time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Members of Ethiopian Diaspora Gather at British Home of Former Emperor |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/europe_members-ethiopian-diaspora-gather-british-home-former-emperor/6182584.html |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=VOA |date=14 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> He was accompanied by his children, grandchildren, servants and others. In Bath, Haile Selassie became accustomed to the "army of servants" and living in a single house as he was financially restricted. He was seen getting rid of jewelry on a couple of occasions. Upon leaving England, he left the house for the elderly, not visiting again until 1954.<ref name=":1" />

The war lasted seven months, during which [[Addis Ababa]] was occupied on May 5, 1936, before an Italian victory was declared on May 9, 1936. Italy proclaimed the establishment of the [[Italian Empire]] in East Africa, with King Victor Emmanuel III as Emperor of Ethiopia, which was united with other Italian colonies in eastern Africa to form the new colony of [[Italian East Africa]] on June 1. The invasion was condemned by the [[League of Nations]], though not much was done to end the hostility.

On June 30, 1936, Selassie traveled once to [[Geneva]] to plead with the [[League of Nations]] that Ethiopia not be officially recognized as part of the [[Italian Empire]].  He also had European allies who traveled to Ethiopia to report the news about the [[Arbegnoch|Ethiopian Army]] struggling with Italy. This helped Britain's later entry into Ethiopia.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-05-20 |title=(1936) Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, "Appeal to the League of Nations" |url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/1936-emperor-haile-selassie-ethiopia-appeal-league-nations/ |access-date=2022-09-14 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |date=2002 |title=Emperor Haile Sellassie's Arrival in Britain: An Alternative Autobiographical Draft by Percy Arnold |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41931306 |journal=Northeast African Studies |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=1–46 |doi=10.1353/nas.2007.0008 |jstor=41931306 |s2cid=144707809 |issn=0740-9133|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on the United Kingdom and France, as the latter was in the process of being conquered by [[Nazi Germany|German forces]] at the time, and [[Benito Mussolini]] wished to expand Italy's colonial holdings. The [[Italian conquest of British Somaliland]] in August 1940 was successful, but the war turned against Italy afterward. The British accompanied Haile Selassie to [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]] and helped him organise his army within seven months,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |date=1996 |title=Emperor Haile Sellassie's Autobiography, and an Unpublished Draft |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41931150 |journal=Northeast African Studies |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=69–109 |doi=10.1353/nas.1996.0015 |jstor=41931150 |s2cid=143268411 |issn=0740-9133|url-access=subscription }}</ref> finally launching a [[East African campaign (World War II)|military campaign]] in January 1941, which returned him to the throne on May 5 of the same year.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Emperor Haile Selassie I Returns Triumphant to Ethiopia |url=https://origins.osu.edu/milestones/may-2016-emperor-haile-selassie-i-returns-triumphant-ethiopia?language_content_entity=en |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=Origins | date=30 May 2016 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Haile Selassie, last emperor of Ethiopia and architect of modern Africa |url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/haile-selassie-emperor-of-ethiopia-and-architect-of-modern-africa/ |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=HistoryExtra |language=en}}</ref>

===Post War Ethiopia===
{{Main article|Haile Selassie}}
[[File:Haile Selassie with LBJ Nov 26, 1963.jpg|thumb|[[Haile Selassie]] with [[President of the United States|President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] at the [[White House]]]]
On 27 August 1942, [[Haile Selassie]] abolished the legal basis of [[Slavery in Ethiopia|slavery]] throughout the empire and imposed severe penalties, including death, for slave trading.<ref>Peter P. Hinks, John R. McKivigan, R. Owen Williams (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_SeZrcBqt-YC Encyclopedia of antislavery and abolition]'', Greenwood Publishing Group, p.248. ISBN 0-313-33143-X.</ref> After World War II, Ethiopia became a [[charter member]] of the United Nations. In 1948, the [[Ogaden]], a region disputed with [[Somalia]], was granted to Ethiopia.<ref>Shinn, David Hamilton and Ofcansky, Thomas P. ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia''. 2004, page 201.</ref> On 2 December 1950, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 390 (V), establishing the federation of [[Eritrea]] (the former Italian colony) into Ethiopia.<ref name=shinn141>Shinn, David Hamilton and Ofcansky, Thomas P. ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia''. 2004, page 140-1.</ref> Eritrea was to have its own constitution, which would provide for ethnic, linguistic, and cultural balance, while Ethiopia was to manage its finances, defense, and foreign policy.<ref name=shinn141 />

Despite his centralization policies that had been made before World War II, Haile Selassie still found himself unable to push for all the programs he wanted. In 1942, he attempted to institute a progressive tax scheme, but this failed due to opposition from the nobility, and only a flat tax was passed; in 1951, he agreed to reduce this as well.<ref name=eth>Ofcansky, Thomas P., and Berry, Laverle. ''Ethiopia: A Country Study''. 2004, page 63-4.</ref> Ethiopia was still "semi-feudal",<ref>Willcox Seidman, Ann. ''Apartheid, Militarism, and the U.S. Southeast''. 1990, page 78.</ref> and the emperor's attempts to alter its social and economic form by reforming its modes of taxation met with resistance from the nobility and clergy, which were eager to resume their privileges in the postwar era.<ref name=eth /> Where Haile Selassie actually did succeed in effecting new land taxes, the burdens were often passed by the landowners to the peasants.<ref name=eth /> Despite his wishes, the tax burden remained primarily on the peasants.

Between 1941 and 1959, Haile Selassie worked to establish the [[autocephaly]] of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]].<ref name=copts>Watson, John H. ''Among the Copts''. 2000, page 56.</ref> The Ethiopian Orthodox Church had been headed by the ''[[abuna]]'', a bishop who answered to the Patriarchate in Egypt. Haile Selassie applied to Egypt's [[Holy Synod]] in 1942 and 1945 to establish the independence of Ethiopian bishops, and when his appeals were denied he threatened to sever relations with the [[See of St. Mark]].<ref name=copts /> Finally, in 1959, [[Pope Kyrillos VI]] elevated the Abuna to Patriarch-Catholicos.<ref name=copts /> The Ethiopian Church remained affiliated with the Alexandrian Church.<ref name=eth /> In addition to these efforts, Haile Selassie changed the Ethiopian church-state relationship by introducing taxation of church lands, and by restricting the legal privileges of the clergy, who had formerly been tried in their own courts for civil offenses.<ref name=eth /><ref>Nathaniel, Ras. ''50th Anniversary of His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I''. 2004, page 30.</ref>

During the celebrations of his Silver Jubilee in November 1955, Haile Selassie introduced a [[1955 Constitution of Ethiopia|revised constitution]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.country-studies.com/ethiopia/administrative-change-and-the-1955-constitution.html |title=Ethiopia Administrative Change and the 1955 Constitution |publisher=Country-studies.com |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> whereby he retained effective power, while extending political participation to the people by allowing the lower house of parliament to become an elected body. Party politics were not provided for. Modern educational methods were more widely spread throughout the Empire, and the country embarked on a development scheme and plans for modernization, tempered by Ethiopian traditions, and within the framework of the ancient monarchical structure of the state. Haile Selassie compromised when practical with the traditionalists in the nobility and church. He also tried to improve relations between the state and ethnic groups, and granted autonomy to [[Afar people|Afar]] lands that were difficult to control. Still, his reforms to end feudalism were slow and weakened by the compromises he made with the entrenched aristocracy. The Revised Constitution of 1955 has been criticized for reasserting "the indisputable power of the monarch" and maintaining the relative powerlessness of the peasants.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1956 |title=Ethiopia's Revised Constitution |journal=Middle East Journal |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=194–199 |jstor=4322802 |issn=0026-3141}}</ref>

On 13 December 1960, while Haile Selassie was on a state visit to [[Brazil]], his Imperial Guard forces staged [[1960 Ethiopian coup|an unsuccessful coup]], briefly proclaiming Haile Selassie's eldest son [[Amha Selassie|Asfa Wossen]] as emperor. The coup d'état was crushed by the regular army and police forces. The coup attempt lacked broad popular support, was denounced by the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]], and was unpopular with the army, [[Ethiopian Air Force|air force]] and police. Nonetheless, the effort to depose the emperor had support among students and the educated classes.<ref name=zewde>Bahru Zewde, ''A History of Modern Ethiopia'', second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), pp.220–26</ref> The coup attempt has been characterized as a pivotal moment in Ethiopian history, the point at which Ethiopians "for the first time questioned the power of the king to rule without the people's consent".<ref name=mammo100>Mammo, Tirfe. ''The Paradox of Africa's Poverty: The Role of Indigenous Knowledge.'' 1999, page 100.</ref> Student populations began to empathize with the peasantry and poor, and to advocate on their behalf.<ref name=mammo100 /> The coup spurred Haile Selassie to accelerate reform, which was manifested in the form of land grants to military and police officials.

The emperor continued to be a staunch ally of the West, while pursuing a firm policy of [[decolonization]] in Africa, which was still largely under European colonial rule. The United Nations conducted a lengthy inquiry regarding the status of Eritrea, with the superpowers each vying for a stake in the state's future. Britain, the administrator at the time, suggested the partition of Eritrea between Sudan and Ethiopia, separating Christians and Muslims. A UN plebiscite voted 46 to 10 to have Eritrea be [[federation|federated]] with Ethiopia, which was later stipulated on 2 December 1950 in resolution 390 (V). Eritrea would have its own parliament and administration and would be represented in what had been the Ethiopian parliament and would become the federal parliament.<ref name="UN_GA_res-5">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/5/ares5.htm |title=General Assembly Resolutions 5th Session |publisher=United Nations |access-date=16 October 2007}}</ref> However, [[Haile Selassie]] would have none of European attempts to draft a separate Constitution under which Eritrea would be governed, and wanted his own 1955 Constitution to apply in both Ethiopia and Eritrea. In 1961, tensions between independence-minded Eritreans and Ethiopian forces culminated in the [[Eritrean War of Independence]]. The emperor declared Eritrea the fourteenth province of Ethiopia in 1962.<ref>Semere Haile "The Origins and Demise of the Ethiopia-Eritrea Federation", ''Issue: A Journal of Opinion'', 15 (1987), pp.9–17</ref>

In 1963, [[Haile Selassie]] presided over the formation of the [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU), the precursor of the continent-wide [[African Union]] (AU). The new organization would establish its headquarters in [[Addis Ababa]]. In May of that year, Haile Selassie was elected as the OAU's first official chairperson, a rotating seat. Along with [[Modibo Keïta]] of Mali, the Ethiopian leader would later help successfully negotiate the Bamako Accords, which brought an end to the border conflict between [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]]. In 1964, Haile Selassie would initiate the concept of the [[United States of Africa]], a proposition later taken up by [[Muammar Gaddafi]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jimmatimes.com/article/Latest_News/Latest_News/Ethiopia_New_African_un1on_Building_and_Kwame_Statue_Video/34060 |title=Ethiopia: New African Union Building and Kwame Statue (Video) |access-date=12 August 2023 |archive-date=15 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615065602/http://jimmatimes.com/article/Latest_News/Latest_News/Ethiopia_New_African_un1on_Building_and_Kwame_Statue_Video/34060 }}</ref>

Student unrest became a regular feature of Ethiopian life in the 1960s and 1970s. [[Marxism]] took root in large segments of the Ethiopian intelligentsia, particularly among those who had studied abroad and had thus been exposed to radical and left-wing sentiments that were becoming popular in other parts of the globe.<ref name=zewde /> Resistance by conservative elements at the Imperial Court and Parliament, and by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, made Haile Selassie's land reform proposals difficult to implement, and also damaged the standing of the government, costing Haile Selassie much of the goodwill he had once enjoyed. This bred resentment among the peasant population. Efforts to weaken unions also hurt his image. As these issues began to pile up, Haile Selassie left much of domestic governance to his Prime Minister, [[Aklilu Habte-Wold|Aklilu Habte Wold]], and concentrated more on foreign affairs.

===Fall of monarchy===
{{Main article|Ethiopian Revolution}}
[[File:Haile Selassie (1969).jpg|thumb|[[Haile Selassie|Haile Selassie I]] was the last Emperor of the Ethiopian Empire.]]
The government's failure to adequately respond to the 1973 Wollo famine, the growing discontent of urban interest groups, and high fuel prices due to the [[1973 oil crisis]] led to a revolt in February 1974 by the army and civilian populace. In June, a group of military officers formed the [[Derg|Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army]] also known as the Derg to maintain law and order due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following the widespread [[mutiny]].

In July, Emperor Haile Selassie gave the Derg key concessions to arrest military and government officials at every level. Soon both former Prime Ministers [[Tsehafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte-Wold]] and [[Endelkachew Makonnen]], along with most of their cabinets, most regional governors, many senior military officers and officials of the Imperial court were imprisoned. In August, after a proposed constitution creating a constitutional monarchy was presented to the Emperor, the Derg began a program of dismantling the imperial government to forestall further developments in that direction. The Derg [[1974 Ethiopian coup d'état|deposed]] and imprisoned the Emperor on 12 September 1974 and chose Lieutenant General [[Aman Andom]], a popular military leader and a [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Sandhurst]] graduate, to be acting head of state. This was pending the return of Crown Prince [[Amha Selassie|Asfaw Wossen]] from medical treatment in Europe when he would assume the throne as a constitutional monarch. However, General Aman Andom quarrelled with the radical elements in the Derg over the issue of a new military offensive in [[Eritrea]] and their proposal to execute the high officials of Selassie's former government. After eliminating units loyal to him: the Engineers, the [[Kebur Zabagna|Imperial Bodyguard]] and the [[Ethiopian Air Force|Air Force]], the Derg removed General Aman from power and executed him on 23 November 1974, along with some of his supporters and 60 officials of the previous Imperial government.<ref>{{Cite news|date=1974-11-24|title=Ethiopia Executes 60 Former Officials, Including 2 Premiers and Military Chief|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/24/archives/ethiopia-executes-60-former-officials-including-2-premiers-and.html|access-date=2021-08-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Brigadier General [[Tafari Benti]] became the new chairman of the Derg and the head of state. The monarchy was formally abolished in March 1975, and [[Marxism-Leninism]] was proclaimed the new ideology of the state. Emperor Haile Selassie died under mysterious circumstances on 27 August 1975 while his personal physician was absent. It is commonly believed that [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] killed him, either by ordering it done or by his own hand although the former is more likely.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bulcha|first=Mekuria|date=1997|title=The Politics of Linguistic Homogenization in Ethiopia and the Conflict over the Status of "Afaan Oromoo"|journal=African Affairs|volume=96|issue=384|pages=325–352|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007852|jstor=723182|issn=0001-9909}}</ref>

==Society==
According to [[Bahrey]],<ref>Bahrey. (1954). ''History of the Galla''. In C.F. Beckingham and G.B.W. Huntingford</ref> there were ten social groups in the feudal Ethiopia of his time, i.e. at the end of the 16th century. These social groups consisted of the monks; the [[debtera]]; lay officials (including judges); men at arms giving personal protection to the wives of dignitaries and to princesses; the shimaglle, who were the lords and hereditary landowners; their farm labourers or serfs; traders; artisans; wandering singers; and the soldiers, who were called chewa. According to modern thinking, some of these categories are not true classes. But at least the shimaglle, the serfs, the chewa, the artisans and the traders constitute definite classes. Power was vested in the Emperor and those aristocrats he appointed to execute his power, and the power enforcing instrument consisted of a class of soldiers, the chewa.<ref>Transitional government of Ethiopia, National Conservation Strategy, 1994, http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/720181468749078939/pdf/multi-page.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828204337/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/720181468749078939/pdf/multi-page.pdf |date=28 August 2017 }}</ref>

==Military==
{{Main|Army of the Ethiopian Empire}}
{{See also|Territorial Army (Ethiopia)}}
From the reign of [[Amde Tseyon]], [[Chewa regiments]], or legions, formed the backbone of the Empire military forces. The Ge'ez term for these regiments is ṣewa (ጼዋ) while the Amharic term is č̣äwa (ጨዋ). The normal size of a regiment was several thousand men.<ref>Mordechai ABIR, Ethiopia and the Red Sea, p. 51 https://books.google.com/books?id=7fArBgAAQBAJ&dq=chewa%20ehiopia&pg=PA49 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228065900/https://books.google.com/books?id=7fArBgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA153&dq=chewa%20ehiopia&pg=PA49 |date=28 December 2022 }}</ref> Each regiment was allocated a fief (Gult), to ensure its upkeep ensured by the land revenue.<ref>Mordechai ABIR, Ethiopia and the Red Sea, p. 49 https://books.google.com/books?id=7fArBgAAQBAJ&dq=chewa%20ehiopia&pg=PA49 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228065900/https://books.google.com/books?id=7fArBgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA153&dq=chewa%20ehiopia&pg=PA49 |date=28 December 2022 }}</ref>

In 1445, following the [[Battle of Gomit]], the chronicles record that Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]] started garrisoning the provinces with Chewa regiments.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Imperial Ethiopian Army: Summary of known deployments ''c.'' 15th century'''
! Name of regiment<ref>Deresse Ayenachew, Evolution and Organisation of the Ç̌äwa Military Regiments in Medieval Ethiopia, Annales d'Ethiopie, p. 93, https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/ethio_0066-2127_2014_num_29_1_1559.pdf</ref>
! Region
! Translation
|-
| Bäṣär waǧät
| [[Serae]], [[Dawaro]], [[Menz]], [[Gamo-Gofa|Gamo]]
| Enemy of the waǧät
|-
| [[Jan Amora#Overview|Ǧan amora]]
| [[Doba (historical region)|Dobe'a]], [[Tselemt]], [[Efratana Gidim|Gedem]] 
| Eagle of the majesty
|-
| Ǧan sagana
| [[Dawaro]], [[Doba (historical region)|Dobe'a]], [[Angot]] 
| 
|-
| č̣äwa Bale
| [[Bale (historical region)|Bali]]
|
|-
| č̣äwa [[Maya (Ethiopia)|Maya]]
| [[Medri Bahri|Medre Bahr]]
|
|-
| Bäṣur amora
| [[Gamo-Gofa|Gamo]]
| Spear of the eagle
|-
| Bäṣär šotäl 
| [[Damot (historical region)|Damot]]
| Spear of the foe
|-
| č̣äwa Begemder
| [[Begemder]]
|
|-
| č̣äwa Ifat
| [[Ifat (historical region)|Ifat]]
|
|-
|}
Major divisions of the military were :
* Regiments at the court, under high court officials
* Regiments in the provinces, under regional Rases or other officials
* Regiments in border regions, or more autonomous provinces, such as [[Hadiya Sultanate|Hadiya]], [[Bahir Negash]], [[Sultanate of Bale|Bale]], under azmač who were military officials appointed by the king.<ref>Deresse Ayenachew, Evolution and Organisation of the Ç̌äwa Military Regiments in Medieval Ethiopia, Annales d'Ethiopie, p. 88, https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/ethio_0066-2127_2014_num_29_1_1559.pdf</ref>

One of the Chewa regiments, known as the ''Abe Lahm'' in Geez, or the ''Weregenu'', in Oromo, lasted, and participated to the [[Battle of Adwa]], only to be phased out in the 1920s.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood, Boydell & Brewer, p. 104</ref>

The modern army was created under Ras Tafari Makonnen, in 1917, with the formation of the [[Kebur Zabagna]], the imperial guard.

==Economy==
{{Main article|Economy of the Ethiopian Empire}}
[[File:ETH-BIB-Bank of Ethiopia, Addis Abeba-Abessinienflug 1934-LBS MH02-22-0994.tif|thumb|[[Bank of Abyssinia]] in 1934]]
The economy consisted of centuries old [[barter system]] with "primitive money" and currency of various kinds until the 20th century in the framework of feudal system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rise of Feudalism in Ethiopia |url=https://ethiopianbusinessreview.net/the-rise-of-feudalism-in-ethiopia/ |access-date=2022-07-04 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ellis |first=Gene |title=Feudalism in Ethiopia: A Further Comment on Paradigms and Their Use |date=1979 |journal=Northeast African Studies |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=91–97 |jstor=43660024 |issn=0740-9133}}</ref> Peasants worked to produce and fixated their activities to taxation, marketing infrastructure and agrarian production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=John M. |date=1974 |title=Ethiopia: A Survey on the Existence of a Feudal Peasantry |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=665–672 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00014312 |jstor=159996 |s2cid=154715719 |issn=0022-278X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=John M. |date=1974 |title=Peasants and Feudalism in Africa: The Case of Ethiopia |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=155–157 |doi=10.2307/483880 |jstor=483880 |issn=0008-3968|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 1905, Menelik II established the first bank, [[Bank of Abyssinia]]  following concession from British occupied [[National Bank of Egypt]] in December 1904, that used to monopolize all government public funds, loans, print banknotes, mint coins and other privileges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schaefer |first=Charles |date=1992 |title=The Politics of Banking: The Bank of Abyssinia, 1905–1931 |journal=The International Journal of African Historical Studies |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=361–389 |doi=10.2307/219391 |jstor=219391 |issn=0361-7882}}</ref> It expanded branches to [[Harar]], [[Dire Dawa]], [[Gore, Ethiopia|Gore]] and [[Dembidolo]] and agencies in [[Gambela (city)|Gambela]] and transit office in [[Djibouti (city)|Djibouti]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Teklemedhin |first=Fasil Alemayehu and Merhatbeb |title=The Birth and Development of Banking Services in Ethiopia |url=https://www.abyssinialaw.com/study-on-line/item/393-the-birth-and-development-of-banking-services-in-ethiopia |access-date=2022-07-06 |website=www.abyssinialaw.com |language=en-gb |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121175405/https://www.abyssinialaw.com/study-on-line/item/393-the-birth-and-development-of-banking-services-in-ethiopia |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1932, it was renamed as "Bank of Ethiopia" following paid compensation by Emperor Haile Selassie. To promote industrial and manufacturing expansion, Haile Selassie, with assistance of National Economic Council, embarked development plan encompassing three Five-Years Master Plan from 1957 to 1974.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 July 2022 |title=Haile Selassie I University – Five Year Plan 1967–1971 |url=https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/289051595578558049-0240021974/render/WorldBankGroupArchivesFolder20017I.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=4 July 2022 |title=An Overview of Ethiopia's Planning Experience |url=https://eea-et.org/sites/default/files/publications/Tesfaye%20Asfaw_%20An%20Overview%20of%20Ethiopia%E2%80%99s%20Planning%20Experience.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-08-07 |title=Development plans – Ethiopia |url=https://www.ascleiden.nl/content/development-plans-ethiopia |access-date=2022-07-04 |website=African Studies Centre Leiden |language=en}}</ref> Between 1960 and 1970, Ethiopia enjoyed an annual 4.4% growth rate in per capita and gross domestic product (GDP). There was an increase of manufacturing growth rate from 1.9% in 1960/61 to 4.4% in 1973/74, with wholesale, retail trade, transportation, and communication sectors increased from 9.5% to 15.6%.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 July 2022 |title=Industry and Industrialization in Ethiopia: Policy Dynamics and Spatial Distributions |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234626025.pdf}}</ref> Ethiopia exported around 800,000 bushels of wheat, mainly to the [[Kingdom of Egypt]], The [[Dutch East Indies]], and Greece. The GDP of Ethiopia around 1934 was $1.3 billion, before dropping drastically due to the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]].

== Currency ==
The most common currency of the earlier periods of [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopian history]] were essential items such as, "amole" (''salt bars''), pieces of cloth or iron and later cartridges. It's only in the 19th century that the [[Maria Theresa thaler|Maria Theresa Thaler]] had become the medium of exchange for large transactions until [[Menelik II|Menelik]] finally started minting local currency around the turn of the century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zekaria |first=Ahmed |date=1991 |title=Harari Coins: A Preliminary Survey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41965992 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=24 |pages=23–46 |jstor=41965992 |issn=0304-2243}}</ref>

==Government==
{{Main article|Government of the Ethiopian Empire}}
As feudalism became the central tenet in the Ethiopian Empire, it developed into an authoritarian system with institutionalized social inequality. As land became the prime commodity, its acquisition became the main driving force behind imperialism, especially from the reign of Menelik II onwards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rise of Feudalism in Ethiopia |url=https://ethiopianbusinessreview.net/the-rise-of-feudalism-in-ethiopia/ |access-date=2022-09-17 |language=en-US}}</ref>

As part of Emperor Haile Selassie's modernization efforts, the traditional monarchical regime was reformed through the introduction of the 1931 and 1955 constitutions, which introduced a unitary parliamentary system with two legislative bodies: the Chamber of Senate (Yeheggue Mewossegna Meker Beth) and Chamber of Deputies (Yeheggue Memeriya Meker Beth).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=William H. |date=1956 |title=The Ethiopian Empire: Progress and Problems |journal=Middle East Journal |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=257–268 |jstor=4322824 |issn=0026-3141}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 September 2022 |title=1931 Constitution of Ethiopia |url=https://chilot.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/ethiopian-constitution-of-1931.pdf}}</ref> Under the 1956 constitution Article 56, no one can be simultaneously a member of  both chambers, who meet at the beginning or ending of each session.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2022 |title=Revised Constitution of the Empire of Ethiopia |url=https://www.eisa.org/pdf/eth1955constitution.pdf |access-date=22 September 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209150642/https://www.eisa.org/pdf/eth1955constitution.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the parliamentary structure, the Chamber of Deputies consisted of 250 members elected every four years, whereas the Senate consisted of one-half of the Deputies (125) and were appointed by the Emperor in every six years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 September 2022 |title=ETHIOPIA |url=http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/ETHIOPIA_1973_E.PDF}}</ref>

==See also==
{{History_of_Ethiopia}}
{{History of Eritrea}}
{{colbegin}}
* [[History of Ethiopia]]
* [[Ethiopian historiography]]
* [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]
** [[List of emperors of Ethiopia]]
* [[Crown Council of Ethiopia]]
* [[Army of the Ethiopian Empire]]
* [[Sultanate of Ifat]]
* [[Sultanate of Shewa]]
* [[Zemene Mesafint]] (1755–1855)
* [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]] (1895–1896)
* [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] (1935–1936)
* [[Italian East Africa]] (1936–1941)
* [[Arbegnoch]] (1936–1941)
* [[East African campaign (World War II)]] (1941)
* [[Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia]] (1941–1943)
* [[Ethiopian Revolution]] (1974)
* [[Ethiopian Civil War]] (1974–1991)
{{colend}}
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last=Adejumobi|first=Saheed A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-U7aydmefrgC|title=The History of Ethiopia|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|location=Westport|year=2007|isbn=978-0-313-32273-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Antonicelli |first=Franco |series=Reprints Einaudi |number=32 |title=Trent'anni di storia italiana: dall'antifascismo alla Resistenza (1915–1945) lezioni con testimonianze |language=it |trans-title=Thirty Years of Italian History: From Antifascism to the Resistance (1915–1945) Lessons with Testimonials |year=1975 |publisher=Giulio Einaudi Editore |location=Torino |oclc=878595757}}
* {{cite book|last=Pankhurst|first=Richard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jcpQqkHr328C|title=The Ethiopians: A History|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=Oxford|year=2001|pages=299 |isbn=978-0-631-22493-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Shillington|first=Kevin|title=Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 1|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=2004|pages=1912 |isbn=978-1-57958-245-6}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last=Salvadore |first=Matteo |title=The African Prester John and the Birth of Ethiopian-European Relations, 1402–1555 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-4724-1891-3 }}

==External links==
*{{wikisource inline |list=
**{{cite EB9 |wstitle = Abyssinia |volume= I |noicon=x |short=x}}
**{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Abyssinia |volume=1 |noicon=x |short=x}}
**{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Ethiopia |volume=9 |noicon=x|short=x}}
**{{cite EB1922|wstitle= Abyssinia |noicon=x|short=x}}
** {{Cite Collier's|wstitle=Abyssinia |noicon=x|short=x}}
}}
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