View source for Geʽez

{{short description|Ancient Semitic language of Eritrea and Ethiopia}}
{{redirect|Geʽez language|the various languages spoken in Ethiopia|Languages of Ethiopia}}
{{About|the language|the writing script|Geʽez script}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Ge{{ayin}}ez
| nativename       = {{lang|gez|ግዕዝ}} ''{{transliteration|sem|Gə{{ayin}}(ə)z}}''
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|gez|ˈɡɨʕ(ɨ)z|}}
| states           = [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]]
| extinct          = Before 10th century to 14th century
| ref              = <ref>{{harvnb|Gragg|1997b|p=242|loc="Ge‘ez disappeared as a spoken language probably some time before the tenth century CE."}}</ref><ref>[[De Lacy O'Leary]], 2000 ''Comparative grammar of the Semitic languages''. Routledge. p. 23.</ref>
| speakers2        = Remains in use as a [[liturgical language]].<ref name="CHA">{{harvnb|Chain|1909|loc="No longer in popular use, Geʽez has always remained the language of the Church"}}.</ref>
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2             = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
| fam3             = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
| fam4             = [[South Semitic languages|South Semitic]]
| fam5             = [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiopic]]
| fam6             = [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|North]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Classification-of-Ethiosemitic-languages-according-to-Hudson-2013_fig1_363263199|title=Classification of Ethio Semitic languages according to Hudson 2013|publisher=Research Gate|access-date=21 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363263199_Issues_in_Mapping_and_Classifying_the_Semitic_Languages_of_Ethiopia/download?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6Il9kaXJlY3QifX0|title=Title=Issies in mapping and classifying the Semitic languages of Ethiopia|publisher=Tekabe Legesse Felake|access-date=21 April 2025}}</ref>
| script           = [[Geʽez script]], [[Ancient South Arabian script]]
| nation           = [[Liturgical language]] of the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], [[Eritrean Catholic Church]],<ref name="CHA" /> [[Ethiopian Catholic Church]], and [[Beta Israel]]<ref name="PER">"They read the Bible in Geez" (Leaders and Religion of the Beth Israel); "after each passage, recited in Geez, the translation is read in Kailina" (Festivals). [PER], publication date 1901–1906.</ref>
| iso2             = gez
| iso3             = gez
| image            = Ge'ez.svg
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = geez1241
| glottorefname    = Geez
}}
{{Contains special characters|Ethiopic}}
[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 11.jpg|thumb|[[Ezana stone]], written in Geʽez explaining his conquests and accomplishments]]
'''Ge{{ayin}}ez''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|iː|ɛ|z}}<ref>{{multiref| Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student's Handbook'', Edinburgh | {{OED|Geez}} }}</ref> or {{IPAc-en|ɡ|iː|ˈ|ɛ|z}};<ref>{{multiref| {{MW|Geez}} | {{dict.com|Geez}} }}</ref> {{lang|gez|ግዕዝ}} {{transliteration|sem|Gə{{ayin}}(ə)z}}<ref>{{multiref| {{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|p=400}}: Ge‘z | {{harvnb|Leslau|1989|p=209}}: gə{{ayin}}əz | {{harvnb|Leslau|1987|p=175}}: gəʿz | {{harvnb|Cohen|1921|p=217|loc={{lang|fr|«il vaut mieux préciser en <em>éthiopien classique</em> ou employer le nom indigène; celui-ci est {{lang|gez|ግእዝ፡}}, c’est-à-dire en prononciation restituée {{tlit|sem|gə‘əz}} ou {{tlit|sem|gə‘z}}, et {{tlit|sem|gəəz}} dans la prononciation abyssine actuelle»}}{{pb}}[it is worth it to be precise using ''Classical Ethiopic'' or the indigenous name, which is {{lang|gez|ግእዝ፡}}, that is (in reconstructed pronunciation {{tlit|sem|gə‘əz}} or {{tlit|sem|gə‘z}}, and {{tlit|sem|gəəz}} {i.e. IPA {{IPA|lang=gez|[ˈgɨʔɨz]}} with a glottal stop} in today's Abyssinian pronunciation] }} }}</ref> {{IPA|gez|ˈɡɨʕ(ɨ)z|IPA|Ge'ez.ogg}}, and sometimes referred to in scholarly literature as '''Classical Ethiopic''') is an ancient [[South Semitic languages|South Semitic language]]. The language originates from what is now [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]].

Today, Ge{{ayin}}ez is used as the main [[liturgical language]] of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], the [[Ethiopian Catholic Church]], the [[Eritrean Catholic Church]], and the [[Beta Israel]] Jewish community.

[[Hawulti (monument)|Hawulti Obelisk]] is an ancient pre-[[Aksumite]] obelisk located in [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]], Eritrea. The monument dates to the early Aksumite period and bears an example of the ancient Ge{{ayin}}ez script.

In one study, [[Tigre language|Tigre]] was found to have a 71% lexical similarity to Geʽez, while [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] had a 68% lexical similarity to Geʽez, followed by [[Amharic]] at 62%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bender |first1=M. L. |title=The Languages of Ethiopia: A New Lexicostatistic Classification and Some Problems of Diffusion |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |date=May 1971 |volume=13 |issue=5 |page=173 |jstor=30029540}}</ref> Most linguists believe that Ge{{ayin}}ez does not constitute a common ancestor of modern [[Ethio-Semitic languages]] but became a separate language early on from another hypothetical unattested common language.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Connell |first1=Dan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SYsgpIc3mrsC&pg=PA508 |title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |last2=Killion |first2=Tom |publisher=Scarecrow  |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8108-7505-0 |edition=2nd |page=508}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Haarmann |first=Harald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=astTBgYBTOQC&pg=PA76 |title=Lexikon der untergegangenen Sprachen |publisher=C. H. Beck |year=2002 |isbn=978-3-406-47596-2 |edition=2nd |page=76 |language=de |trans-title=Lexicon of extinct languages}}</ref><ref>Amsalu Aklilu, Kuraz Publishing Agency, {{lang|gez|ጥሩ የአማርኛ ድርሰት እንዴት ያለ ነው!}} p. 42</ref>

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels ===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Geʽez vowels
|-
!&nbsp;!! [[Front vowel|Front]]&nbsp;!! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| /{{IPA link|i}}/ {{transliteration|sem|i}} || /{{IPA link|ɨ}}/ {{transliteration|sem|ə}} || /{{IPA link|u}}/ {{transliteration|sem|u}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| /{{IPA link|e}}/ {{transliteration|sem|e}} || || /{{IPA link|o}}/ {{transliteration|sem|o}}
|-
! [[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
| colspan="2" | /{{IPA link|æ}} ~ {{IPA link|ɐ}}/{{efn|{{IPA|/æ/}} in the Amharic liturgical pronunciation,<ref>{{harvnb|Gragg|1997a|p=177}}: "/ä/ is low central front, higher and more forward than /a/, secondarily perhaps also shorter; approximates IPA {{IPA|[æ]}}."</ref> or {{IPA|/ɐ/}}<ref>{{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|p=3}}: "a [æ, ä]"</ref> (as in [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]).}} {{transliteration|sem|a}} ||
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || /{{IPA link|a}} ~ {{IPA link|ɑ}}/{{efn|According to Lambdin.<ref>{{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|p=3}}: "ā [a, ɑ]"</ref>}} {{transliteration|sem|ā}} ||
|}
{{notelist}}

Historically, {{IPA|/ɨ/}} has a basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short {{transliteration|sem|*i}} and {{transliteration|sem|*u}}, {{IPA|/æ ~ ɐ/}} with short {{transliteration|sem|*a}}, the vowels {{IPA|/i, u, a/}} with Proto-Semitic long {{transliteration|sem|*ī, *ū, *ā}} respectively, and {{IPA|/e, o/}} with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs {{transliteration|sem|*ay}} and {{transliteration|sem|*aw}}.{{sfn|Gragg|1997a|pp=177–178}}{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=246}} In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/aw/}}, less so between {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/aj/}}, e.g. {{lang|gez|ተሎኩ}} ''taloku'' ~ {{lang|gez|ተለውኩ}} ''talawku'' ("I followed").{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=2}}

In the transcription employed by the [[Encyclopaedia Aethiopica]], which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a.

=== Consonants ===

==== Transliteration ====

Ge{{ayin}}ez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values):
<div style="float:left">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!translit.
| {{transliteration|sem|h}} || {{transliteration|sem|l}} || {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}} || {{transliteration|sem|m}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ś}} || {{transliteration|sem|r}} || {{transliteration|sem|s}} || {{transliteration|sem|q}}
| {{transliteration|sem|b}} || {{transliteration|sem|t}} || {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}} || {{transliteration|sem|n}}
| {{transliteration|sem|{{hamza}}}}
|- style="font-size:2em"
!style="font-size:0.5em"|Geʽez
| {{lang|gez|ሀ}} || {{lang|gez|ለ}} || {{lang|gez|ሐ}} || {{lang|gez|መ}}
| {{lang|gez|ሠ}} || {{lang|gez|ረ}} || {{lang|gez|ሰ}} || {{lang|gez|ቀ}}
| {{lang|gez|በ}} || {{lang|gez|ተ}} || {{lang|gez|ኀ}} || {{lang|gez|ነ}}
| {{lang|gez|አ}}
|}
</div>

<div style="float:left">

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!translit.
| {{transliteration|sem|k}} || {{transliteration|sem|w}} || {{transliteration|sem|{{ayin}}}}
| {{transliteration|sem|z}} || {{transliteration|sem|y}} || {{transliteration|sem|d}} || {{transliteration|sem|g}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}} || {{transliteration|sem|p̣}} || {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}} || {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}
| {{transliteration|sem|f}} || {{transliteration|sem|p}}
|- style="font-size:2em"
!style="font-size:0.5em"|Geʽez
| {{lang|gez|ከ}} || {{lang|gez|ወ}} || {{lang|gez|ዐ}}
| {{lang|gez|ዘ}} || {{lang|gez|የ}} || {{lang|gez|ደ}} || {{lang|gez|ገ}}
| {{lang|gez|ጠ}} || {{lang|gez|ጰ}} || {{lang|gez|ጸ}} || {{lang|gez|ፀ}}
| {{lang|gez|ፈ}} || {{lang|gez|ፐ}}
|}

</div>

{{clear}}

Because Ge{{ayin}}ez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to the graphemes {{transliteration|sem|ś}} (Ge{{ayin}}ez {{lang|gez|ሠ}}) and {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}} (Ge{{ayin}}ez {{lang|gez|ፀ}}) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Ge{{ayin}}ez."{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=244}}

[[File:Psalms.jpg|alt=a verse from Psalm written in Ge{{ayin}}ez|thumb|A verse from [[Psalms|the book of Psalms]] written in Ge{{ayin}}ez]]

A similar problem is found for the consonant transliterated {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}. Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it is pronounced exactly the same as {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}} in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain.{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=245}}

The chart below lists {{IPA|/ɬ/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ɬʼ/}} as possible values for {{transliteration|sem|ś}} ({{lang|gez|ሠ}}) and {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}} ({{lang|gez|ፀ}}) respectively. It also lists {{IPA|/χ/}} as a possible value for {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}} ({{lang|gez|ኀ}}). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed [[Proto-Semitic]] consonants that they are descended from.

==== Phonemes of Geʽez ====

The following table presents the [[consonant]]s of the Ge{{ayin}}ez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a [[phoneme]] is given in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcription, followed by its representation in the Ge{{ayin}}ez script and scholarly transliteration.

{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ Geʽez consonants<ref>{{cite journal|last=Weninger|first=Stefan|date=2011|title=Sounds of Gǝ{{ayin}}ǝz – How to Study the Phonetics and Phonology of an Ancient Language|journal=Aethiopica|volume=13|pages=75–88|doi=10.15460/aethiopica.13.1.39|url=https://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/aethiopica/article/view/39/20|doi-access=free}}</ref>
|-
!colspan=2 rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2| [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=3| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!rowspan=2| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!rowspan=2| [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
!rowspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2| {{small|[[Central consonant|central]]}}
! {{small|[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]}}
! {{small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|labialized]]}}
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| /{{IPA link|m}}/ {{lang|gez|መ}} {{transliteration|sem|m}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|n}}/ {{lang|gez|ነ}} {{transliteration|sem|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Plosive|Stop]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]</small>
| /{{IPA link|p}}/ {{lang|gez|ፐ}} {{transliteration|sem|p}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|t}}/ {{lang|gez|ተ}} {{transliteration|sem|t}}
|
|
| /{{IPA link|k}}/ {{lang|gez|ከ}} {{transliteration|sem|k}}
| /{{IPA link|k}}[[Labialization|ʷ]]/ {{lang|gez|ኰ}} {{transliteration|sem|kʷ}}
|
|rowspan=3| /{{IPA link|ʔ}}/ {{lang|gez|አ}} {{transliteration|sem|{{hamza}}}}
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| /{{IPA link|b}}/ {{lang|gez|በ}} {{transliteration|sem|b}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|d}}/ {{lang|gez|ደ}} {{transliteration|sem|d}}
|
|
| /{{IPA link|g}}/ {{lang|gez|ገ}} {{transliteration|sem|g}}
| /{{IPA link|g}}[[Labialization|ʷ]]/ {{lang|gez|ጐ}} {{transliteration|sem|gʷ}}
|
|-
! <small>[[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]</small>{{efn|The [[emphatic consonant]]s of Ge{{ayin}}ez were likely realized as [[Ejective consonant|ejectives]], as in the modern Ethiopian Semitic languages.}}
| /{{IPA link|pʼ}}/ {{lang|gez|ጰ}} {{transliteration|sem|p̣}}
| /{{IPA link|t’}}/ {{lang|gez|ጠ}} {{transliteration|sem|ṭ}}
| /{{IPA link|t͡sʼ}}/ {{lang|gez|ጸ}} {{transliteration|sem|ṣ}}
| /{{IPA link|t͡ɬʼ}}/ {{lang|gez|ፀ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḍ}}
|
| /{{IPA link|k’}}/ {{lang|gez|ቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|q}}
| /[[Velar ejective stop|k]][[Labialization|ʷ]][[Velar ejective stop|’]]/ {{lang|gez|ቈ}} {{transliteration|sem|qʷ}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Fricative]]
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]</small>
| /{{IPA link|f}}/ {{lang|gez|ፈ}} {{transliteration|sem|f}}
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|s}}/ {{lang|gez|ሰ}} {{transliteration|sem|s}}
| /{{IPA link|ɬ}}/ {{lang|gez|ሠ}} {{transliteration|sem|ś}}
|
| /{{IPA link|x}}/ {{lang|gez|ኀ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḫ}}
| /{{IPA link|x}}[[Labialization|ʷ]]/ {{lang|gez|ኈ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḫʷ}}
| /{{IPA link|ħ}}/ {{lang|gez|ሐ}} {{transliteration|sem|ḥ}}
| /{{IPA link|h}}/ {{lang|gez|ሀ}} {{transliteration|sem|h}}
|-
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
|
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|z}}/ {{lang|gez|ዘ}} {{transliteration|sem|z}}
|
|
|
|
| /{{IPA link|ʕ}}/ {{lang|gez|ዐ}} {{transliteration|sem|{{ayin}}}}
|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Approximant]]
|
|colspan=2| /{{IPA link|r}}/ {{lang|gez|ረ}} {{transliteration|sem|r}}
| /{{IPA link|l}}/ {{lang|gez|ለ}} {{transliteration|sem|l}}
| /{{IPA link|j}}/ {{lang|gez|የ}} {{transliteration|sem|y}}
|
| /{{IPA link|w}}/ {{lang|gez|ወ}} {{transliteration|sem|w}}
|
|
|}
{{notelist}}

==== Ge{{ayin}}ez consonants in relation to Proto-Semitic ====

Ge{{ayin}}ez consonants have a triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and [[ejective consonant|ejective]] (or [[emphatic consonant|emphatic]]) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Ge{{ayin}}ez has been generalized to include emphatic {{transliteration|sem|p̣}} {{IPA|/pʼ/}}. Geʽez has phonologized [[labialized velar consonant|labiovelars]], descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Ge{{ayin}}ez ś {{lang|gez|ሠ}} Sawt (in Amharic, also called ''śe-nigūś'', i.e. the ''se'' letter used for spelling the word ''nigūś'' "king") is reconstructed as descended from a Proto-Semitic [[voiceless lateral fricative]] {{IPA|[ɬ]}}. Like Arabic, Ge{{ayin}}ez merged Proto-Semitic [[Shin (letter)|š]] and [[Samekh|s]] in {{lang|gez|ሰ}} (also called ''se-isat'': the ''se'' letter used for spelling the word ''isāt'' "fire"). Apart from this, Ge{{ayin}}ez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and [[ghayn]].

=== Stress ===

There is no evidence within the script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account<ref>{{harvnb|Mittwoch|1926}}, as used by {{harvnb|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;3.5}}, and largely identical to {{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|pp=5, 29, 36, 40, 57, 97}}</ref> may be broadly summarized as follows:
* primary stress only falls on the ultima (the last syllable) or the penult (the second-to-last syllable)
* in finite verbs (including the imperative), stress falls on the penult: {{lang|gez|ቀተለት}} ''qatálat'' ("she killed"), {{lang|gez|ንግር}} ''nə́gər'' ("speak!", masculine singular), with the important exception of the 2nd-person feminine plural suffix {{lang|gez|ክን}} ''-kə́n''
* in nouns and adjectives (in citation form), and most adverbs, stress falls on the ultima: {{lang|gez|ንጉሥ}} ''nəgúś'' ("king"), {{lang|gez|ሀገር}} ''hagár'' ("city"), {{lang|gez|ግዕዝ}} ''Gə́ʽz'' ("Geʽez"), {{lang|gez|ጠቢብ}} ''ṭabíb'' ("wise"), {{lang|gez|ህየ}} ''həyyá'' ("there"); an exception among adverbs is {{lang|gez|ዝየ}} ''zə́ya'' ("here")
* the suffix ''-a'', marking the construct state or the accusative case (or both), is not stressed: {{lang|gez|ንጉሠ}} ''nəgúśa'', {{lang|gez|ሀገረ}} ''hagára'', {{lang|gez|ግዕዘ}} ''Gə́ʽza'', {{lang|gez|ጠቢበ}} ''ṭabíba''
* cardinal numbers are stressed on the ultima, even in the accusative, e.g. {{lang|gez|ሠለስቱ}} ''śalastú'' accusative {{lang|gez|ሠለስተ}} ''śalastá'' ("three")
* pronouns have rather unpredictable stress, so stress is learned for each form
* [[clitic|enclitic]] particles (such as {{lang|gez|ሰ}} ''-(ə)ssá'') are stressed
* various grammatical words (short prepositions, conjunctions) and short nouns in the construct state are unstressed
As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account<ref>{{harvnb|Dillmann|1899}}, as cited by {{harvnb|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;3.5.2 in footnotes 45–46}}</ref> says the masculine singular imperative is stressed on the ultima (e.g. {{lang|gez|ንግር}} ''nəgə́r'', "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on the third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. {{lang|gez|በረከተ}} ''bárakata'').

Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as ''yənaggərā́'' ("he speaks to her", with the pronoun suffix ''-(h)ā́'' "her") vs. ''yənaggə́rā'' ("they speak", feminine plural), both written {{lang|gez|ይነግራ}}.{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=246}}

== Morphology ==

=== Nouns ===

Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, the latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix {{lang|gez|ት}} {{transliteration|sem|-t}}, e.g. {{lang|gez|እኅት}} {{transliteration|sem|{{hamza}}əxt}} ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek.{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=26}}

There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing {{lang|gez|ኣት}} {{transliteration|sem|-āt}} to a word (regardless of gender, but often {{lang|gez|ኣን}} {{transliteration|sem|-ān}} if it is a male human noun), or by using an [[internal plural]].{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=21}}

* Plural using suffix: {{lang|gez|ዓመት}} {{transliteration|sem|ʿāmat}} ("year") plural {{lang|gez|ዓመታት}} {{transliteration|sem|ʿāmatāt}}, {{lang|gez|ገዳም}} {{transliteration|sem|gadām}} ("wilderness, uninhabited area") plural {{lang|gez|ገዳማት}} {{transliteration|sem|gadāmāt}}, {{lang|gez|ሊቅ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq}} ("elder, chief") plural {{lang|gez|ሊቃን}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān}}, {{lang|gez|ጳጳስ}} {{transliteration|sem|p̣āp̣p̣ās}} ("(arch)bishop") plural {{lang|gez|ጳጳሳት}} {{transliteration|sem|p̣āp̣p̣āsāt}}.
* Internal plural: {{lang|gez|ቤት}} {{transliteration|sem|bet}} ("house") plural {{lang|gez|አብያት}} {{transliteration|sem|ʾabyāt}}, {{lang|gez|ቅርንብ}} {{transliteration|sem|qərnəb}} ("eyelid") plural {{lang|gez|ቀራንብት}} {{transliteration|sem|qarānəbt}}.

Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and the accusative, which is marked with final {{transliteration|sem|-a}}. As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and [[construct state|construct]] (marked with {{transliteration|sem|-a}} as well).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of {{lang|gez|ሊቅ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq}} ("elder, chief")
|-
! !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! !! Absolute<br />state !! Construct<br />state !! Absolute<br />state !! Construct<br />state
|-
! Nominative
| {{lang|gez|ሊቅ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq'''a'''}}
| {{lang|gez|ሊቃን}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቃነ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān'''a'''}}
|-
! Accusative
| {{lang|gez|ሊቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq'''a'''}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቀ}} {{transliteration|sem|liq'''a'''}}
| {{lang|gez|ሊቃነ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān'''a'''}} || {{lang|gez|ሊቃነ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqān'''a'''}}
|}

As in [[Arabic language|Classical/Standard Arabic]], singular and plural nouns often take the same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in the stem.

There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix (see the table of suffix pronouns below). For example, when followed by {{lang|gez|የ}} {{transliteration|sem|-ya}} ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form is {{lang|gez|ሊቅየ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqə́ya}} (i.e. the accusative is ''not'' {{lang|gez|*ሊቀየ}} {{transliteration|sem|*liqáya}}), but with {{lang|gez|ከ}} {{transliteration|sem|-ka}} ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative {{lang|gez|ሊቅከ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqə́ka}} and accusative {{lang|gez|ሊቀከ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqáka}}, and similarly with {{transliteration|sem|-hu}} ("his") between nominative {{lang|gez|ሊቁ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqú}} (< {{transliteration|sem|*liq-ə-hu}}) and accusative {{lang|gez|ሊቆ}} {{transliteration|sem|liqó}} (< {{transliteration|sem|*liqa-hu}}).{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2.2}}{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=40}}

==== Internal plural ====

Internal plurals follow certain patterns. Triconsonantal nouns follow one of the following patterns.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Patterns of internal plural for triconsonantal nouns{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=248}}{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=440}} <br />(C=Consonant, V=Vowel)
|-
!Pattern
!Singular
!Meaning
!Plural
|-
| rowspan="5"|'''ʾaCCāC'''
| {{lang|gez|ልብስ}} {{transliteration|gez|ləbs}}
| 'garment'
| {{lang|gez|አልባስ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾalbās}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ፈረስ}} {{transliteration|gez|faras}}
| 'horse'
| {{lang|gez|አፍራስ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾafrās}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ቤት}} {{transliteration|gez|bet}}
| 'house'
| {{lang|gez|አብያት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾabyāt}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ጾም}} {{transliteration|gez|ṣom}}
| 'fast'
| {{lang|gez|አጽዋም}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾaṣwām}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ስም}} {{transliteration|gez|səm}}
| 'name'
| {{lang|gez|አስማት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾasmāt}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|'''ʾaCCuC'''
| {{lang|gez|ሀገር}} {{transliteration|gez|hagar}}
| 'country'
| {{lang|gez|አህጉር}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾahgur}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|አድግ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾadg}}
| 'ass'
| {{lang|gez|አእዱግ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾaʾdug}}
|-
| rowspan="3"|'''ʾaCCəC(t)'''
| {{lang|gez|በትር}} {{transliteration|gez|batr}}
| 'rod'
| {{lang|gez|አብትር}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾabtər}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ርእስ}} {{transliteration|gez|rə's}}
| 'head'
| {{lang|gez|አርእስት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾarʾəst}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ገብር}} {{transliteration|gez|gabr}}
| 'servant, slave'
| {{lang|gez|አግብርት}} {{transliteration|gez|ʾagbərt}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|'''ʾaCāCəC(t)'''
| {{lang|gez|በግዕ}} {{transliteration|gez|bagʽ}}
| 'sheep'
| {{lang|gez|አባግዕ}} {{transliteration|gez|’abāgəʽ}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|ጋንን}} {{transliteration|gez|gānən}}
| 'devil'
| {{lang|gez|አጋንንት}} {{transliteration|gez|’agānənt}}
|-
| rowspan="2"|'''CVCaC'''
| {{lang|gez|እዝን}} {{transliteration|gez|’əzn}}
| 'ear'
| {{lang|gez|እዘን}} {{transliteration|gez|’əzan}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|እግር}} {{transliteration|gez|’əgr}}
| 'foot'
| {{lang|gez|እገር}} {{transliteration|gez|’əgar}}
|-
| rowspan="3"|'''CVCaw'''
| {{lang|gez|እድ}} {{transliteration|gez|’əd}}
| 'hand'
| {{lang|gez|እደው}} {{transliteration|gez|’ədaw}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|አብ}} {{transliteration|gez|’ab}}
| 'father'
| {{lang|gez|አበው}} {{transliteration|gez|’abaw}}
|-
| {{lang|gez|እኍ/እኅው}} {{transliteration|gez|’əḫʷ/’əḫəw}}
| 'brother'
| {{lang|gez|አኀው}} {{transliteration|gez|’aḫaw}}
|}

Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely {{IPA|/i e o u/}}).{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=248}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Patterns of internal plural for quadriconsonantal nouns{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=248}}{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=440}} <br />(C=Consonant, V=Vowel)
|-
!Pattern
!Meaning
!Singular
!Plural
|-
| rowspan="9"|'''CaCāCəC(t)'''
| 'virgin'
| {{lang|gez|ድንግል}} {{transliteration|gez|dəngəl}}
| {{lang|gez|ደናግል}} {{transliteration|gez|danāgəl}}
|-
| 'prince'
| {{lang|gez|መስፍን}} {{transliteration|gez|masfən}}
| {{lang|gez|መሳፍንት}} {{transliteration|gez|masāfənt}}
|-
| 'star'
| {{lang|gez|ኮከብ}} {{transliteration|gez|kokab}}
| {{lang|gez|ከዋክብት}} {{transliteration|gez|kawākəbt}}
|-
| 'window'
| {{lang|gez|መስኮት}} {{transliteration|gez|maskot}}
| {{lang|gez|መሳኩት}} {{transliteration|gez|masākut < masākəwt}}
|-
| 'chicken'
| {{lang|gez|ዶርሆ}} {{transliteration|gez|dorho}}
| {{lang|gez|ደራውህ}} {{transliteration|gez|darāwəh}}
|-
| 'night'
| {{lang|gez|ሌሊት}} {{transliteration|gez|lelit}}
| {{lang|gez|ለያልይ}} {{transliteration|gez|layāləy}}
|-
| 'earth'
| {{lang|gez|ብሔር}} {{transliteration|gez|bəḥer}}
| {{lang|gez|በሓውርት}} {{transliteration|gez|baḥāwərt}}
|-
| 'river'
| {{lang|gez|ውሒዝ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəḥiz}}
| {{lang|gez|ወሓይዝት}} {{transliteration|gez|waḥāyəzt}}
|-
| 'priest'
| {{lang|gez|ቀሲስ}} {{transliteration|gez|qasis}}
| {{lang|gez|ቀሳውስት}} {{transliteration|gez|qasāwəst}}
|}

=== Pronominal morphology ===

In the independent pronouns, gender is not distinguished in the 1st person, and case is only distinguished in the 3rd person singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Personal independent pronouns{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.1}}{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=29}}
|-
! colspan="3" |
! Singular !! Plural
|-
! colspan="3" | <small>1st person</small>
| {{lang|gez|አነ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼána}} || {{lang|gez|ንሕነ}} {{transliteration|gez|nə́ḥna}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>2nd person</small>
! colspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
| {{lang|gez|አንተ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼánta}}
| {{lang|gez|አንትሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼantə́mu}}
|-
! colspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
| {{lang|gez|አንቲ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼánti}}
| {{lang|gez|አንትን}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼantə́n}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | <small>3rd person</small>
! rowspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
! <small>nominative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ውእቱ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼə́tu}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|gez|ውእቶሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼətómu}}, <br />{{lang|gez|እሙንቱ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼəmuntú}}
|-
! <small>accusative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ውእተ}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼə́ta}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
! <small>nominative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ይእቲ}} {{transliteration|gez|yəʼə́ti}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|gez|ውእቶን}} {{transliteration|gez|wəʼətón}}, <br />{{lang|gez|እማንቱ}} {{transliteration|gez|ʼəmāntú}}
|-
! <small>accusative</small>
| {{lang|gez|ይእተ}} {{transliteration|gez|yə’ə́ta}}
|}

Suffix pronouns attach at the end of a noun, preposition or verb. The accusative/construct {{transliteration|gez|-a}} is lost when a plural noun with a consonant-final stem has a pronoun suffix attached (generally replaced by the added {{transliteration|gez|-i-}}, as in {{transliteration|gez|-i-hu}}, "his"), thereby losing the case/state distinction,<ref>{{harvnb|Lambdin|1978|p=41}}: "Plural noun. All plural nouns have a suffix -i- added to the stem before the pronominal suffixes. [...] There are no distinct accusative forms."</ref> but the distinction may be retained in the case of consonant-final singular nouns. Furthermore, suffix pronouns may or may not attract stress to themselves. In the following table, pronouns without a stress mark (an acute) are not stressed, and vowel-initial suffixes have also been given the base {{lang|gez|በ}} {{IPA|/b/}} in the script.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Suffix pronouns{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2}}{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|pp=40–41}}
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="3" | !! colspan="2" | <small>Default</small> !! colspan="2" | <small>With consonant-final <br />singular nouns</small> || rowspan="2" | <small>With consonant-final <br />plural nouns</small>
|-
! <small>noun/prep.</small> !! <small>verb</small> !! <small>nominative</small> !! <small>accusative</small>
|-
! rowspan="5" | <small>Singular</small>
! colspan="2" | <small>1st person</small>
| {{lang|gez|-የ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ya}} || {{lang|gez|-ኒ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ni}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ብየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ya}} || {{lang|gez|-ብየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ya}}, {{lang|gez|-ቢየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íya}}{{efn|{{lang|gez|-ቢየ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íya}} is a variant mostly found in older manuscripts.{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2.1}}}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>2nd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ka}} || {{lang|gez|-ብከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ka}} || {{lang|gez|-በከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-áka}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢከ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íka}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ki}} || {{lang|gez|-ብኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ki}} || {{lang|gez|-በኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-áki}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-íki}}, {{lang|gez|-ብኪ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́ki}}{{efn|These two forms are in free variation.{{sfn|Tropper|2021|loc=§&nbsp;4.1.2.1}}}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>3rd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|ሁ}} {{transliteration|gez|-hú}} || {{lang|gez|-ቡ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ú}} || {{lang|gez|-ቦ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ó}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሁ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihú}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ሃ}} {{transliteration|gez|-hā́}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ባ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ā́}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሃ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihā́}}
|-
! rowspan="5" | <small>Plural</small>
! colspan="2" | <small>1st person</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-na}} || {{lang|gez|-ብነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ə́na}} || {{lang|gez|-በነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ána}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢነ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ína}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>2nd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-kə́mu}} || {{lang|gez|-ብክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-əkə́mu}} || {{lang|gez|-በክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-akə́mu}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢክሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ikə́mu}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-kə́n}} || {{lang|gez|-ብክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-əkə́n}} || {{lang|gez|-በክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-akə́n}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢክን}} {{transliteration|gez|-ikə́n}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>3rd person</small>
! <small>masculine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ሆሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-hómu}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ቦሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ómu}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሆሙ}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihómu}}
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ሆን}} {{transliteration|gez|-hón}} || colspan="2" | {{lang|gez|-ቦን}} {{transliteration|gez|-ón}} || {{lang|gez|-ቢሆን}} {{transliteration|gez|-ihón}}
|}
{{notelist}}

=== Verb conjugation ===

{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" colspan="3" | Person
! rowspan="2" | Perfect<br />{{transliteration|gez|qatal-nn}}
! colspan="2" | Imperfect
|-
! Indicative<br />{{transliteration|gez|-qattəl}}
! Jussive<br />{{transliteration|gez|-qtəl}}
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 1st person
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ku}}
| {{transliteration|gez|ʾə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|ʾə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-na}}
| {{transliteration|gez|nə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|nə-qtəl}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | 2nd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ka}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-kəmmu}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl-u}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl-u}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ki}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl-i}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl-i}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-kən}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl-ā}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl-ā}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | 3rd<br />person
! rowspan="2" | <small>masculine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-a}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-u}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qattəl-u}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qtəl-u}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | <small>feminine</small>
! <small>singular</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-at}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qattəl}}
| {{transliteration|gez|tə-qtəl}}
|-
! <small>plural</small>
| {{transliteration|gez|qatal-ā}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qattəl-ā}}
| {{transliteration|gez|yə-qtəl-ā}}
|}

== Syntax ==

=== Noun phrases ===

Noun phrases have the following overall order:
:(demonstratives) noun (adjective)-(relative clause)

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| በዛ ሀገር
| ba-zā hagar
| in-this:F city
| in this city}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ንጉሥ ክቡር
| nəguś kəbur
| king glorious
| a/the glorious king}}

Adjectives and determiners agree with the noun in gender and number:

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ዛቲ ንግሥት ክብርት
| zāti nəgəśt kəbərt
| this:FEM queen glorious:FEM
| this glorious queen}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| እሉ ነገሥት ክቡራን
| ʼəllu nagaśt kəburān
| these:M.PL kings glorious:PL
| these glorious kings}}

Relative clauses are introduced by a pronoun which agrees in gender and number with the preceding noun:

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ብእሲ ዘቀተልዎ ለወልዱ
| bəʾsi za{{=}}qatal-əww-o la{{=}}wald-u
| man which:MASC{{=}}kill-3.M.PL-3.M.SG to{{=}}son{{=}}3.M.SG
| the man whose son they killed}}

As in many Semitic languages, possession by a noun phrase is shown through the [[construct state]]. In Geʽez, this is formed by suffixing the construct suffix {{transliteration|gez|-a}} to the possessed noun, which is followed by the possessor, as in the following examples:{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=23}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ወልደ ንጉሥ
| wald-a nəguś
| son-construct king
| the son of the king}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ስመ መልአክ
| səm-a malʼak
| name-construct angel
| the name of the angel}}

Another common way of indicating possession by a noun phrase combines the pronominal suffix on a noun with the possessor preceded by the preposition /la=/ 'to, for':{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=44}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ስሙ ለንጉሥ
| səm-u la{{=}}nəguś
| name-3SG to{{=}}king
| 'the king's name; the name of the king'}}

Lambdin{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=45}} notes that in comparison to the construct state, this kind of possession is only possible when the possessor is definite and specific. Lambdin also notes that the construct state is the unmarked form of possession in Geʽez.

=== Prepositional phrases ===

Geʽez is a prepositional language, as in the following example:{{sfn|Lambdin|1978|p=16}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ውስተ ሀገር
| wəsta hagar
| to city
| to the city}}

There are three special prepositions, /ba=/ 'in, with', /la=/ 'to, for', /ʼəm=/ 'from', which always appear as clitics, as in the following examples:

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| እምሀገር
| ʼəm{{=}}hagar
| from{{=}}city
| from the city}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| በሀገር
| ba{{=}}hagar
| in{{=}}city
| in the city}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| እምዲበ ደብር
| ’əm{{=}}diba dabr
| from{{=}}on mountain
| down from the mountain}}

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| በዝ ቤት
| ba{{=}}zə bet
| in{{=}}this house
| in this house}}

These proclitic prepositions in Geʽez are similar to the [[Hebrew language#Morphology|Hebrew inseparable prepositions]].

=== Sentences ===

The normal word order for declarative sentences is VSO. Objects of verbs show [[accusative case]] marked with the suffix /-a/:

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ተከለ ብእሲ ዕፀ
| takal-a bəʾsi ʿəḍ-a
| plant-3.M.SG man tree-ACC
| The man planted a tree}}

Questions with a wh-word ('who', 'what', etc.) show the question word at the beginning of the sentence:

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| አየ ሀገረ ሐነጹ
| ʾayy-a hagar-a ḥanaṣ-u
| which-ACC city-ACC build-3PL
| Which city did they build?}}

=== Negation ===

The common way of negation is the prefix {{lang|gez|ኢ}} ''ʾi-'' which descends from ''ʾəy-'' (which is attested in Axum inscriptions), from earlier *''ʾay'', from [[Proto-Semitic]] ''*ʾal'' by [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]].{{sfn|Gragg|1997b|p=257}} It is prefixed to verbs as follows:

{{fs interlinear|lang=gez|indent=3
| ንሕነ ኢንክል ሐዊረ
| nəḥna ʾi-nəkl ḥawira
| we {(we) cannot} go
| we cannot go}}

==Writing system==<!-- This section is linked from [[Unicode]] -->

{{Main|Geʽez script}}

[[File:Ethiopic genesis (ch. 29, v. 11-16), 15th century (The S.S. Teacher's Edition-The Holy Bible - Plate XII, 1).jpg|thumb|[[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 29.11–16 in Geʽez]]

Geʽez is written with Ethiopic or the Geʽez [[abugida]], a script that was originally developed specifically for this language. In languages that use it, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called ''{{transliteration|sem|Fidäl}}'', which means script or alphabet.

Geʽez is read from left to right.

The Geʽez script has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is for Amharic in [[Ethiopia]] and Tigrinya in [[Eritrea]] and Ethiopia. It is also used for [[Sebat Bet Gurage language|Sebatbeit]], [[Meʼen language|Meʼen]], Agew, and most other languages of Ethiopia. In Eritrea it is used for Tigre, and it is often used for [[Bilen language|Bilen]], a [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic language]]. Some other languages in the [[Horn of Africa]], such as [[Oromo language|Oromo]], used to be written using Geʽez but have switched to [[Latin script|Latin]]-based alphabets.
It also uses four series of consonant signs for [[labialized velar consonant|labialized velar]] consonants, which are variants of the non-labialized velar consonants:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!rowspan="2" |Basic sign
| {{transliteration|sem|q(a)}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ḫ(a)}} || {{transliteration|sem|k(a)}}
| {{transliteration|sem|g(a)}}
|- style="font-size:2em"
| ቀ || ኀ || ከ || ገ
|-
!rowspan="2"|Labialized variant
| {{transliteration|sem|qʷ(a)}}
| {{transliteration|sem|ḫʷ(a)}} || {{transliteration|sem|kʷ(a)}}
| {{transliteration|sem|gʷ(a)}}
|- style="font-size:2em"
| ቈ || ኈ || ኰ || ጐ
|}

== History and literature ==
{{See also|Bible translations into Geʽez}}[[File:Sample of Ge'ez writing.jpg|thumb|Example of Geʽez taken from a 15th-century Ethiopian Coptic prayer book]]

In addition to the [[Bible]] including the [[Deuterocanonical books]], there are many medieval and early modern original texts. Most important works are also the literature of the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], which include Christian liturgy (service books, prayers, hymns), [[hagiography|hagiographies]], and [[Patristics|Patristic literature]]. For example, around 200 texts were written about indigenous Ethiopian saints from the fourteenth through the nineteenth century. Traditional education was the responsibility of priests and monks. "The Church thus constituted the custodian of the nation's culture", says [[Richard Pankhurst (academic)|Richard Pankhurst]], who describes the traditional education as follows:

{{blockquote|Traditional education was largely biblical. It began with the learning of the alphabet, or more properly, syllabary... The student's second grade comprised the memorization of the first chapter of the [[First Epistle of John|first Epistle General of St. John]] in Geez. The study of writing would probably also begin at this time, and particularly in more modern times some arithmetic might be added. In the third stage the [[Acts of the Apostles]] were studied, while certain prayers were also learnt, and writing and arithmetic continued. ... The fourth stage began with the study of the [[Psalms]] of David and was considered an important landmark in a child's education, being celebrated by the parents with a feast to which the teacher, father confessor, relatives and neighbours were invited. A boy who had reached this stage would moreover usually be able to write, and might act as a letter writer.<ref>{{harvnb|Pankhurst|1968|pp=666f}}; cf. the EOTC's own account at [https://web.archive.org/web/20071102185031/http://www.eotc-patriarch.org/teachings.htm its official website.] "Church Teachings". Retrieved from the Internet Archive on March 12, 2014.</ref>}}

However, works of history and chronography, ecclesiastical and civil law, philology, medicine, and letters were also written in Geʽez.<ref name="internationalstandardbible.com">{{Cite web |title=Ethiopic Language in the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. |url=http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/E/ethiopic-language.html |website=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online |language=en}}</ref>

Significant [[Ethiopian manuscript collections|collections of Ethiopian manuscripts]] are found outside of Ethiopia in France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The collection in the [[British Library]] comprises some 800 manuscripts dating from the 15th to the 20th centuries, notably including magical and divinatory scrolls, and illuminated manuscripts of the 16th to 17th centuries. It was initiated by a donation of 74 codices by the [[Church of England Missionary Society]] in the 1830s and 1840s, and substantially expanded by 349 codices, looted by the British from the Emperor [[Tewodros II of Ethiopia|Tewodros II]]'s capital at [[Amba Mariam|Magdala]] in the [[1868 Expedition to Abyssinia]]. The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City has at least two [http://www.metmuseum.org/search-results?ft=Geez illuminated manuscripts in Geʽez].

=== Origins ===
[[File:Aksum, iscrizione di re ezana, in greco, sabeo e ge'ez, 330-350 dc ca. 10.jpg|thumb|The [[Ezana Stone]], engraved from AD 330 to 356, is written in ancient Geʽez, [[Sabaean language|Sabaean]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].]]

The Geʽez language is classified as a [[South Semitic language]], though an alternative hypothesis posits that the Semitic languages of Eritrea and Ethiopia may best be considered an independent branch of Semitic,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=M. |first=E. |date=1935 |title=Note on the Languages of Abyssinia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25639482 |journal=Bulletin of International News |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=3–5 |jstor=25639482 |issn=2044-3986}}</ref> with Geʽez and the closely related [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]] languages forming a northern branch while [[Amharic language|Amharic]], Argobba, Harari and the Gurage languages form the southern branch.{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=428}}

Inscriptions dating to the mid-1st millennium BCE, written in the [[Sabaean language]] in the [[South Arabian alphabet|epigraphic South Arabian script]], have been found in the kingdom of [[Dʿmt]], serving at least as a witness to a presence of speakers of Semitic languages in the region. There is some evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in [[Eritrea]] since approximately 2000 BC.{{sfn|Stuart|1991|p=57}} Unlike previously assumed, the Geʽez language is now not regarded as an offshoot of [[Sabaean language|Sabaean]] or any other forms of [[Old South Arabian]].<ref>Weninger, Stefan, "Geʽez" in ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'', p.732.</ref>{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=428}}

Early inscriptions in Geʽez from the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (appearing varyingly in the epigraphic South Arabian script, and unvocalized or vocalized Ethiopic/Geʽez script{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=430}}) have been dated to as early as the 4th century CE. The surviving Geʽez literature properly begins in the same century with the Christianization of the Aksum, during the reign of [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana of Aksum]].<ref name="internationalstandardbible.com"/>{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=430}} The oldest known example of the Geʽez script, unvocalized and containing religiously [[Paganism|pagan]] references, is found on the [[Hawulti (monument)|Hawulti]] obelisk in [[Matara, Eritrea]].<ref>Edward Ullendorff, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25222457 "The Obelisk of Matara", ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland''], No. 1/2 (April, 1951), pp. 26–32</ref> There exist about a dozen long inscriptions dating to the 4th and 5th centuries, and over 200 short ones.{{sfn|Gragg|2008|p=430}}

=== 5th to 7th centuries ===

The oldest surviving Geʽez manuscript is thought to be the second of the [[Garima Gospels]], dating to the 5th or 6th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=A conservator at work on the Garima Gospels |date=2010-07-14 |title="Discovery of earliest illustrated manuscript," Martin Bailey, June 2010 |url=https://archaeologynewsnetwork.blogspot.com/2010/07/discovery-of-earliest-illuminated.html |access-date=2012-07-11 |publisher=Theartnewspaper.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Arts Newspaper June 2010 – Abuna Garima Gospels |url=http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501030359/http://ethiopianheritagefund.org/artsNewspaper.html |archive-date=2012-05-01 |access-date=2012-07-11 |publisher=Ethiopianheritagefund.org}}</ref> Almost all transmitted texts from this early "[[Aksumite]]" period are religious ([[Christianity|Christian]]) in nature, and translated from Greek. Indeed, the range and scope of the translation enterprise undertaken in the first century of the new Axumite church has few parallels in the early centuries of Christian history. The outcome was an Ethiopic Bible containing 81 Books: 46 of the Old Testament and 35 of the New. A number of these Books are called "deuterocanonical" (or "apocryphal" according to certain Western theologians), such as the [[Ascension of Isaiah]], [[Jubilees]], [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]], the [[Paralipomena of Baruch]], [[Book of Noah|Noah]], [[Ezra]], [[Nehemiah]], [[Maccabees]], and [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]. The Book of Enoch in particular is notable since its complete text has survived in no other language; and, for the other works listed, the Ethiopic version is highly regarded as a witness to the original text.

Also to this early period dates [[Qerlos]], a collection of Christological writings beginning with the treatise of [[Cyril of Alexandria|Saint Cyril]] (known as ''Hamanot Reteʼet'' or ''De Recta Fide''). These works are the theological foundation of the Ethiopic Church. In the later 5th century, the [[Aksumite Collection]]—an extensive selection of liturgical, theological, synodical and historical materials—was translated into Geʽez from Greek, providing a fundamental set of instructions and laws for the developing Axumite Church. Included in this collection is a translation of the [[Apostolic Tradition]] (attributed to [[Hippolytus of Rome]], and lost in the original Greek) for which the Ethiopic version provides much the best surviving witness. Another important religious document is ''Serʼata Paknemis'', a translation of the monastic Rules of [[Pachomius]]. Non-religious works translated in this period include ''[[Physiologus]]'', a work of natural history also very popular in Europe.{{sfn|Budge|1928|pp=566f.}}

The use of Geʽez is also known from many excavated inscriptions. Six Geʽez inscriptions are known from 6th-century South Arabia, from during the reign of [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb of Aksum]], the Aksumite king who [[Aksumite invasion of Himyar|conquered the Himyarite kingdom]]. They record his military conquests and contain many religious references, including to biblical figures (such as Jesus, Mary, and David) and scriptural quotations ([[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 22:22–23, [[Psalms]] 65:16 and 68:2, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 6:33, and with less certainty, [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 15:7).<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Hatke |first=Georg |date=2022 |title=Religious Ideology in the Gəʿəz Epigraphic Corpus from Yemen |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1089523 |journal=Rocznik Orientalistyczny |language=English |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=76–78 |issn=0080-3545}}</ref>

=== 13th to 14th centuries ===

After the decline of the Aksumites, a lengthy gap follows; Some writers consider the period beginning from the 14th century an actual "Golden Age" of Geʽez literature—although by this time Geʽez was no longer a living language; in particular in the major enterprise of translating an extensive library of Coptic [[Arabic]] religious works into Geʽez.

While there is ample evidence that it had been replaced by Amharic in the south and by Tigrinya and Tigre in the north, Geʽez remained in use as the official written language until the 19th century, its status comparable to that of [[Medieval Latin]] in Europe.

At this time a lot of works of the [[Beta Israel]] had been turned into Hebraized (i.e. written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]) Geʽez, which made the gradual process of Geʽez being the liturgical language of the Beta Israel.{{sfn|Budge|1928|p=574}}

The [[Ethiopic Alexander Romance|''Ethiopic Alexander Romance'']] was produced in this period, the most important Geʽez-language Alexander legend, translated from an earlier Arabic recension of the [[Alexander Romance]] work.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Asirvatham |first=Sulochana |date=2014 |title=The <i>Alexander romance</i> tradition from Egypt to Ethiopia |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC165410 |journal=Acta Classica}}</ref> Important [[hagiographies]] from this period include:

* the ''Gadle Samaʼetat'' "Acts of the Martyrs"
* the ''Gadle Hawaryat'' "Acts of the Apostles"
* the ''Senkessar'' or ''[[Synaxarium]]'', translated as "The Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian Church"
* Other Lives of [[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony]], [[Saint George]], Saint [[Tekle Haymanot]], Saint [[Gabra Manfas Qeddus]]

Also at this time the ''[[Apostolic Constitutions]]'' was retranslated into Geʽez from Arabic. Another translation from this period is Zena ʼAyhud, a translation (probably from an Arabic translation) of Joseph ben Gurion's "History of the Jews" ("Sefer [[Josippon]]") written in Hebrew in the 10th century, which covers the period from the Captivity to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus.
Apart from theological works, the earliest contemporary Royal Chronicles of Ethiopia are date to the reign of [[Amda Seyon I]] (1314–44). With the appearance of the "Victory Songs" of Amda Seyon, this period also marks the beginning of Amharic literature.
The 14th century ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'' or "Glory of the Kings" by the [[Neburaʼed Yeshaq]] of Aksum is among the most significant works of Ethiopian literature, combining history, allegory and symbolism in a retelling of the story of the [[Queen of Sheba]] (i.e., Saba), [[King Solomon]], and their son [[Menelik I of Ethiopia]]. Another work that began to take shape in this period is the ''Mashafa Aksum'' or "[[Book of Axum]]".{{sfn|Budge|1928|p=574}}

=== 15th to 16th centuries ===

The early 15th century ''Fekkare Iyasus'' "The Explication of Jesus" contains a prophecy of a king called ''Tewodros'', which rose to importance in 19th century Ethiopia as [[Tewodros II of Ethiopia|Tewodros II]] chose this throne name.

Literature flourished especially during the reign of Emperor [[Zara Yaqob]]. Written by the Emperor himself were ''Matsʼhafe Berhan'' ("The Book of Light") and ''Matshafe Milad'' ("The Book of Nativity"). Numerous homilies were written in this period, notably ''Retuʼa Haimanot'' ("True Orthodoxy") ascribed to [[John Chrysostom]]. Also of monumental importance was the appearance of the Geʽez translation of the [[Fetha Negest]] ("Laws of the Kings"), thought to have been around 1450, and ascribed to one Petros Abda Sayd — that was later to function as the supreme Law for Ethiopia, until it was replaced by a [[1931 Constitution of Ethiopia|modern Constitution in 1931]].

By the beginning of the 16th century, the Islamic invasions put an end to the flourishing of Ethiopian literature.
A letter of Abba ʼ[[Enbaqom]] (or "Habakkuk") to [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]], entitled ''Anqasa Amin'' ("Gate of the Faith"), giving his reasons for abandoning [[Islam]], although probably first written in Arabic and later rewritten in an expanded Geʽez version around 1532, is considered one of the classics of later Geʽez literature.{{sfn|Pankhurst|2003}} During this period, Ethiopian writers begin to address differences between the Ethiopian and the Roman Catholic Church in such works as the ''Confession'' of Emperor [[Gelawdewos]], ''Sawana Nafs'' ("Refuge of the Soul"), ''Fekkare Malakot'' ("Exposition of the Godhead") and ''Haymanote Abaw'' ("Faith of the Fathers"). Around the year 1600, a number of works were translated from Arabic into Geʽez for the first time, including the ''Chronicle'' of [[John of Nikiu]] and the ''Universal History'' of [[George Elmacin]].

=== Current usage in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Israel ===

Geʽez is the liturgical language of [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo]], [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo]], [[Ethiopian Catholic Church|Ethiopian Catholic]] and [[Eritrean Catholic Church|Eritrean Catholic]] Christians and the [[Beta Israel]], and is used in prayer and in scheduled public celebrations.

The [[liturgical rite]] used by the Christian churches is referred to as the [[Ethiopic Rite]]<ref>Bryan D. Spinks, ''The Sanctus in the Eucharistic Prayer'' (Cambridge University Press 2002 {{ISBN|978-0-521-52662-3}}), p. 119</ref><ref>Anscar J. Chupungco, ''Handbook for Liturgical Studies'' (Liturgical Press 1997 {{ISBN|978-0-8146-6161-1}}), p. 13</ref><ref>Archdale King, ''The Rites of Eastern Christendom'', vol. 1 (Gorgias Press LLC 2007 {{ISBN|978-1-59333-391-1}}), p. 533</ref> or the [[Geʽez Rite]].<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (C. Hurst & Co. 2000 {{ISBN|978-1-85065-393-6}}), p. 127</ref><ref>Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley (editors), ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity'', vol. 2 (Eerdmans 1999 {{ISBN|978-90-04-11695-5}}), p. 158</ref><ref>David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky (editors), ''Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia'' (Scarecrow Press 2013), p. 93</ref><ref>Walter Raunig, Steffen Wenig (editors), ''Afrikas Horn'' (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005, {{ISBN|978-3-447-05175-0}}), p. 171</ref>

== Sample ==
The first sentence of the [[Book of Enoch]]:

{{fs interlinear|indent=3|lang=gez
|ቃለ ፡ በረከት ፡ ዘሄኖክ ፡ ዘከመ ፡ ባረከ ፡ ኅሩያነ ፡ ወጻድቃነ ፡ እለ ፡ ሀለዉ ፡ ይኩኑ ፡ በዕለተ ፡ ምንዳቤ ፡ ለአሰስሎ ፡ ኵሉ ፡ እኩያን ፡ ወረሲዓን ።
|Qāla {} barakat {} za-Henok {} zakama {} bāraka {} ḫəruyāna {} waṣādəqāna {} ʾəlla {} hallawu {} yəkunu {} baʿəlata {} məndābe {} laʾasassəlo {} kʷəllu {} ʾəkuyān {} warasiʿān {}
|"Word of blessing of [[Enoch|Henok]], wherewith he blessed the chosen and righteous who would be alive in the day of tribulation for the removal of all wrongdoers and backsliders."}}

== See also ==

* [[Ethiopian chant]]
* [[Languages of Eritrea]]
* [[Languages of Ethiopia]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==

=== External history ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Budge |first=E. A. Wallis |author-link=E. A. Wallis Budge| year=1928 |title=A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia |location=Oosterhour, the Netherlands |publisher=Anthropological Publications |doi=10.4324/9781315762722 |isbn=978-1-315-76272-2 }} (republished 1970)
* {{cite book|last=Chain |first=M. |article=Ethiopia |year=1909 |title=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=V |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206102731/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm |archive-date=2007-02-06}}
* {{cite book|last=Stuart |first=Munro-Hay |authorlink=Stuart Munro-Hay |year=1991 |title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity |location=Edinburgh |publisher=University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-0106-6 |url=https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib4/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/602/aksum.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Pankhurst |first=Richard K. P. |year=1968 |title=An Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935 |location=Addis Ababa |publisher=Haile Selassie I University Press}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm |title=Abba 'Enbaqom, Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim, and the "Conquest of Abyssinia" |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard K. P.|date=2003-11-14 |website=Addis Tribune |access-date=2022-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209144227/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/11/14-11-03/Glimpse.htm |archive-date=2007-12-09}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5987-falashas |title=Falashas |last1=Perruchon |first1=J. D. |last2=Gottheil |first2=Richard |date=1901–1906 |website=The Jewish Encyclopedia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814213600/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5987-falashas |archive-date=2018-08-14}}

{{refend}}

=== Phonology and grammar ===
{{refbegin|30em}}

* [[Marius Chaîne|Chaîne, Marius]], ''Grammaire éthiopienne''. Beyrouth ([[Beirut]]): Imprimerie catholique 1907, 1938 (Nouvelle édition). ([https://archive.org/details/grammairethiop00chauoft electronic version] at the Internet Archive)
* {{cite journal|last=Cohen |first=Marcel |author-link=Marcel Cohen |date=1921 |title=la pronunciation traditionelle du Guèze (éthiopien classique) |journal=Journal Asiatique |volume=11 |issue=18 }} ([http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k932990 electronic version] on the [[Gallica]] digital library of the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]], [[PDF]])
* {{cite book|last=Dillmann|first=August|author-link=August Dillmann|year=1899|title=Grammatik der äthiopischen Sprache|edition=2nd|location=Leipzig|publisher=B. Tauchnitz}}
* [[August Dillmann|Dillmann, August]]; [[Carl Bezold|Bezold, Carl]], ''Ethiopic Grammar'', 2nd edition translated from German by James Crichton, London 1907. {{ISBN|978-1-59244-145-7}} (2003 reprint). (Published in German: ¹1857, ²1899). ([https://archive.org/details/EthiopicethiopianLanguageGrammarByAugustDillmann Online version] at the [[Internet Archive]])
* {{cite book|last=Gragg|first=Gene|year=1997a|article=Ge‘ez Phonology|title=Phonologies of Asia and Africa|volume=1|editor-last=Kaye|editor-first=Alan|location=Winona Lake, Indiana|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=1-57506-017-5|pages=169–186}}
* {{cite book|last=Gragg|first=Gene|year=1997b|article=Ge‘ez (Ethiopic)|title=The Semitic Languages|editor-last=Hetzron|editor-first=Robert|location=London & New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-05767-1|pages=242–260}}
* {{cite book|last=Gragg|first=Gene|year=2008|editor-last=Woodard|editor-first=Roger|chapter=Ge‘ez|title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo|isbn=978-0-521-56256-0}}
* Kidanä Wäld Kəfle, ''Maṣḥafa sawāsəw wagəss wamazgaba ḳālāt ḥaddis'' ("A new grammar and dictionary"), Dire Dawa: Artistik Matämiya Bet 1955/6 (E.C. 1948).
* {{cite book|last=Lambdin |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Oden Lambdin |year=1978 |title=Introduction to Classical Ethiopic |publisher=Scholars Press |location=Missoula |series=Harvard Semitic Studies |volume=24 |isbn=978-0-89130-263-6 }}
* Mercer, Samuel Alfred Browne, "Ethiopic grammar: with chrestomathy and glossary" 1920 ([https://archive.org/details/ethiopicgrammarw00merc Online version] at the [[Internet Archive]])
* {{cite book|last=Mittwoch|first=Eugen|year=1926|title=Die traditionelle Aussprache des äthiopischen|series=Abessinische Studien|volume=1|location=Berlin & Leipzig|publisher=Walter de Gruyter & Co}}
* Praetorius, Franz, ''Äthiopische Grammatik'', Karlsruhe: Reuther 1886.
* Prochazka, Stephan, ''Altäthiopische Studiengrammatik'', Orbis Biblicus Et Orientalis – Subsidia Linguistica (OBO SL) 2, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlag 2005. {{ISBN|978-3-525-26409-6}}.
* Tropper, Josef, ''Altäthiopisch: Grammatik der Geʽez mit Übungstexten und Glossar'', Elementa Linguarum Orientis (ELO) 2, Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 2002. {{ISBN|978-3-934628-29-8}}
* {{cite book|last1=Tropper|first1=Josef|translator-last1=Hasselbach-Andee|translator-first1=Rebecca|year=2021|title=Classical Ethiopic: A Grammar of Gǝˁǝz|location=University Park|publisher=The Pennsylvania State University Press|isbn=978-1-57506-841-1}}
* Weninger, Stefan, ''Geʽez grammar'', Munich: LINCOM Europa, {{ISBN|978-3-929075-04-5}} (1st edition, 1993), {{ISBN|978-3-89586-604-3}} (2nd revised edition, 1999).
* Weninger, Stefan, ''Das Verbalsystem des Altäthiopischen: Eine Untersuchung seiner Verwendung und Funktion unter Berücksichtigung des Interferenzproblems'', Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2001. {{ISBN|978-3-447-04484-4}}.
* Zerezghi Haile, Learn Basic Geez Grammar (2015) for Tigrinya readers available at: https://uwontario.academia.edu/WedGdmhra

{{refend}}

=== Literature ===
{{refbegin}}

* Adera, Taddesse, Ali Jimale Ahmed (eds.), ''Silence Is Not Golden: A Critical Anthology of Ethiopian Literature'', Red Sea Press (1995), {{ISBN|978-0-932415-47-9}}.
* Bonk, Jon, ''Annotated and Classified Bibliography of English Literature Pertaining to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church'', Atla Bibliography Series, Scarecrow Pr (1984), {{ISBN|978-0-8108-1710-4}}.
* Charles, Robert Henry, ''The Ethiopic version of the book of Enoch''. Oxford 1906. ([https://archive.org/details/ethiopicversiono00charuoft Online version] at the [[Internet Archive]])
* [[August Dillmann|Dillmann, August]], ''Chrestomathia Aethiopica''. Leipzig 1866. ([https://archive.org/details/chrestomathiaaet00dilluoft Online version] at the Internet Archive)
* Dillmann, August, ''Octateuchus Aethiopicus''. Leipzig 1853. ([http://www.tau.ac.il/~hacohen/Biblia.html The first eight books of the Bible in Geʽez. Online version])
* Dillmann, August, ''Anthologia Aethiopica, Herausgegeben und mit einem Nachwort versehen von Ernst Hammerschmidt''. Hildesheim: Olms Verlag 1988, {{ISBN|978-3-487-07943-1}} .
* The Royal Chronicles of [[Zara Yaqob]] and [[Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia|Baeda Maryam]] – French translation and edition of the Geʽez text Paris 1893 ([https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5498437b/f13.image.r=Les%20chroniques%20de%20Zara%20Yaqob electronic version] in Gallica digital library of the Bibliothèque nationale de France)
* Ethiopic [[recension]] of the Chronicle of John of Nikiû – Paris 1883 ([https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k108650z.texteImage electronic version]) in Gallica

{{refend}}

=== Dictionaries ===
{{refbegin}}

* [[August Dillmann|Dillmann, August]], ''Lexicon linguæ Æthiopicæ cum indice Latino'', Lipsiae 1865. ([https://archive.org/details/lexiconlinguaeae00dilluoft Online version] at the [[Internet Archive]]; [https://betamasaheft.eu/Dillmann/ digitized and searchable] at the Beta Maṣāḥəft project)
* {{cite book|last=Leslau |first=Wolf |author-link=Wolf Leslau |year=1987 |title=Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic): Geez—English, English—Geez, with an Index of the Semitic Roots |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-02592-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Leslau |first=Wolf |author-link=Wolf Leslau |year=1989 |title=Concise Dictionary of Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic) |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=978-3-447-02873-8}}

{{refend}}

== External links ==
* '''Fonts for Geʽez script''':
** [https://fonts.google.com/noto/specimen/Noto+Sans+Ethiopic?query=ethiop ''Noto Sans Ethiopic''] – (multiple weights and widths)
** [https://fonts.google.com/noto/specimen/Noto+Serif+Ethiopic?query=MCKL%2F ''Noto Serif Ethiopic''] – (multiple weights and widths)
** [https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/download/ ''Abyssinica SIL''] ([https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/support/character-set-support/ Character set support] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201154510/https://software.sil.org/abyssinica/support/character-set-support/ |date=2021-12-01 }})
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060810221758/http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/harden_ethiopic_literature.htm J. M. Harden, ''An Introduction to Ethiopic Christian Literature'' (1926)]
* [http://hmml.org/researcher-identifies-second-oldest-ethiopian-manuscript-in-existence-in-hmmls-archives/ Researcher identifies second-oldest Ethiopian manuscript in existence in HMML's archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311090223/http://hmml.org/researcher-identifies-second-oldest-ethiopian-manuscript-in-existence-in-hmmls-archives/ |date=2019-03-11 }} (13 July 2010)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060219131216/http://enlil.ff.cuni.cz/ethiopian/shelf_noframe.htm Library of Ethiopian Texts]

{{Languages of Ethiopia}}
{{Semitic languages}}
{{Jewish languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ge'ez Language}}
[[Category:Ge'ez language]]
[[Category:Christian liturgical languages]]
[[Category:Verb–subject–object languages]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Africa]]
[[Category:Languages of Eritrea]]
[[Category:Languages of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 5th century BC]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 1st millennium]]
[[Category:Semitic linguistics]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Languages written in Geʽez script]]