View source for Georgian–Seljuk wars

{{Short description|Conflicts between the Kingdom of Georgia and the Seljuq Empire from c. 1048 to 1213}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Georgian–Seljuk wars
| image             = King David IV of Georgia, Roman de Troie.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = A miniature depicting a battle with the Georgian king [[David IV the Builder]]. ''Le [[Roman de Troie]]'' by [[Benoît de Sainte-Maure]]. King David is shown in purple robe on the right, wearing crown-helmet.
| partof            = 
| date              = 1064–1213
| place             = [[Caucasus]], eastern [[Anatolia]]
| result            = Georgian victory
| territory         = Liberation of [[Tbilisi]] and most of the [[South Caucasus]]
| combatant1        = {{Tree list}}
*[[Kingdom of Georgia]]
**[[Kipchaks in Georgia|Kipchaks]]
**[[Zakarid Armenia|Armenians]]
**[[Alania]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| combatant2        = {{Tree list}}
*[[Seljuk Empire]]
**[[Eldiguzids]]
**[[Emirate of Tbilisi]]
**[[Shaddadids]]
**[[Shah-Armens]]
**[[Artuqids]]
**[[Saltukids]]
**[[Sultanate of Rum]]
**[[House of Mengüjek|Mengujekids]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| commander1        = [[Bagrat IV of Georgia|Bagrat IV]]<br >[[George II of Georgia|George II]]<br >[[David IV]]<br>[[George of Chqondidi]]<br>{{ill|Barami|ka|ბარამი}}<br>{{ill|Sumbat Orbeli|ka|სუმბატ ორბელი}}<br>{{ill|Ivane I Orbeli|ka|ივანე ორბელი}}<br>[[Demetrius I of Georgia|Demetrius I]]<br>[[George III of Georgia|George III]]<br>[[Ivane II Orbeli]]<br>[[Sargis Zakarian]]<br>[[Tamar of Georgia|Tamar]]<br>{{ill|Qubasar|ka|ყუბასარი}}<br>[[David Soslan]]<br>[[Zakare II Zakarian]]<br>[[Ivane I Zakarian]]<br>[[Shalva Akhaltsikheli]]<br>[[George IV of Georgia|George IV]]<br>[[Durgulel the Great]]
| commander2        = [[Alp Arslan]]<br>[[Malik-Shah I]]<br>[[Nizam al-Mulk]]<br>Sarang of [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]]<br>[[Muhammad I Tapar]]<br>[[Mahmud II (Seljuk sultan)|Mahmud II]]<br>[[Ahmad Sanjar]]<br>[[Mesud I]]<br>[[Kilij Arslan II]]<br>[[Kaykhusraw I]]<br>[[Suleiman II of Rûm]]<br>[[Eldiguz]]
| strength1         = 
| strength2         = 
}}
{{Campaignbox Georgian-Seljuk wars}}
The '''Georgian–Seljuk wars''' ({{lang-ka|საქართველო-სელჩუკთა ომები|tr}}), also known as '''Georgian Crusade''',<ref>[[René Grousset]], ''L'Empire du Levant : Histoire de la Question d'Orient'', [[1949]], {{p.|417}}</ref> is a long series of battles and military clashes that took place from 1064 until 1213, between the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] and the different [[Seljuk Empire|Seljukid states]] that occupied most of [[South Caucasus]]. The conflict is preceded by deadly raids in the Caucasus by the Turks in the 11th century, known in Georgian [[historiography]] as the [[Great Turkish Invasion]].

== Background ==
{{main|Byzantine–Georgian wars}}In 1048–9, the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]] under [[Ibrahim Inal|Ibrahim Yinal]] made their first incursion in [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] frontier region of [[Iberia (theme)|Iberia]]. The emperor [[Constantine IX Monomachos|Constantine IX]] requested help from the Georgian [[duke]] [[Liparit IV, Duke of Kldekari|Liparit IV of Kldekari]], whom the Byzantines had aided in his [[Byzantine–Georgian wars#Liparit IV of Kldekari|struggle]] against the Georgian king [[Bagrat IV of Georgia|Bagrat IV]]. Liparit, who had been fighting on the Byzantine side, was captured at the [[Battle of Kapetron]]. Bagrat took advantage of this, and acquired his possessions.

Although the Byzantine Empire and Georgia had centuries-long cultural and religious ties, and the Seljuqs posed a substantial threat to the empire itself, Constantinople's aggressiveness on the Caucasian political scene contributed to an atmosphere of distrust and recrimination, and prevented the two Christian nations from effective cooperation against the common threat. With assertion of the Georgian [[Bagrationi dynasty|Bagratid]] [[hegemony]] in the Caucasus being the cornerstone of Bagrat's reign, his policy can be understood as the attempt to play the Seljuqs and Byzantines off against one another.<ref name="Garland">[[Lynda Garland]] & Stephen Rapp. ''Mary 'of Alania': Woman and Empress Between Two Worlds'', pp. 94–5. In: Lynda Garland (ed., 2006), ''Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience, 800–1200''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., {{ISBN|0-7546-5737-X}}.</ref>

== Seljukid invasions ==
{{Location map+
| Seljuk Empire
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{{Annotation|270|05|[[AD 1090|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">1090</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|210|90|[[Ghaznavid Empire|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">GHAZNAVID<br />EMPIRE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|15|[[Kimek–Kipchak confederation|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">KIPCHAKS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|30|20|[[Pechenegs|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">PECHENEGS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|25|105|[[Fatimid Caliphate|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">FATIMID<br />CALIPHATE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|97|120|[[Uyunid Emirate|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">UYUNIDS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|51|[[Kingdom of Georgia|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">GEORGIA</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|1|40|[[Byzantine Empire|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">BYZANTINE<br />EMPIRE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|50|60|[[Sultanate of Rum|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">RUM</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|245|145|[[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">YADAVAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|186|45|[[Kara-Khanid Khanate|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">KARAKHANID KHANATE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|272|155|[[Template:Continental Asia in 1000 CE|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"> ◁ </span>]] [[Template:Continental Asia in 1200 CE|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"> ▷ </span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
| caption={{center|Seljuk Empire circa 1090, during the reign of [[Malik Shah I]]. To the west, [[Anatolia]] was under the independent rule of [[Suleiman ibn Qutalmish]] as the [[Sultanate of Rum]], and disputed with the [[Byzantine Empire]]. To the east, the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]] became a vassal state in 1089, for half a century, before falling to the [[Qara Khitai]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stone |first1=Norman |title=The Times atlas of world history |date=1989 |publisher=Hammond Incorporated |location=Maplewood, N.J. |isbn=0-7230-0304-1 |page=135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_IYYAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA135}}</ref>{{sfn|Peacock|2015|pp=62–63}}}}
}}
The second half of the 11th century was marked by the strategically significant invasion of the Seljuq Turks, who by the end of the 1040s had succeeded in building a vast empire including most of [[Central Asia]] and [[Iran|Persia]]. These intruders were part of the same wave of the Turkish movement which inflicted a crushing defeat on the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] army at [[Battle of Manzikert|Manzikert]] in 1071.<ref name="Suny-3422">{{harvnb|Suny|1994|p=34}}</ref>

The [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] first appeared in Georgia in 1064, when Sultan [[Alp Arslan]] led an army from [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] to [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]] and captured some castles garrisoned by [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] troops. He then handed over the command to his son [[Malik-Shah I|Malik-Shah]] and [[Nizam al-Mulk]], they marched westward and captured the [[Armenia]]n fortified city of [[Marmashen]]. Then the Seljuks marched north and captured the Georgian fortified city of [[Akhalkalaki]], which they set on fire. Faced with the growing threat from the east, Georgia and Byzantine overcame their decades-old enmity and entered a matrimonial alliance.{{Sfn|Baumer|2023|p=10}}

In 1068, Alp Arslan accompanied by his vassals, [[Aghsartan I of Kakheti]] and king of [[Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget|Lori]] as well as the [[Emirate of Tbilisi|emir of Tbilisi]] marched against Bagrat again, who had to vacate [[Kakheti]] and retreat to [[Kartli]]. The provinces of Kartli and [[Argveti]] were occupied and pillaged. The retreated king was saved when severe snowfalls set in and Alp Arslan left Kartli. As the Sultan passed [[Tbilisi]], he gave the small emirate to [[Fadl ibn Shavur]]. Fadl encamped at Isani and with 33,000 men ravaged the countryside. As soon as Alp Arslan left Georgia, Bagrat quickly recovered Kartli and crushed emir fadl who was managed to flee with a few followers only to fall into the hands of Aghsartan. At the price of conceding several fortresses on the [[Iori (river)|Iori River]], Bagrat ransomed Fadl and received from him the surrender of Tbilisi where he reinstated a local emir on the terms of vassalage.<ref>[[Vladimir Minorsky|V. Minorsky]], "Tiflis", p. 754. In: M. Th. Houtsma, E. van Donzel (1993), ''E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936''. Brill, {{ISBN|90-04-08265-4}}.</ref>{{Sfn|Baumer|2023|pp=10–11}}

The Seljuk threat prompted the Georgian and Byzantine governments to seek a closer cooperation. To secure the alliance, Bagrat's daughter [[Maria of Alania|Maria]] married, at some point between 1066 and 1071, to the Byzantine co-emperor [[Michael VII Doukas|Michael VII Ducas]]. The choice of a Georgian princess was unprecedented, and it was seen in Georgia as a diplomatic success on Bagrat's side.<ref>Lynda Garland with Stephen H. Rapp Jr. (2006). [http://www.roman-emperors.org/maryal.htm Mart'a-Maria 'of Alania']. ''An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors''. Retrieved on 24 December 2007.</ref>

=== Great Turkish Invasion ===
{{main|Great Turkish Invasion}}
{{History of Georgia (country)}}
Although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's invasion, the Byzantine withdrawal from [[Anatolia]] brought them in more direct contact with the Seljuqs. In the 1070s, Georgia was twice attacked by the Sultan [[Malik-Shah I|Malik Shah I]], but the Georgian King George II [[Battle of Partskhisi|was still able to fight back]] at times.<ref name="Thomson-310">{{harvnb|Thomson|1996|p=310}}</ref> In 1076 Malik Shah surged into Georgia and reduced many settlements to ruins, from 1079/80 onward, George was pressured into submitting to Malik-Shah to ensure a precious degree of peace at the price of an annual [[tribute]]. George's acceptance of the Seljuq suzerainty did not bring a real peace for Georgia. The Turks continued their seasonal movement into the Georgian territory to make use of the rich herbage of the [[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kura valley]] and the Seljuq garrisons occupied the key fortresses in Georgia's south.<ref name="Allen-98">{{harvnb|Allen|1932|p=98}}</ref> These inroads and settlements had a ruinous effect on Georgia's economic and political order. Cultivated lands were turned into pastures for the nomads and peasant farmers were compelled to seek safety in the mountains.<ref name="Suny-3422"/>

George II was able to garner the Seljuk military support in his campaign aimed at bringing the eastern Georgian kingdom of [[First Kingdom of Kakheti|Kakheti]], which had long resisted the Bagratid attempts of annexation. However, tired with a protracted siege of the Kakhetian stronghold of [[Vezhini]], George abandoned the campaign when snow fell. The Seljuk auxiliaries also lifted the siege and plundered the fertile Iori Valley in Kakheti. [[Aghsartan I of Kakheti|Aghsartan I]], king of Kakheti, went to the sultan to declare his submission, and in token of loyalty embraced [[Islam]], thus winning a Seljuk protection against the aspirations of the Georgian crown.<ref>Lordkipanidze, Mariam Davydovna; Hewitt, George B. (1987), ''Georgia in the XI-XII Centuries'', pp. 76–78. Ganatleba Publishers: Tbilisi.</ref>

George II's wavering character and incompetent political decisions coupled with the Seljuk yoke brought the Kingdom of Georgia into a profound crisis which climaxed in the aftermath of a [[1088 Tmogvi earthquake|disastrous earthquake]] that struck Georgia in 1088.

== Georgian Reconquista ==

=== Reign of David IV ===
[[File:King David IV the Builder. Gelati fresco.jpg|thumb|Fresco of David IV at the [[Gelati Monastery]].]]
In 1110 the [[Georgians]] led by [[George of Chqondidi|George Chqondideli]], his nephew Theodore, [[Abuletisdze|Abuleti]] and Ivane [[Orbelian dynasty|Orbelian]], retaliated against the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] settlement and recaptured the town of [[Samshvilde]], which was added to the royal domains, without a major battle.{{Sfn|Samushia|2015|p=29}} Following this capture, the Seljuks left a large part of their captured territories, allowing Georgian troops to capture {{ill|Dzerna|ka|ძერნა}}.{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=66}}

Responding to this double defeat, Sultan [[Muhammad I Tapar]] in 1110, sent a large army with the aim of invading [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. Knowing of the approach of Turkish troops, David IV left his home at Nacharmagevi with a personal guard of only 1,500 men and set out to meet the invaders during the night.{{Sfn|Kaukhchishvili|1955|p=333}} The two armies, clearly unequal, clashed the next day at the [[Battle of Trialeti]] in a hard fight which ended in a decisive victory for Georgia.{{Sfn|Allen|1932|p=98}}{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=66}}{{Sfn|Kaukhchishvili|1955|p=333}}

The Battle of Trialeti deprived the [[Seljuk Empire]] of the opportunity to conduct a major military campaign against [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]]. In 1110–1114, David IV did not conduct active military operations either. In 1115, [[Roger of Salerno]] defeated the [[Atabeg|Atabag]] of [[Mosul]] at the [[Battle of Sarmin]]. After that, David became active again and in 1115-1118 he captured [[Rustavi]],{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=66}}{{sfn|Samushia|2015|p=29}}[[Lori Fortress|Lori]],{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=66}} and [[Agarani Fortress|Agarani]]{{sfn|History of Georgia|2012|p=387}} and also defeated the Seljuks at the [[Battle of Rakhsi]].{{sfn|History of Georgia|2012|p=386}}

Problems began to crop up for David now. His population, having been at war for the better part of twenty years, needed to be allowed to become productive again. Also, his nobles were still making problems for him, along with the city of [[Tbilisi]] which still could not be liberated from [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]] grasp. Again David was forced to solve these problems before he could continue the reclamation of his nation and people. For this purpose, David IV radically reformed his military. He resettled a [[Kipchaks|Kipchak]] tribe of 40,000 families from the [[North Caucasus|Northern Caucasus]] in Georgia in 1118–1120.{{sfn|Norris|2009|p=36}} Every Georgian and Kipchak family was obliged to provide one soldier with a horse and weapons. Kipchaks were settled in different regions of Georgia. Some were settled in [[Shida Kartli|Inner Kartli]] province, others were given lands along the border. They were [[Christianization|Christianized]] and quickly assimilated into [[Georgians|Georgian society]].

In February 1116 by the order of David IV, the army of [[Kartli]] and [[Meskhetians]] were gathered at [[Klarjeti]], David IV suddenly attacked and destroyed the Turks in [[Tao (historical region)|Tao]] and captured [[Tao-Klarjeti (historical region)|Tao-Klarjeti]] and the numerous riches left by the Turks.{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=67}}{{Sfn|Javakhishvili|1949|p=47}} In February 1120, David IV defeated the Seljuks at the [[Battle of Botora]]. In the battle the [[Georgians]] captured many opponents and gained a lot of booty.{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=80}}

In November 1120, David's army attacked and defeated the Seljuks in [[Arsharunik]] and Sevgelamej, And in 1121 he did the same in Khunan. In June 1121, David with the [[Kipchaks in Georgia|Kipchaks]] raided the camped Seljuks in [[Barda, Azerbaijan|Barda]]. In all these episodes the camp was destroyed meaning that the Georgian army managed to secretly approach it and perform a surprise attack.{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=80}}

In 1121, [[Mahmud II of Great Seljuq|Sultan Mahmud b. Muhammad]] (1118–1131) declared a [[religious war|holy war]] on Georgia and rallied a large coalition of Muslim states led by the [[Artuqids|Artuqid]] [[Ilghazi]] and [[Tughril II|Toğrul b. Muhammad]]. The size of the Muslim army is still a matter of debate with numbers ranging from a fantastic 600,000 men ([[Walter the Chancellor]]'s Bella Antiochena, [[Matthew of Edessa]]) to 400,000 ([[Smbat Sparapet]]'s Chronicle) to modern Georgian estimates of 250,000–400,000 men. All sources agree that the Muslim powers gathered an army that was much larger than the Georgian force of 56,000 men. However, on 12 August 1121, King David routed the enemy army on the field of [[Battle of Didgori|Didgori]], achieving what is often considered the greatest military success in Georgian history. The victory at Didgori signaled the emergence of Georgia as a great military power and shifted the regional balance in favor of Georgian cultural and political supremacy. Following his success, David [[Siege of Tbilisi (1122)|captured Tbilisi]],{{sfn|Pubblici|2022|p=20}} the last Muslim enclave remaining from the Seljuk occupation, in 1122 and moved the Georgian capital there and inaugurated [[Georgian Golden Age|Georgia's Golden Age]].<ref name="javaxisvili2">{{in lang|ka}} [[Ivane Javakhishvili|Javakhishvili, Ivane]] (1982), ''k'art'veli eris istoria'' (The History of the Georgian Nation), vol. 2, pp. 184–187. [[Tbilisi State University]] Press.</ref>

[[Ani|Ani's]] [[Armenians]] appealed to King David IV to [[Siege of Ani (1124)|capture Ani]],{{sfn|Hasratyan|2002}}<ref>{{cite web |title=The Cathedral of Ani |url=http://virtualani.org/cathedral/index.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407210453/http://www.virtualani.org/cathedral/index.htm |archive-date=7 April 2016 |website=virtualani.org |publisher=Virtual Ani}}</ref> taking this opportunity in hand, David IV summoned all his armies and entered [[Armenia]] with 60,000 men to take the city. Without a single fight, the Armenian population of Ani opened the gates to the [[Georgians]],{{Sfn|Asatiani|Bendianashvili|1997|p=125}} who captured emir [[Abu'l-Aswar Shavur ibn Manuchihr]] and exiled him and his family to [[Abkhazia]]. The region was then left to the governance of the [[Meskheti]]an nobility, to General [[Abuletisdze|Abuleti]] and his son Ivane.{{Sfn|Minorsky|1953|pp=84–85}} Northern [[Armenia]] was thus annexed and incorporated into the [[Kingdom of Georgia]], increasing the power of David IV in the region.{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=114}}

=== Georgian conquest of Shirvan ===
The [[Siege of Tbilisi (1122)|recapture of Tbilisi]] in 1122 by [[David IV]] thus established the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] as the supreme protector of [[Christianity]] in the [[Caucasus]], and the Georgians now attempted to assert their domination by trying to reduce the Muslim presence in the region, which was considered an ally of the [[Seljuk Empire]]. This was the case in [[Shirvan]], whose sovereign, who had already been defeated several times by Georgian troops, remained too independent of Georgian power and was forcibly replaced by David IV's sons-in-law, [[Manuchihr III of Shirvan|Manuchihr III]], in 1120. The Seljuks, alarmed by the situation in Caucasus, decided to respond militarily.

Sultan [[Mahmud II (Seljuk sultan)|Mahmud II]] soon resumed the war against Georgia, despite his defeat at the [[Battle of Didgori]] a year earlier. In November 1122, he began his invasion of Shirvan and captured [[Tabriz]], before reaching the local capital, [[Shamakhi]], the following spring.{{Sfn|Salia|1980|p=181}} Mahmud then captured the Shirvanshah Manuchihr III and sent a letter to David IV saying: "You are the king of the forests, and you never go down to the plains. Now I have captured the Shirvanshah and I demand [[Kharaj]] [tribute] from him. If you wish, send me suitable gifts; if not, come and see me in all haste".{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|pp=110–111}}{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|pp=367–368}} Following this provocation, David IV called in all his troops and assembled an army of 50,000 men, most of them [[Kipchaks]]. The Seljuk sultan locked himself in Shamakhi after learning of the arrival of the Georgian troops, prompting David IV to halt his advance, deeming it disrespectful to pursue a retreating army. Mahmud II then offered David IV the opportunity to regain control of his vassal province if he let him leave in peace, but the Georgian king categorically refused and resumed his march towards the Shirvan capital after defeating an army of 4,000 Turks led by the [[atabeg]] of [[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]], [[Aqsunqur Ahmadili]], which was on its way to help Mahmud II. Once he had laid siege to Shamakhi, the Seljuk left the city in a hurry via the commune's excrement drainage system.{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=111}}{{Sfn|Asatiani|Bendianashvili|1997|p=125}} In June 1123, a month after the Seljuk defeat, David IV invaded Shirvan, starting by capturing the town of [[Gülüstan, Goranboy|Gulistan]].{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=111}}

Another military campaign was organized in September 1124 in [[Shirvan]], under obscure circumstances. David IV managed to recover [[Shamakhi]] and took the citadel of Bigrit, before strengthening his power in [[Kingdom of Hereti|Hereti]] and [[Kakheti]] by leaving strong garrisons of soldiers there.{{Sfn|Brosset|1849|p=370}} David IV completely freed Shirvan from the Seljuks and annexed the western Shirvan, handing its government over to ''[[Mtsignobartukhutsesi]]'' Simon. David IV left the eastern Shirvan to his son-in-law, Manuchihr III as a Georgian protectorate.{{Sfn|Baumer|2023|p=17}}

David IV's battles were of great importance both for Georgia and, especially, for Shirvan. The joint struggle of the [[Georgians]] and the people of Shirvan ensured the independence of Shirvan from the Seljuk conquerors. From now on, Georgia and Shirvan became closer to each other.{{Sfn|Metreveli|2011|p=112}}

=== Reign of Demetrius I ===
[[File:Demetre I (Matskhvarishi).jpg|thumb|[[Demetrius I of Georgia|Demetrius I]] by [[Michael Maglakeli]], from [[Matskhvarishi church of the Savior|Matskhvarishi]], 1140.]]
The kingdom continued to flourish under [[Demetrius I of Georgia|Demetrius I]], the son of David. Although his reign saw a disruptive family conflict related to royal succession, Georgia remained a centralized power with a strong military. As soon as he ascended to the throne, the neighbouring Muslim rulers began attacking Georgia from all sides. The Seljuqid sultans fought to restore the rule of the [[Shirvanshah]]s. Shirvan's large Muslim population rose against Georgia. This probably happened in 1129 or 1130, when Demetrius restored the Shirvanshahs to power in [[Shirvan]], installing on the throne [[Manuchihr II of Shirvan|Manuchihr II]], the husband of his daughter [[Rusudan, daughter of Demetrius I of Georgia|Rusudan]]. Shirvanshahs had to provide the Georgian king with troops whenever the latter demanded it.

In 1139, Demetrius raided the city of [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]] in [[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]]. He brought the [[Ancient Gates of Ganja|iron gate]] of the defeated city to Georgia and donated it to [[Gelati Monastery]] at [[Kutaisi]]. Despite this brilliant victory, Demetrius could hold Ganja only for a few years.<ref>{{cite book|title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia|last1=Rayfield|first1=Donald|date=2013|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1780230702|page=100}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2|page=259}}</ref> In reply to this, the sultan of Eldiguzids attacked Ganja several times, and in 1143 the town again fell to the sultan. According to [[Mkhitar Gosh]], Demetrius ultimately gained possession of Ganja, but, when he gave his daughter in marriage to the sultan, he presented the latter with the town as dowry, and the sultain appointed his own emir to rule it.

Fadl's successor, [[Fakr al-Din Shaddad ibn Mahmud|Fakr al-Din Shaddad]], a [[Shaddadids|Shaddadid]] emir of Ani asked for [[Saltuk II|Saltuk]]'s daughter's hand, however Saltuk refused him. This caused a deep hatred in Shaddad towards Saltuk. In 1154 he planned a plot and formed a secret alliance with the Demetrius I. While a Georgian army waited in ambush, he offered tribute to [[Saltukids]], ruler of [[Erzurum|Erzerum]] and asked the latter to accept him as a vassal. In 1153–1154 Emir [[Saltuk II]] marched on Ani, but Shaddad informed his suzerain, the King of Georgia, of this. Demetrius marched to Ani, defeated and captured the emir. At the request of neighbouring Muslim rulers and released him for a ransom of 100,000 [[dinar]]s, paid by Saltuk's sons in law and Saltuk swore not to fight against the Georgians he returned home.<ref name="YS">Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: ''Türkiye tarihi Cilt I'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991, pp 149–150</ref>

=== Reign of George III ===
[[File:King George III of Georgia.jpg|thumb|right|[[George III of Georgia]], as depicted on a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] fresco from the cave monastery of [[Vardzia]].]]

In 1156 the Ani's Christian population rose against the emir [[Fakr al-Din Shaddad ibn Mahmud|Fakr al-Din Shaddad]], and turned the town over to his brother [[Fadl ibn Mahmud]]. But Fadl, too, apparently could not satisfy the people of Ani, and this time the town was offered to the George III, who took advantage of this offer and subjugated Ani, he took much loot from Ani and carried off into captivity the whole family of [[Shaddadids]], including Fadl. Appointing his general [[House of Orbeli|Ivane Orbeli]] as its ruler in 1161.

In July, 1161 troops of a Muslim coalition consisting, namely those of the Shah-Armens of [[Ahlat]], [[Saltukids|Saltukids of Erzerum]], and the lord of [[Kars]] and Surmari was formed. Allies selected the route through the [[Aras (river)|river Araxes]], and the [[Artuqids|Artuqid]] lord Najm al-din set out to join them. In August, 1161 they arrived before Ani and besieged it. When the king George III of Georgia has arrived to meet them, the emir [[Saltuk II]] remembering his oath to the [[Demetrius I of Georgia|king Demetrius]], lifted the siege and left the battlefield. Muslims were defeated and put to the sword and many of them perished. King George liberated the people of Ani who had been taken captive and gave the devastated town assistance. He then marched against the Saltuk II, and in the same year, 1161, defeated and made him prisoner, who was redeemed by his sister, Shahbanu Hatun, wife of the ruler of Ahlat.

Georgians then entered in Shah-Armen possessions and looted [[Van, Turkey|Van]]. Some 9000 Muslims, including the nobles and members [[Sökmen II]] family were taken as prisoner. The news of the defeat reached the lord Najm ad-din when he had arrived in [[Malazgirt]], the latter went back to [[Silvan, Diyarbakır|Mayyafariqin]] without having joined Shah-Armens or taken part in the battle.

The capture of [[Ani]] and the defeat of the [[Saltukids|Saltukid]] forces enabled the [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgian]] king to march on [[Dvin (ancient city)|Dvin]]. The following year in August/September 1162, Dvin was temporarily captured and sacked, the non-Christian population was pillaged and the Georgian troops returned home loaded with booty. The king appointed Ananiya, a member of the local feudal nobility to govern the town.

Shams al-Din Eldiguz, ruler of [[Azerbaijan]] embarked upon a campaign against Kingdom of Georgia in early 1163. The [[Seljuk Empire|Seljukid Sultan]], Arslan marching from [[Hamadan]] met Eldiguz in [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchavan]]. He was joined by the [[Sökmen II]] the ruler of [[Shah-Armens|Ahlat]], [[Saltuk II]] the ruler of [[Erzurum]], As-Sunkur the ruler of Maragha, and many others. With an army of 50,000 troops they marched on Georgia. In 1163 Eldiguz attacked Mren (north of Dvin) where he burnt the fortress, with 4000 [[Christians]] in it. On 9 July 1163 [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] inflicted a heavy defeat on [[Georgians]]. They penetrated into the fortress al-Krkri (Gyargyar) where a battle took place, where Georgians sustained a most ignominious defeat. [[George III of Georgia|George III]] was put to flight. Then Seljuks took the [[Gagi Fortress|fortress of Gagi]], laid waste as far as the region of Gagi and [[Gegharkunik Province|Gegharkunik]], seized prisoners and booty, and then moved to Ani. In April, 1164 Georgians evacuated the town. Eldiguz arrived and gave Ani to the emir [[Shahanshah ibn Mahmud]].

[[File:Shaddadid.gif|thumb|Caucasus region and its southern neighbors during 1072–1174.|250x250px]]

The [[Muslims|Muslim]] rulers were jubilant, and they prepared for a new campaign. However, this time they were forestalled by [[George III of Georgia|George III]], who marched into [[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]] at the beginning of 1166, occupied a region extending to [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Gan]]

[[Ganja, Azerbaijan|ja]], devastated the land and turn back with prisoners and booty. The struggle for Ani continued. For four long years [[Ani]] was attacked ceaselessly. The population was reduced to misery, the land was not tilled and the economy was dislocated. There seemed to be no end to the war between George III and [[Eldiguz|atabeg Eldiguz]]. But the belligerents were exhausted to such an extent that Eldiguz proposed an armistice. George had no alternative but to make concessions. Eldiguz restored Ani to its former rulers, the [[Shaddadids]], who became his vassals.

The [[Shaddadids]], ruled [[Ani]] for about 10 years, but in 1174 King [[George III of Georgia|George]] captured the [[Shahanshah ibn Mahmud]] as a prisoner and [[Siege of Ani (1174)|captured Ani]] once again. Ivane Orbeli, was appointed governor of Ani.

=== Tamar the Great ===
{{Location map+|Caucasus mountains|width=400px|float=right|caption='''Approximate dates of Georgian control.''' Mouseover for name.
<br/>'''Blue circle'''=Capital <br/>'''Black dot'''=Georgian held cities and fortresses<br/>'''Red dot'''=Conquered cities and fortresses<br/>'''X'''=Major battles|places={{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=41.71|long=44.82|label=[[Tbilisi]]|position=right|mark=Blue-circle-concentric.png}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=42.26|long=42.71|label=[[Kutaisi]]|position=right|mark=Location dot black.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=43.00|long=41.02|label=[[Tskhumi]]|position=right|mark=Location dot black.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=41.38|long=43.28|label=[[Vardzia]]|position=right|mark=Location dot black.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.99|long=47.87|label=[[Qabala|Kabala]]|position=right|mark=Location dot black.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.96|long=44.49|label=[[Lori Fortress|Lore]]|position=right|mark=Location dot black.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.82|long=46.01|label=[[Battle of Shamkor|1195]]|position=right|mark=X solid black 17.gif}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.38|long=44.22|label=[[Amberd|1196]]|position=top|mark=Location dot red.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.38|long=43.34|label=[[Ani|1199]]--|position=left|mark=Location dot red.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.46|long=44.65|label=[[Bjni Fortress|1201]]|position=right|mark=Location dot red.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=39.97|long=41.66|label=[[Battle of Basian|1202]]|position=right|mark=X solid black 17.gif}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=41.00|long=39.71|label=[[Georgian expedition to Chaldia|1204]]|position=right|mark=X solid black 17.gif}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.01|long=44.58|label=[[Dvin (ancient city)|1203]]|position=right|mark=Location dot red.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=40.60|long=43.09|label=[[Kars|1206]]|position=top|mark=Location dot red.svg}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=38.9|long=42.48|label=[[Georgian-Ayyubid wars|1208]]|position=right|mark=X solid black 17.gif}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=38.50|long=48.30|label=1210-1211|position=right|mark=X solid black 17.gif}}
{{Location map~|Caucasus mountains|lat=42.48|long=44.92|label=[[Rebellion in Pkhovi and Didoya|1212]]|position=right|mark=X solid black 17.gif}}|thumb}}The successes of his predecessors were built upon by [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar]], daughter of [[George III of Georgia|George III]], who became the first female ruler of Georgia in her own right and under whose leadership the Georgian state reached the zenith of power and prestige in the [[Middle Ages]]. Tamar was successful in neutralizing this opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the decline of the hostile [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq Turks]]. Relying on a powerful military [[Elite|élite]], Tamar was able to build an empire which dominated the [[Caucasus]] until its collapse under the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] attacks within two decades after Tamar's death.

Once Tamar succeeded in consolidating her power and found a reliable support in [[David Soslan]], the [[Mkhargrdzeli]], [[House of Toreli|Toreli]], and other noble families, she revived the expansionist foreign policy of her predecessors. Repeated occasions of dynastic strife in Georgia combined with the efforts of regional successors of the [[Seljuk Empire|Great Seljuq Empire]], such as the [[Eldiguzids]], [[Shirvanshah]]s, and the [[Shah-Armens|Ahlatshahs]], had slowed down the dynamic of the Georgians achieved during the reigns of Tamar's great-grandfather, [[David IV of Georgia|David IV]], and her father, George III. However, the Georgians became again active under Tamar, more prominently in the second decade of her rule.

Early in the 1190s, the Georgian government began to interfere in the affairs of the Eldiguzids and of the Shirvanshahs, aiding rivaling local princes and reducing [[Shirvan]] to a tributary state. The Eldiguzid atabeg [[Nusrat al-Din Abu Bakr|Abu Bakr]] attempted to stem the Georgian advance, but suffered a defeat at the hands of David Soslan at the [[Battle of Shamkor]]<ref name="Suny-39">{{harvnb|Suny|1994|p=39}}.</ref> and lost his capital to a Georgian protégé in 1195. Although Abu Bakr was able to resume his reign a year later, the Eldiguzids were only barely able to contain further Georgian forays.<ref>Luther, Kenneth Allin. "[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atabakan-e-adarbayjan Atābākan-e Adārbāyĵān]", in: ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'' (Online edition). Retrieved on 2006-06-26.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lordkipanidze|1987|p=148}}.</ref>

The question of liberation of Armenia remained of prime importance in Georgia's foreign policy. Tamar's armies led by two [[Armenians|Armenian]] generals, [[Zakaria II Mkhargrdzeli|Zakare]] and [[Ivane Mkhargrdzeli|Ivane Zakarian]] overran fortresses and cities towards the [[Ararat Plain]], reclaiming one after another fortresses and districts from local Muslim rulers.

[[File:Seljuk Sultanate of Rum 1190 Locator Map.svg|left|thumb|The [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk Sultanate of Rum]] in 1190]]
Alarmed by the Georgian successes, [[Suleiman II (Rûm)|Süleymanshah II]], the resurgent Seljuqid [[Sultanate of Rum|sultan of Rûm]], rallied his vassal [[emir]]s and marched against Georgia, but his camp was attacked and destroyed by David Soslan at the [[Battle of Basian]] in 1203 or 1204. The chronicler of Tamar describes how the army was assembled at the rock-hewn town of [[Vardzia]] before marching on to Basian and how the queen addressed the troops from the balcony of the church.<ref>{{harvnb|Eastmond|1998|p=121}}; {{harvnb|Lordkipanidze|1987|pp=150–151}}.</ref> Exploiting her success in this battle, between 1203 and 1205 Georgians seized the town of [[Dvin (ancient city)|Dvin]]<ref>{{harvnb|Lordkipanidze|1987|p=150}}.</ref> and entered [[Ahlat|Akhlatshah]] possessions twice and subdued the emir of [[Kars]] (vassal of the [[Saltukids]] in Erzurum), [[Shah-Armens|Akhlatshahs]], the emirs of [[Saltukids|Erzurum]] and [[House of Mengüjek|Erzincan]].

[[File:Ivane_and_Zakare,_Harichavank.jpg|thumb|[[Zakare II Zakarian|Zakare]] and [[Ivane I Zakarian|Ivane Zakarian]] on the east facade at [[Harichavank]], Armenia, 1201.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eastmond |first1=Antony |title=Tamta's World |date=20 April 2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-16756-8 |page=51 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANAoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 |language=en |quote=Zakare and Ivane Mqargrdzeli on the east facade at Harichavank, Armenia, 1201}}</ref>]]
In 1204–1205, the [[Georgians]] raided the northern areas of [[Lake Van]], the [[Erciş|Archesh]] and [[Malazgirt|Manzikert]]. After the death of the last Sokhmenid ruler of [[Shah-Armens|Shah-Armen]] without an heir, a struggle began between the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubids]] to seize power in the Sultanate. Disturbances at home and external pressure turned out to be the reason for the weakening of Shah-Armens and they were no longer able to deal with the threat from the Georgians. The [[Muslims|Muslim]] rulers of the region, could not adapt to the strengthening of [[Christianity|Christian]] Georgia, and that is why the Sultan of [[Ahlat]] called for help from the [[Emir]] Toghrulshah of [[Erzurum]]. They marched with a common army towards the borders of Georgia. When the Georgians found out about the enemy's intentions, they were overconfident, ignored the danger coming from them and faced the enemy defenseless.

[[Georgians]] marched on [[Ahlat]] in 1205–1206. However, this attempt also ended in failure, because the purpose of this campaign was not the complete conquest of the [[Shah-Armens]], but its plundering. The two crushing defeats experienced against Shah-Armens had a negative impact on Georgia's international status. The situation needed to be corrected immediately.

Simultaneously with the murder of Balaban, the last ruler of the [[Shah-Armens]], in 1206 the [[Kingdom of Georgia]] under the command of [[David Soslan|Davit Soslan]] besieged [[Kars]] (vassal of the Shah-Armens) and other fortresses along the [[Aras (river)|Aras river]]. The Emir of Kars appealed to the Sultan of the Shah-Armens for help, but he was powerless to find help. In such a situation, the [[emir]] of Kars asked the Georgians for a truce and in return gave up the fortress. [[Ivane Akhaltsikheli]] was appointed as the [[Amirtamira]] of Kars.
[[File:Georgian_invasion_of_northern_Iran.png|alt=|thumb|[[Georgian campaign against the Eldiguzids]] in 1208 and 1210-1211 years.]]
In 1210–1211, the [[Zakarids–Mkhargrdzeli]] brothers Zakare and Ivane waste to [[Ardabil]] – according to the Georgian and Armenian annals – as a revenge for the local Muslim ruler's attack on Ani and his massacre of the city's Christian population.<ref name="Lordkipanidze-154">{{harvnb|Lordkipanidze|1987|p=154}}.</ref> In a great final burst, the brothers led an army marshaled throughout Tamar's possessions and vassal territories in a march, through [[Nakhchivan (city)|Nakhchivan]] and [[Julfa, Azerbaijan (city)|Julfa]], to [[Marand]], [[Tabriz]], and [[Qazvin]] in northwest [[Iran]], pillaging several settlements on their way.<ref name="Lordkipanidze-154" />

== Consequences ==
[[George IV of Georgia|George IV]] continued Tamar's policy. He [[Siege of Ganja (1213)|put down the revolts]] in neighbouring [[Muslim]] vassal states in the 1210s and began preparations for a large-scale campaign against [[Jerusalem]] to support the [[Fourth Crusade|Crusaders]] in 1220. However, the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] approach to the Georgian borders made the Crusade plan unrealistic. The first [[Mongol invasions of Georgia|Mongol expedition]] defeated Georgian armies in 1221–1222. George IV died fighting them in 1223 and his sister [[Rusudan of Georgia|Rusudan]] made a desperate alliance against Mongols when she and her daughter [[Gürcü Hatun|Tamar]] married to Seljuk princes of [[Erzurum]] and [[Sultanate of Rum]]. The former enemies were now the closest allies ([[Battle of Köse Dağ]]) but that did not prevent the Mongol advance.

== See also ==
* [[Military history of Georgia]]
* [[Byzantine–Georgian wars]]
* [[Khwarazmian–Georgian wars]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Allen |first=W.E.D. |title=A history of the Georgian people; from the beginning down to the Russian conquest in the nineteenth century |year=1932 |publisher=Routledge & K. Paul |location=London |isbn=0-7100-6959-6}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Asatiani |first1=Nodar |title=Histoire de la Géorgie |publisher=L'Harmattan |year=1997 |isbn=2-7384-6186-7 |location=Paris |last2=Bendianashvili |first2=Alexandre}}
* {{Cite book |last=Baumer |first=Christoph |title=History of the Caucasus |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2023 |isbn=9780755636303 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brosset |first=Marie-Félicité |url={{GBurl|hc1CAAAAcAAJ}} |title=Histoire de la Géorgie depuis l'Antiquité jusqu'au XIXe siècle. Volume I |publisher=Imperial Academy of Sciences |year=1849 |location=Saint Petersburg |language=fr |trans-title=History of Georgia from Ancient Times to the 19th Century, Volume 1}}
* {{cite book |last=Eastmond |first=Antony |title=Royal imagery in medieval Georgia |year=1998 |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, Pa. |isbn=0271016280}}
*{{cite book |last=Hasratyan |first=Murad |author-link1=Murad Hasratyan |editor1-last=Ayvazyan |editor1-first=Hovhannes |script-title=hy:"Քրիստոնյա Հայաստան" հանրագիտարան |trans-title="Christian Armenia" Encyclopedia)  |date=2002 |publisher=Armenian Encyclopedia Publishing |language=hy}}
* {{cite book |date=1949 |last1=Javakhishvili |first1=Ivane |language=ka |location=Tbilisi |publisher=Publication d'État de la RSS de Géorgie |title=Histoire de la Géorgie. XIe–XVe siècles}}
* {{cite book |date=1955 |last1=Kaukhchishvili |first1=Simon |isbn=99928-43-44-6 |language=ka |location=Tbilisi |publisher=Publication d'État |title=La vie du Karthli – Texte complet et commentaires le concernant}}
* {{cite book |last=Lordkipanidze |first=Mariam |editor=B. G. Hewitt |title=Georgia in the XI–XII Centuries |year=1987 |publisher=Ganatleba |location=Tbilisi |oclc=976720564}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lortkipanidze |first1=Mariam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN9789941195853 |title=History of Georgia in four volumes, vol. II – History of Georgia from the 4th century to the 13th century |last2=Japaridze |first2=Otar |last3=Muskhelishvili |first3=David |last4=Metreveli |first4=Roin |year=2012 |isbn=978-9941-19-585-3 |location=Tbilisi |publisher=National Academy of Sciences of Georgia |ref={{sfnref|History of Georgia|2012}} }}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Cite book |last=Metreveli |first=Roin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISBN9789941425509 |title=Saint David the Builder |year=2011 |isbn=9789941425509 |location=Tbilisi }}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite book| last = Minorsky| first = Vladimir| title = Studies in Caucasian History| year = 1953| publisher = Taylor’s Foreign Press| location = New York|isbn=0-521-05735-3 }}
* {{cite book |title=Islam in the Baltic: Europe's Early Muslim Community |first=Harry |last=Norris |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2009}}
* {{cite book |last=Peacock |first=Andrew |date=2015 |title=The Great Seljuk Empire |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-9807-3}}
*{{cite book |title=Mongol Caucasia: Invasions, Conquest, and Government of a Frontier Region in Thirteenth-Century Eurasia (1204–1295) |first=Lorenzo |last=Pubblici |publisher=Brill |year=2022}}
* {{Cite book |last=Salia |first=Kalistrat |title=Histoire de la nation géorgienne |publisher=Nino Salia |year=1980 |location=Paris |language=fr |trans-title=History of the Georgian nation}}
* {{Cite book |last=Samushia |first=Jaba |title=Illustrated history of Georgia |publisher=Palitra L |year=2015 |isbn=978-9941-21-755-5 |location=Tbilisi}}
* {{cite book |last=Suny |first=Ronald Grigor |title=The making of the Georgian nation |year=1994 |publisher=Indiana Univ. Press |location=Bloomington |isbn=0253209153 |edition=2.}}
* {{cite book |last=Thomson |first=Robert W. |title=Rewriting Caucasian history: the medieval Armenian adaptation of the Georgian chronicles; the original Georgian texts and the Armenian adaptation |year=1996 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0198263732}}
{{refend}}

{{Kingdom of Georgia topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Georgian-Seljuk wars}}
[[Category:11th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:12th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:13th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Kingdom of Georgia]]
[[Category:Military history of the Seljuk Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Alans]]