View source for Ghent Altarpiece

{{Short description|Polyptych by Jan and Hubert van Eyck}}
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[[Image:Lamgods open.jpg|thumb|upright=2.0|The twelve interior panels. This open view measures {{Convert|5.2 x 3.75|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>Praet & Martens (2020), 50.</ref>]]
[[Image:Lamgods closed.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Closed view, back panels]]

The '''''Ghent Altarpiece''''', also called the '''''Adoration of the Mystic Lamb''''' ({{langx|nl|De aanbidding van het Lam Gods}}),{{efn-ua|The central painting is "Adoration of the Mystic Lamb".}} is a very large and complex 15th-century [[polyptych]] [[altarpiece]] in [[St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent]], Belgium. It was begun around the mid-1420s and completed by 1432, and it is attributed to the [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish painters]] and brothers [[Hubert van Eyck|Hubert]] and [[Jan van Eyck]]. The altarpiece  is a prominent example of the transition from Middle Age to Renaissance art and is considered a masterpiece of European art, identified by some as "the first major oil painting."<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/story/the-most-stolen-work-of-art | title=The Most Stolen Work of Art &#124; Britannica | access-date=2022-06-11 | archive-date=2022-06-11 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611233813/https://www.britannica.com/story/the-most-stolen-work-of-art | url-status=live }}</ref>

The panels are organised in two vertical [[Register (art)|registers]], each with double sets of foldable wings containing inner and outer panel paintings. The upper register of the inner panels represents the heavenly redemption, and includes the central classical ''[[Deësis]]'' arrangement of God (identified either as [[Jesus|Christ the King]] or [[God the Father]]), flanked by the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]] and [[John the Baptist]]. They are flanked in the next panels by angels playing music and, on the far outermost panels, the figures of [[Adam and Eve]]. The central panel of the lower register shows a gathering of saints, sinners, clergy, and soldiers attendant at an adoration of the [[Lamb of God]]. There are several groupings of figures, overseen by the dove of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]].{{efn-ua|Eight of its twelve panel paintings are doubled-hinged shutters, allowing two distinct views depending on whether they are opened or closed; except for Sundays and festive holidays, the outer wings were closed off and covered with cloth. The outer panels contain two vertically stacked registers (rows).}} The four lower panels of the closed altar are divided into two pairs; sculptural [[grisaille]] paintings of St John the Baptist and St [[John the Evangelist]], and on the two outer panels, [[donor portraits]] of Joost Vijdt and his wife Lysbette Borluut; in the upper row are the [[archangel Gabriel]] and [[the Annunciation]], and at the very top are the prophets and sibyls. The altarpiece is one of the most renowned and important artworks in European history.

Art historians generally agree that the overall structure was designed by Hubert during or before the mid-1420s, probably before 1422, and that the panels were painted by his younger brother Jan. Yet, while generations of art historians have attempted to attribute specific passages to either brother, no convincing separation has been established;<ref name="Burroughs 1933, 184">Burroughs (1933), 184</ref> it may be that Jan finished panels begun by Hubert.

The altarpiece was commissioned by the merchant and [[Ghent]] mayor Jodocus Vijd and his wife Lysbette as part of a larger project for the [[Saint Bavo Cathedral]] chapel. Its installation was officially celebrated on 6 May 1432. Much later, for security reasons, it was moved to the principal cathedral chapel, where it remains.

Indebted to the [[International Gothic]] as well as [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] and [[Roman art|Romanic]] traditions, the altarpiece represented a significant advancement in Western art, in which the idealisation of the [[medieval art|medieval]] tradition gives way to an exacting observation of nature<ref name="Gombrich, E.H. pages 236">Gombrich, E.H., ''The Story of Art'', pages 236–9. Phaidon, 1995. {{ISBN|0-7148-3355-X}}</ref> and human representation. A now lost inscription on the frame stated that Hubert van Eyck ''maior quo nemo repertus'' (greater than anyone) started the altarpiece, but that Jan van Eyck{{mdash}}calling himself ''arte secundus'' (second best in the art){{mdash}}completed it in 1432.<ref name="Burroughs, 184–193">Burroughs, 184–193</ref> The altarpiece is in its original location, while its original, very ornate, carved outer frame and surround, presumably harmonizing with the painted [[tracery]], was destroyed during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]; it may have included clockwork mechanisms for moving the shutters and even for playing music.

== Attribution ==
The merchant Jodocus Vijd, then Mayor of [[Ghent]], and his wife Lysbette commissioned the altarpiece as part of a larger development project for the [[Saint Bavo Cathedral]] chapel. The installation of the altarpiece was officially celebrated on 6 May 1432; it was much later moved for security reasons to the principal cathedral chapel, where it remains.

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Art historians broadly agree that the overall structure was designed and built by Hubert in the early 1420s, and that most of the panels paintings were completed by his younger brother Jan between 1430 and 1432. Yet there has been considerable debate, and many art historians, especially in the mid 20th century, attempted to attribute specific passages to either brother. However, no convincing separation of their contributions has been established.<ref name="Burroughs 1933, 184"/> A now lost inscription on the frame stated that Hubert van Eyck ''maior quo nemo repertus'' (greater than anyone) started the altarpiece, but that Jan van Eyck—calling himself ''arte secundus'' (second best in the art)—completed it in 1432.<ref name="Burroughs, 184–193"/> The original, very ornate carved outer frame and surround, presumably harmonizing with the painted [[tracery]], was destroyed during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]; it may have included clockwork mechanisms for moving the shutters and even playing music.

Attribution to the van Eyck brothers is supported by the small amount of surviving documentary evidence attached to the commission, and from Jan's signature and dating on a reverse frame. Jan seems to minimize his contribution in favour of his brother, who died six years before the work's completion in 1432. A less explicit indicator is their seeming portraits as the third and fourth horsemen in the [[The Just Judges|Just Judges panel]]. Ramsay Homa notes lettering in the central panel of the lower register that might be read as an early formation of what was to become van Eyck's well-known signature, built around various formations of {{sc2|"ALS IK KAN"}} (''As I Can''), a pun on his full name; and lettering is found on the headdress of one of the prophets standing at the back of the grouping. It is written in Hebrew script that roughly translates into French as ''Le chapeau&nbsp;... orne de trois lettres herbraiques formant le mot Saboth'', or more likely as "Yod, Feh, Aleph", which when transliterated represents Jan's initials, JvE.<ref>Homa (1974), 327</ref>

Since the 19th century, art historians have debated which passages are attributable to the unknown Hubert or internationally renowned Jan. In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was often assumed that Jan had found unfinished panels left behind after Hubert's death and assembled them into the current format. This view has been discounted by more recent scholarship on the basis of the overall design of the work and given the obvious gaps in quality between many passages.<ref>Pächt, 214</ref>

It is generally accepted that the majority of the work was completed by Jan based on a design by Hubert, who probably oversaw the original design and construction of the panels. The difficulties are complicated by the fact that there is no surviving work confidently attributed to Hubert and it is thus impossible to detect his style. Instead, art historians compare individual passages to known works by Jan, looking for stylistic differences that may indicate the work of another hand. Advances in [[dendrochronology]] indicate that parts of the wing panels were felled around 1421. Allowing a seasoning time of at least 10 years, art historians assume a completion date well after Hubert's death in 1426, thus ruling out his hand from large portions of the wings.<ref>Nash (2008), 13</ref>

==Style and technique==
[[File:Anyell místic-central-CatedralUtrecht.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|View of [[Utrecht Cathedral]] from the central inner panel]]
The polyptych differs in a number of aspects from the other paintings attributed to Jan van Eyck, not least in scale. It is the only one of his works intended for public, rather than private, worship and display.<ref name="hplay194">Harbison (Reaktion), 194</ref> Van Eyck pays as much attention to the beauty of earthly things as to the religious themes. The clothes and jewels, the fountain, nature surrounding the scene, the churches and landscape in the background – are all painted with remarkable detail. The landscape is rich with vegetation, which is observed with an almost scientific accuracy, and much of it non-European.<ref name="Pächt">Pächt</ref>

Lighting is one of the major innovations of the polyptych. The panels contain complex light effects and subtle plays of shadow, the rendering of which was achieved through new techniques of handling both oil paint and transparent glazes. The figures are mostly cast with short, diagonal shadows which serve to, in the words of art historian Till-Holger Borchert, "not only heighten their spatial presence, but also tell us that the primary light source is located beyond the picture itself."<ref>Borchert (2011), 22–23</ref> In the ''Annunciation'' scene, shadows imply that they emanate from the daylight within the chapel in which they are housed.<ref name="h81">Harbison (1995), 81</ref> Further innovations can be found in the detailing of surface textures, especially in the reflections of light. These are best seen in light falling on the armour in the ''Knights of Christ'' panel, and the ripple of the water in the [[Fountain of Life|Fountain of life]] in the ''Adoration of the Mystic Lamb''.<ref name="b24">Borchert (2011), 24</ref>

==Open view==
The altarpiece was opened on feast days when the richness, colour and complexity of the inner panels was intended to contrast with the relative austerity of the outer panels. As viewed when open, the panels are organised along two registers (levels), and contain depictions of hundreds of figures.<ref name="hplay194" /> The upper level consists of seven monumental panels,<!-- is each a separate panel, or are there 7 paintings on one panel and the four wing shutters? --> each almost six feet high, and includes a large central image of Christ flanked by frames showing Mary (left) and John the Baptist (right), which contain over twenty inscriptions each referring to the figures in the central [[Deësis]] panels.<ref>Harbison (1995), 836</ref>

These panels are flanked by two pairs of images on the folding wings. The two panels closest to the Deësis show singers in heaven; the outermost pair show Adam and Eve, naked save for strategically placed leaves.<ref name="p124">Pächt (1999), 124</ref> The lower register has a panoramic landscape stretching continuously across five panels. While the individual panels of the upper tier clearly contain separate—albeit paired—pictorial spaces, the lower tier is presented as a unified ''[[Mise en scène]]''.<ref>Borchert (2011), 19</ref> Of the 12 panels, eight have paintings on their reverse visible when the altarpiece is closed.

===Upper register===

====Deësis====
The three central upper panels show a [[Deesis|Deësis]] of monumental and enthroned figures, each with a halo. They are the Virgin Mary to the left, [[John the Baptist]] to the right and a central figure who may be either God or Christ – a distinction much debated amongst art historians. Theories include that the panel shows [[Christ in Majesty]] dressed in priestly vestments,<ref>Lane (1984), 109</ref> [[God the Father]], or the [[Holy Trinity]] amalgamated into a single person.<ref>Dhanens (1980), 106</ref> The figure looks directly towards the viewer with his hand raised in blessing, in a panel filled with inscriptions and symbols. There are Greek inscriptions decorated with pearls on the hem of his [[Mantle (vesture)|mantle]] (possibly a [[cope]], fastened by a bejewelled morse or clasp) which are from [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]: {{sc2|''REX REGUM ET DOMINUS DOMINANTIUM''}} ("[[King of Kings]], and Lord of Lords").<ref name="p124" />

The golden [[brocade]] on the throne features [[pelican]]s and [[vine]], probable references to the blood spilled during the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]. Pelicans were at the time believed to spill their own blood to feed their young. The vines allude to [[sacramental wine]] used to [[Transubstantiation|confect]] the [[Eucharist]].<ref>Charney (2010), 31</ref>

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An [[openwork]] crown is at his feet, and on either side the step is lined with two levels of text. The left hand upper line reads {{sc2|''VITA SINE MORTE IN CAPITE''}} ("Life without death on his head"), that on the right {{sc2|''IUVENTUS SINE SENECTUTE IN FRONTE''}} ("Youth without age on his forehead"). These are placed above—on the left and right respectively—the words {{sc2|''GAUDIUM SINE MERORE A DEXTRIS''}} ("Joy without sorrow on his right side") and {{sc2|''SECURITAS SINE TIMORE A SINISTRIS''}} ("Safety without fear on his left side").<ref>Ridderbos et al. (2004), 48</ref><ref name="p129">Pächt (1994), 129–130</ref> On his head is another jewel-encrusted crown similar to the [[papal tiara]] or ''triregnum,'' with its white body, three tiers, green [[lappet]]s, and [[monde]] with a cross on top.

Mary reads from a [[girdle book]] draped with a green cloth. A book is a normal [[emblem|attribute]] for Mary, as one of her [[Titles of Mary|titles]] is "[[Seat of Wisdom]]"<ref>Wadsworth (1995), 223</ref> and this image might be based on the figure in [[Robert Campin]]'s ''Virgin Annunciate''.<ref name="p129"/> She wears an open crown adorned with flowers and stars and is dressed as a bride. The inscription above her arched throne reads: "She is more beautiful than the sun and the army of the stars; compared to the light she is superior. She is truly the reflection of eternal light and a spotless mirror of God".<!--can we get the actual inscription here--><ref>Dhanens (1980), 106–108</ref>

Like his aunt Mary, John the Baptist also holds a holy book – an unusual attribute; these are two of the 18 books in the entire piece.<ref name="Dhanens108ff" /> He wears a green mantle over a [[cilice]] of [[Camel hair|camel-hair]], his usual attribute. He looks towards the Almighty in the centre panel, his hand also raised in blessing, uttering the words most typically attributed to him, {{sc2|''ECCE AGNUS DEI''}} ("[[Agnus Dei|Behold the Lamb of God]]").<ref name="p124" />

It is often assumed that the [[Perspective (graphical)|foreshortening]] seen in the representation of God the Father indicates that the artist was familiar with the Italian painters [[Donatello]] and [[Masaccio]]. The art historian [[Susie Nash]] argues that van Eyck was already leading toward this development, and it was something he was "perfectly capable of producing without such models", and argues the technique represents "a shared interest [rather than] a case of influence."<ref>Nash (2008), 30</ref>

====Musical angels====
[[File:Jan van Eyck - The Ghent Altarpiece - Singing Angels (detail) - WGA07642.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Choir of Angels]]

The two musical panels are commonly known by variants of the titles ''Singing Angels'' and ''Music-making Angels'', and are both 161&nbsp;cm × 69.3&nbsp;cm. Each features a choir; on the left, angels gather behind a wooden carved music stand positioned on a swivel, and to the right, a group with stringed instruments gather around a pipe organ, played by a seated angel, shown full-length. The presence of the two groups on either side of the Deësis reflects a by-then well-established motif in representations of the heavens opening: that of musical accompaniment provided by celestial beings.<ref>Pächt (1999), 124, 151–152</ref> As was common in the Low Countries in the 15th century, the angels are dressed in liturgical robes, a custom that migrated from Latin [[liturgical drama]] to the art of the period.<ref>McNamee (1972), 268–274</ref>

The angels attend the [[King of Kings]], that is, to God the Father in the central Deësis panel. Unusually, they lack most of the attributes usually associated with angels depicted in northern art of the time. They do not have wings, and their faces are unidealised, and show a number of different individual expressions. Music historian Stanley Boorman notes that their depiction contains many earthly qualities, writing that "the naturalism is so seductive that the viewer is tempted to consider the scenes as depictions of contemporary church music."<ref name="b30">Boorman (1983), 30</ref> Yet he concludes that the inscriptions "reinstalls them in the heavenly sphere".<ref name="b31">Boorman (1983), 31</ref> In both panels the angels stand on [[maiolica]] tiles decorated with the [[Holy Name of Jesus|IHS]] Christogram, representations of the lamb and other images.<ref name="b24" />

[[File:Jan van Eyck - The Ghent Altarpiece - Angels Playing Music (detail) - WGA07646.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|String and wind instruments]]
The left-hand panel's frame is inscribed with the words {{sc2|''MELOS DEO LAUS''}} ("Music in Praise of God"), the frame of to the right with {{sc2|''LAUDATE EUM IN CORDIS ET ORGANO''}} ("Praise him with stringed instruments and organs").<ref name="p124" /> A number of art historians have defined the figures as angels based on their positioning and role within the overall context of the registers. They are sexless and possess [[cherub]] faces, which contrast with the realistic depictions of the other full-sized non-divine females in the work; Eve in the same register<ref name="b24" /> and Lysbette Borluut in the outer panels. The angels are dressed in elaborately brocaded ecclesiastical [[cope]]s or [[chasubles]], mostly painted in reds and greens. Their robes indicate that they are intended as representative of the [[Mass (liturgy)|celebration of mass]] before the altar in the lower central panel.

The left-hand group shows eight fair haired angels wearing crowns and gathered in front of a music stand<!--reminder: stand has carvings--> singing, although none of them looks towards the score on the stand. As in a number of the other panels, here van Eyck used the device of the open mouth to give a sense of life and motion to his figures. Borchert writes that the emphasis on the open mouths is "specifically motivated by the desire to characterize the angel's facial expressions according to the various ranges of polyphonic singing. To that end the position of the angel's tongues is carefully registered, as is that of their teeth."<ref>Borchert (2011), 31–2, see also Golaqki-Voutrira (1998), 65–74</ref> Art historian Elisabeth Dhanens notes how "One can easily see by their singing who is the soprano, who is the alto, who is the tenor and who is the bass".<ref name = "Dhanens108ff">Dhanens (1980), 108</ref>

[[File:Ghent Altarpiece B - Angels - detail.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Detail of the lead Angel]]
The figures are positioned in a wave-like order of body height, with the orientation of each of the eight faces in looking in different directions.<!--obviously, but source?--> A number of scholars have remarked on their physiognomy. Their cherub faces and long, open, curly hair are similar but also show a clear intention by the artist to establish individual traits. Four angels are shown frowning, three have narrowed eyelids which give the appearance of peering, a trait also seen in some of the apostles in the "Adoration of the Lamb". Pächt does not see Jan's hand in the rendering of their expressions and speculates if they are remnants from Hubert's initial design.<ref name="p152">Pächt (1999), 152</ref>

In the right-hand panel, the only angel fully visible is the organist around whom the others gather. Although a larger group is suggested, only another four angel's faces can be seen in the closely cropped huddle. These other angels carry stringed instruments, including a small [[harp]] and a type of [[viol]].<ref name = "Dhanens108ff"/> Their instruments are shown in remarkable detail. The organ at which [[Saint Cecilia]] sits is detailed with such precision that, in places, its metal surfaces show reflections of light.<ref name="b24" />

Modern musicologists have been able to recreate a working copy of the instrument. Until the [[Trecento]], when the idea of [[orchestration]] was introduced, music-playing angels were typically winged, depicted holding stringed or wind instruments as they hovered "on the wing" around on the edges of images of saints and deities.<ref name="p151">Pächt (1999), 151</ref> In French [[illuminated manuscript]]s of the first two decades of the 15th century, winged angels often seemingly floated on the margins of the page, as illustrations to the accompanying text.<ref name="p152"/>

====Adam and Eve====
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The two outer panels show near life-sized nudes of [[Adam and Eve]] standing in [[niche (architecture)|niches]]. They are one of the earliest and most direct treatments of the nude in Western art,<ref>[[Georges Duby|Duby, George]], ''A History of Private Life, Vol 2 Revelations of the Medieval World'', 1988 (English translation), p. 582, Belknap Press, Harvard University</ref> and almost contemporary with the equally ground-breaking figures in [[Masaccio]]'s ''[[Expulsion from the Garden of Eden]]'' ([[Florence]], c. 1425). They face inwards towards the angels and the Deësis, separating them. They self-consciously attempt to cover their nakedness with a leaf as in the [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] account (although apparently not a figleaf), indicating that they are depicted as after the [[fall of man]]. Eve holds a fruit in her right hand. [[Erwin Panofsky]] drew particular attention to this passage, describing it as emblematic of the "disguised" symbolism he saw through the work.<ref name="sy511">Snyder (1976), 511</ref> Both figures' eyes are downcast and they appear to have forlorn expressions. Their apparent sadness has led many art historians to wonder about van Eyck's intention in this portrayal. Some have questioned if they are ashamed of their committal of original sin, or dismayed at the world they now look upon.<ref name="sy511" />

The painter's unflinching realism is especially evident in these two panels. The depiction of Eve exemplifies [[International Gothic]] ideal of beauty as developed from around the start of the 14th century, pioneered by the [[Limbourg brothers]], especially their Adam and Eve in the ''[[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]]''. Comparing the Limbourg's Eve to a classical female nude, [[Kenneth Clark]] observed that "her [[pelvis]] is wider, her chest narrower, her waist higher; above all there is the prominence given to her stomach".<ref>Clark (1972), 310</ref> Clark describes her as "a proof of how minutely 'realistic' a great artist may be in the rendering of details, and yet subordinate the whole to an ideal form. Hers is the supreme example of the bulb-like body. The weight-bearing leg is concealed, and the body is so contrived that on one side is the long curve of the stomach, on the other the downward sweep of the thigh, uninterrupted by any articulation of bone or muscle."<ref>Clark (1972), 311</ref>

[[File:Eve Ghent van Eyck(A).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Eve holding a citrus fruit]]

The precision and detail with which their nakedness is recorded offended many over the years. During a visit to the cathedral in 1781, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph II]] found them so disagreeable that he demanded they be removed.<ref>Hagen et al., 39</ref> The couple's nakedness further offended 19th century sensibilities, when their presence in a church came to be considered unacceptable. The panels were replaced by reproductions in which the figures were dressed in skin cloth; these are still on display in [[Saint Bavo Cathedral]]. In comparison to contemporary depictions of Adam and Eve, this version is very spare and omits the usual motifs associated with the theme; there is no serpent, tree or any trace of the [[Garden of Eden]] normally found in contemporary paintings.<ref name="sy511" />

Adam's foot appears to protrude out of the niche into the viewer's space. Similarly, Eve's arm, shoulder and hip appear to extend beyond her architectural setting. These elements give the panel a three-dimensional aspect. These [[trompe-l'œil]]s become more pronounced when the wings are turned slightly inwards,<ref name="b28">Borchert (2008), 28</ref> and contract to the fact that the polyptych was wider than the original setting and could never be opened fully.<!--can't remember source-->

The grisaille above Adam shows [[Abel]] sacrificing the first lamb of his flock, and his brother [[Cain]] presenting crops to the Lord. Above Eve is a representation of [[Cain and Abel|Abel being murdered by Cain]] with what appears to be an ass's jawbone.<ref name="Dhanens108ff" />

===Lower register===
A continuous panoramic landscape unifies the five panels of the lower register.<ref name="b28" /> The large central panel shows the adoration of the [[Lamb of God]] (''Agnus Dei'') arranged in a scene derived from the [[Gospel of John]].<ref>Charney (2010), 64</ref> A series of crowds of people stream towards the lamb to worship; four groupings congregate at each corner of the central panel, another four arrive in the two pairs of outer panels – representing the Warriors of Christ and Just Judges on the left-hand side, and the holy hermits and pilgrims on the right.<ref>Harbison (1995), 83</ref> Of the eight groupings only one consists of females. The groupings are segregated by their relationship to the [[Old Testament|old]] and [[New Testament|new]] testaments, with those from the older books positioned to the left of the altar.<ref>Hagen et al. (2003), 38</ref>

Among the pilgrims is [[Saint Christopher]], patron saint of travellers.<!-- moved this without the cite --> At the rear of the hermits on the inner right-hand panel is [[Mary Magdalene]], carrying [[unguents]].

====''Adoration of the Mystic Lamb''====
[[File:Retable de l'Agneau mystique (7).jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|left|The central ''Adoration of the Mystic Lamb'' panel. The groupings of figures are, from top left anti-clockwise: the male martyrs, the pagan writers and Jewish prophets, the male saints, and the female martyrs.]]

Measuring 134.3 × 237.5&nbsp;cm,<ref name="p212"/> the center panel has as its centerpiece an altar on which the Lamb of God is positioned, standing in a verdant meadow, while the foreground shows a fountain. Five distinct groups of figures surround altar and fountain. In the mid-ground two further groups of figures are seen gathering; the dove of the Holy Spirit is above. The meadow is framed by trees and bushes; with the spires of Jerusalem visible in the background. Dhanens says the panel shows "a magnificent display of unequaled color, a rich panorama of late medieval art and the contemporary world-view."<ref name= "D97"/> The iconography, suggested by the groupings of the figures, appears to follow the [[liturgy]] of [[All Saints' Day]].<ref name= "D103">Dhanens (1980), 103</ref>

The lamb stands on an altar, and is surrounded by 14 angels arranged in a circle,<ref name="R47"/> some holding symbols of Christ's [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]], and two swing [[censer]]s.<ref name= "D97"/> The lamb{{efn-ua|This portion of the panel was restored following damage suffered in an 1822 fire; however the restoration was not complete and some of the passages were abandoned mid-way. The most startling result of this is that a portion of an underdrawing of the lamb was left exposed, leading to it appearing to have four ears until the 2020 restoration which removed the overpainting. See Pächt (1999), 123}} has a wound on its breast from which blood gushes into a golden chalice, yet it shows no outward expression of pain, a reference to Christ's sacrifice. The lamb has a human-like face which appears to be looking directly out of the panel, similar to the subjects of Jan van Eyck's single head portraits. The angels have multicoloured wings and hold instruments of [[Passion (Christianity)|Christ's passion]], including the cross and the [[crown of thorns]]. The [[antependium]] on the upper portion of the front of the altar is inscribed with the words taken from John 1:29; {{sc2|''ECCE AGNUS DEI QUI TOLLIT PECCATA MUNDI''}} ("Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world"). The [[lappet]]s bear the phrases {{sc2|''IHESUS VIA''}} ("Jesus the Way") and {{sc2|''VERITAS VITA''}} ("the Truth, the Life").<ref name="R47">Ridderbos at al. (2004), 47</ref>

[[File:Ghent Adoration detail 4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Female martyrs (with palms) and saints gathered to worship Christ]]

A dove, representing the Holy Spirit, hovers low in the sky directly above the lamb, surrounded by concentric semicircles of white and yellow hues of varying luminosity, the outermost of which appear like [[nimbus cloud]]s.<!--Reminder: more on this--> Thin golden beams emanating from the dove resemble those surrounding the head of the lamb, as well as those of the three figures in the [[Deësis]] in the upper register. The rays seem to have been painted by van Eyck over the finished landscape and serve to illuminate the scene in a celestial, supernatural light. This is especially true with the light falling on the saints positioned directly in front of the altar. The light does not give reflection or throw shadow,<ref name="B23">Borchert (2011), 23</ref> and has traditionally been read by art historians as representing the [[New Jerusalem]] of [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] which in 21:23, had "no need of the sun, neither of the moon, to shine in it; for the glory of God did Lighten it".<ref name="B21">Borchert (2008), 21</ref>

The illumination contrasts with the natural and directional lighting of the four upper interior wings and of each of the outer wings. It has been interpreted as a device to emphasize the presence of the divine and accentuate the paradise of the central landscape.<ref name="B23" /> The dove as the Holy Spirit, and the lamb as Jesus, are positioned on the same axis as that of God The Father in the panel directly above; a reference to the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]].<ref>Ridderbos et al. (2004), 53</ref><!--There is much more on this for an iconography section at some stage-->

[[File:Ghent Altarpiece D - Fountain.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|The fountain of life<ref name= "D97"/>]]
In the center foreground, the [[fountain of life]] consists of a large stream of water, ending with a jewel-laden bed. In the distance, a minutely detailed cityscape recalls [[New Jerusalem]].<ref>Charney (2010), 23</ref> The detail and close attention to landscape and nature is at a level previously unseen in Northern European art. The numerous recognisable species of plants are minutely depicted with high levels of botanical accuracy. Similarly, the clouds and rock formations in the distance contain degrees of verisimilitude that evince studied observation. The far landscape contains representations of actual churches, while the depiction of the mountains beyond contain the first known example in art of [[aerial perspective]].<ref name="B29">Borchert (2008), 29</ref> Yet the panel does not strive for exact realism; the sum of the forensically detailed natural elements, in combination with the apparition of the Holy Spirit and extended beams of light, serve to create a wholly individual and uniquely creative interpretation of a classic biblical scene.<ref name="B23" />

=====Fountain of life=====
The inscription on the fountain's rim reads {{sc2|''HIC EST FONS AQUE VITE PROCEDENS DE SEDE DEI + AGNI''}} ("This is the fountain of the water of life, proceeding out of the throne of God and of the Lamb", cf. Rev. 22:1), symbolizing the fountain of life is "watered by the blood of the Lamb".<ref name="p124"/> The column at the fountain center shows an angel above dragons in bronze, from which streams of water fall into its basin. A vertical axis forms between the fountain, altar and the dove, signifying the agreeing testimony of The Spirit, water and the blood, as cited in 1 John 5:6–8.<ref name= "D97"/> There is also similarity between the altar, the ring of angels, and the multiple figures arranged around the fountain.<ref name = "p126">Pächt (1999), 126</ref>

=====Prophets, Apostles, church figures=====
The representations of figures gathering on each side of the fountain are drawn from biblical, pagan and contemporary ecclesiastical sources. Some are crowded around the fountain in what Pächt describes as two "processions of figures [that] have crowded to a halt". To the left are representatives of figures from Judaism and prophets who have foretold the coming of Christ; to the right are representatives from the Church.<ref name = "p126"/> The figures directly to the left of the fountain represent witnesses from the Old Testament;<ref name="R47" /> dressed in pink robes, kneeling, reading aloud from open copies of the Bible, facing the mid-ground with backs turned to the viewer.<ref name = "p138">Pächt (1999), 138</ref>

[[File:Ghent Altarpiece D - Popes - detail.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Three of the figures in the grouping to the right of the fountain can be identified as [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]], [[Pope Gregory XII|Gregory VII]] and [[Antipope Alexander V]].<ref name= "D100"/>]]
A larger group of pagan philosophers and writers stand behind them. These men seem to have travelled from all over the world, given the Oriental faces of some and their different styles of headdresses. The figure in white, holding a laurel wreath, is generally accepted to be [[Virgil]], who is said to have predicted the coming of the Saviour. [[Isaiah]] stands to his side holding a twig, a symbol of his own prophecy of Christ as recorded in Isaiah 11:1.<ref name="R47" />

On the right, [[twelve apostles]] from the New Testament kneel, and behind them is a group of male saints. These are dressed in red vestments symbolizing martyrs, the Popes and other clergy representing the church hierarchy.<ref name= "D97">Dhanens (1980), 97</ref> A number are recognizable, including [[Saint Stephen]] who carries the rocks with which he was stoned. Three popes in the foreground represent the [[Western Schism]]—a dispute that festered and lingered in Ghent—and are identifiable as [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]], [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] and [[Antipope Alexander V]]. Dhanens suggests the positioning of popes standing beside antipope shows "an atmosphere of reconciliation".<ref name= "D100"/>

=====Confessors and martyrs=====
The groups of figures in the mid-ground, to the left and right of the altar, are known as the male and female martyrs. Identifiable biblical figures carry palms.<ref name = "p126"/> They enter the pictorial space as though through a path in the foliage, males standing to the left, women to the right.<ref>Dhanens (1980), 100; 103</ref> The female martyrs, sometimes known as the holy virgins, are gathered by an abundant meadow, a symbol of fertility. A number are identified by their [[emblem|attribute]]s: in front [[Agnes of Rome|St. Agnes]] carries a lamb, [[Saint Barbara|St. Barbara]] holds a tower, while [[Dorothea of Caesarea|St. Dorothy]] carries flowers. Further back [[Saint Ursula|St. Ursula]] carries an arrow.<ref name="R47" /><ref name= "D100"/> The men on the left include confessors, popes, cardinals, abbots and monks who are dressed in blue.<ref name= "D100">Dhanens (1980), 100</ref>

=====Just Judges and the Knights of Christ=====
The wing panels to the left of the "Adoration of the Mystic Lamb" show groups of approaching knights and judges. Their biblical source can be identified from inscriptions on the panel frames. The far left-hand panels contain lettering reading {{sc2|"IUSTI IUDICES"}} (''Righteous'' (or ''Just'') ''Judges''), the inside left panel reads {{sc2|"[[Miles Christianus|CHRISTI MILITES]]"}} (''Warriors of Christ'').<ref name="Pächt" /> The presence of the Judges, none of whom were canonised saints, is an anomaly which art historians have long sought to explain. The most likely explanation is that they refer to Jodocus Vijd's position as a city [[alderman]].<ref>Ridderbos et al. (2004), 54</ref> 
 
The ''Just Judges'' may contain portraits of Jan and Hubert as the third and fourth Judges on horseback. The evidence is based on the similarity of one of the figures to Jan's 1433 ''[[Portrait of a Man (Self Portrait?)|Portrait of a Man]]'', now in the [[National Gallery, London]], generally thought to be a self-portrait. The second, closer, figure is thought to be Hubert because of his facial similarity to Jan. Although the judge in the Ghent panel appears to be younger than the sitter in the London painting, they wear similar [[Chaperon (headgear)|chaperons]] with the [[cornette]] tightly bound around the [[bourrelet]].<ref name="c216">Campbell (1998), 216</ref> The judges in the Ghent panel became the basis for a number of later portraits of the brothers, including that of [[Dominicus Lampsonius]].<ref name="b93&5">Bourchert (2008), 93–95</ref>
=====Flora=====
The Ghent altar shows depictions of herbs, shrubs, (mainly Mediterranean) trees, lichens, mosses and ferns, many of which are so lifelike that orange and pomegranate trees, [[date palms]] and cypresses, rose bushes and vines as well as lilies, iris, peonies, lily of the valley, woodruff, daisies, can be identified. This has received scholarly attention for at least two centuries. In 1822 [[Johanna Schopenhauer]] identified many of the plants in the flora of the Ghent altar, including [[medicinal plants]]<ref>[https://deutsches-textarchiv.de/book/show/schopenhauer_eyck01_1822 Johanna Schopenhauer: 'Johann van Eyck and his successors'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112102545/https://deutsches-textarchiv.de/book/show/schopenhauer_eyck01_1822 |date=2022-11-12 }}. Vol 1 Frankfurt (Main), 1822, S.&nbsp;61&nbsp;f.</ref>  A number of them have a connection to the Christian symbolism<ref>Christina Becela-Deller: 'Ruta olegravens L. ''(Dissertation in Mathematics and Natural Sciences Würzburg 1994) Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 1998 (= 'Würzburg medical history research.'' Volume 65). 191-198 ('The Ghent Altar'), here: 191, 193-198 and 210. </ref>

In 1984, the ecologist Sam Segal counted 81 different plants.<ref>Sam Segal: "The Genter Plants in the Altar." In: ''De arte et libris.'' Erasmus 1934-1984, Amsterdam 1984. </ref> In 1996, German biologist Esther Gallwitz published a plant guide to the flora of the Ghent altar, describing their symbolism<ref name=esther>{{Cite book |last=Gallwitz |first=Esther |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37204250 |title=Ein wunderbarer Garten : die Pflanzen des Genter Altars |date=1996 |publisher=Insel |isbn=3-458-33553-6 |edition=1. Aufl |location=Frankfurt am Main |oclc=37204250 |access-date=2022-11-12 |archive-date=2024-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412051025/https://search.worldcat.org/title/37204250 |url-status=live }}</ref> and in 2018, the latest critical examination after restoration of the Ghent altar piece found 75 plants, 48 of which could be determined with certainty and 44 of which appear on the panel of the adoration of the lamb, according to the exhibition catalogue.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crombrugge |first=Hilde van |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/963785419 |title=Een wonderbaarlijke tuin : Flora op het Lam Gods = Un jardin miraculeux : la flore sur L'Agneau mystique = A miraculous garden : flora on the Ghent Altarpiece |year=2016 |isbn=978-90-74311-95-3 |location=Gent |publisher=Provinciebestuur Oost-Vlaanderen |pages=23 |oclc=963785419 |access-date=2022-11-12 |archive-date=2024-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412051048/https://search.worldcat.org/title/963785419 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Closed view==
[[File:Jan van Eyck - The Ghent Altarpiece - Prophet Micheas - WGA07680.jpg|right|thumb|340px|Detail of the prophet [[Micah (prophet)|Micah]] in the right [[lunette]]]]
The altarpiece measures 375 × 260&nbsp;cm when the shutters are closed. The upper panels contain [[lunettes]] showing prophets and [[Sibyls]] looking down on the annunciation; the lower tier shows the donors on the far left and right panels flanked by saints.<ref name="p212">Pächt (1999), 212</ref> The exterior panels are executed with relative sparseness in comparison to the often fantastical colour and abundance of the interior scenes. Their settings are earthly, pared down and relatively simple. Yet there is the same striking use of illusionism which also characterises the inner panels; this is especially true of the faux stone [[grisaille]] statues of the saints. Lighting is used to great effect to create the impression of depth;<ref name="b25" /> van Eyck handles the fall of light and casting of shadow to make the viewer feel as if the pictorial space is influenced or lit by light entering from the chapel in which he stands.

[[File:Hubert van Eyck 009.jpg|thumb|140px|left|Detail showing the [[Erythraean Sibyl]]]]
The figures in the lunettes refer to prophecies of the coming of Christ. The far left lunette shows the prophet [[Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)|Zechariah]] and the far right one shows [[Micah (prophet)|Micah]]. The two much taller inner shutters show the [[Erythraean Sibyl]] (on the left) and the [[Cumaean Sibyl]] on the right. Each panel includes a text inscribed on a floating ribbon or "[[Banderole (speech scroll)|banderole]]", while the identities of the figures are carved on the lower border of each panel. Zechariah's text, taken from Zechariah 9:9, reads {{sc2|''EXULTA SATIS FILIA SYON JUBILA ECCE REX TUUS VENIT''}} ("Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion&nbsp;... behold, your king comes"), while the Erythraean Sibyl's words are {{sc2|''NIL MORTALE SONAS AFFLATA ES NUMINE CELSO''}} ("Sounding nothing mortal you are inspired by power from on high").<ref name="aeneid">Virgil, Aeneid, 6:50 "nec mortale sonans, adflata est numine"</ref> To the right the Cumaean Sibyl's reads {{sc2|''REX ALTISSIMUS ADVENIET PER SECULA FUTURUS SCILICET IN CARNE''}} ("The Highest King shall come and shall be in the flesh through the ages").<ref name="r43">Ridderbos et al. (2004), 43</ref>

[[File:Hubert van Eyck 028.jpg|thumb|140px|Detail showing the [[Cumaean Sibyl]]]]
Zechariah and Micah look down on the fulfilment of their prophecies contained in the banderoles floating behind them. The Erythraean Sibyl is shown observing, while the Cumaean Sibyl, wearing a green dress with thick fur sleeves, gazes down at Mary, her hand held in empathy over her own womb.<ref name="j376">Jolly (1998), 376</ref> Micah's lunette employs one of the first instances of an illusionistic motif best known from [[Petrus Christus]]'s ''[[Portrait of a Carthusian]]'' (c.1446), wherein the sense of the boundary between the painting, frame and viewer's space becomes blurred. In this instance, the prophet knowingly places his hand outwards on the lower border of the frame.

In October 1428 van Eyck was a member of a Burgundian embassy sent to secure the hand of Isabella,
eldest daughter of [[John I of Portugal]] (1385–1433) for Philip. After a storm forced them to spend four weeks in England, the Burgundians arrived in Lisbon in December. In January, they met the King in the castle of Aviz, and van Eyck painted the Infanta's portrait, probably in two versions, to accompany the two separate groups who left by sea and by land on 12 February to report the terms to the Duke. The portraits are untraced, but one is preserved in a drawing (Germany, priv. col., see Sterling, fig.), which indicates that Jan used the princess's Portuguese dress for the Erythrean sibyl on the Ghent Altarpiece.<ref>The Oxford Art Online – Jan van Eyck</ref><!-- ???? replace this -->

In the mid-20th century, art historian Volker Herzner noted the facial similarity between the Cumaean Sibyl and Philip's wife [[Isabella of Portugal, Duchess of Burgundy|Isabella of Portugal]], especially as she is portrayed in van Eyck's lost [[Portrait of Isabella of Portugal (van Eyck)|1428–29 betrothal portrait]].{{efn-ua|The portrait is known today from a 17th-century pencil copy. Other art historians have suggested that the Virgin in van Eyck's Washington ''[[Annunciation (van Eyck, Washington)|Annunciation]]'' bears Isabella's face. See Wolff, Hand (1987), 81}} Herzner speculated that the text in the [[banderole]] in the sibyl's panel has a double meaning, referring not only to the coming of Christ but also to the 1432 birth of Philip's first son and heir to survive infancy. Others reject this idea, given the high rates of infant mortality at the time, and the connotations of bad luck usually associated with acclaiming a son before he is born.<ref name="r58">Ridderbos at al. (2004), 58–9</ref>

===Annunciation===
Beneath the lunettes are the four panels of the upper register. The two outer panels of the middle register show the [[Annunciation to Mary]], with the [[Archangel Gabriel]] on the left and the Virgin Mary on the right. Both are dressed in white robes and occupy what appear to be the opposite ends of the same room.<ref name="B31" /> Gabriel and Mary's panels are separated by two much narrower images showing unoccupied domestic interior scenes.<ref name="h99"/> The back wall in the left-hand image has a window opening onto a view of the street and city square,<ref name="B31" /> while that in the right-hand image has a niche.<ref name="b25" /> Some art historians have attempted to associate the street with an actual location in Ghent, but it is generally accepted that it is not modelled on any specific place.<ref name="h81" /> The sparseness of these narrow panels seems anomalous in the overall context of the altarpiece; a number of art historians have suggested that they were compromises worked out by Jan as he struggled to accommodate his design within the original framework set out by Hubert.<!--there is much more on this--><ref name="j375" />

{{multiple image
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Mary and Gabriel are disproportionately large in relation to the scale of the rooms they occupy. Art historians agree that this follows the conventions of both the [[International Gothic]] and late [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] traditions of the [[icon]] by showing saints, especially Mary, in a much larger scale than their surroundings. In this instance their size is probably a device to convey the idea that they are heavenly apparitions who have come momentarily before the donors who are in the lower register. Van Eyck used this conceit most dramatically in his ''[[Madonna in the Church]]'' (c. 1438–40), which is likely a panel from a dismantled [[diptych]].<ref name="h99">Harbison (2012), p.&nbsp;99</ref>

Gabriel has blond hair and multicoloured wings. His right hand is raised and in his left he holds lilies, traditionally found in paintings of the annunciation as symbols of Mary's virginity.<ref name="j375">Jolly (1998), 375</ref><ref>Ridderbos et al. (2004), 19 & 77</ref> His words to Mary are written alongside him in Latin: {{sc2|''AVE GRACIA PLENA D(OMI)N(U)S TECU(M)''}} ("Hail who art full of grace, the Lord is with you"). The horizontal inscription extends out of the panel and halfway across the neighbouring image. As in van Eyck's Washington ''[[Annunciation (van Eyck, Washington)|Annunciation]]'' of c. 1434–6, the letters of Mary's reply are inscribed in reverse and upside-down; as if for God to read from heaven, or for the holy spirit, as represented by the dove, to read as he hovers directly above her. She answers {{sc2|''ECCE ANCILLA D(OMI)NI''}} ("Behold the handmaiden of the Lord").<ref>Harbison (1995), 82</ref>

[[File:Jan van eyck, annunciazione, dettaglio, 1434-36 circa.JPG|240px|thumb|The [[Archangel Gabriel]] in a cope with a jewelled [[Wiktionary:morse|morse]] (clasp) in [[Annunciation (van Eyck, Washington)|Jan van Eyck's ''Annunciation'']], 1434–36]]

Art historian Penny Jolly suggests that in the mid to late 1420s Jan may have traveled to Italy at the behest of the Duke of Burgundy where, in Florence, he probably saw an iconic 14th-century annunciation, and perhaps visited more contemporary annunciation scenes. The Florentine annunciations have a number of iconographic similarities to the Ghent panels, including Gabriel's multi-colored wings, the upside-down writing, the treatment of light beams, and the separation between angel and virgin by a thin architectural feature. Some of these elements, particularly the spatial separation between the two figures, can be found in [[Lorenzo Monaco]]'s ''[[Bartolini Salimbeni Annunciation]]'' in [[Santa Trinita]], finished before his death in 1424, and one that Jan may have seen. In Monaco's painting the angel and Mary are separated by two small spaces, one external and one internal, similar to the city-scape and domestic [[lavabo]] panels in the Ghent annunciation.<ref name="j375" /><!-- fix page numbers -->

The style of the furnishings of the room and the modernity of the town visible through the arched window set the panels in a contemporary 15th century setting. The interiors have been cited as one of the first representations of medieval "bourgeois domestic culture".<ref name="b27">Borchert (2011), 27</ref> Borchert sees this familiar setting as a device to allow 15th-century viewers to connect with the panel and so reinforce the conceit that the two saints are apparitions occupying the same space and time as the donor or observer.<ref name="b25">Borchert (2011), 25</ref> Yet a number of features in the interior suggest that it is not a secular domestic space, most obviously the cool and austere surfaces, the domed windows, and the stone columns.<ref name="b27" />

The four panels are most obviously connected by the floor tiling and [[vanishing point]].<ref name="b25" /> Shadows falling on the tiling at the lower right-hand corner of each panel can only have been cast by the moulding on the frames, that is, from an area outside of the pictorial space.<ref name="p13">Pächt (1999), 13</ref>

===Saints and donors===
The figures in the panels on the lower register are positioned within uniform [[Niche (architecture)|niche]]s. The outer panels show the [[donor portrait|donors]] Joost Vijdt and his wife Lysbette Borluut,<ref name="p126" /> kneeling and gazing into the distance with their hands clasped together in veneration. The inner panels contain paintings of Saint John the Baptist and Saint [[John the Evangelist]]. They are rendered in [[grisaille]] giving the illusion of sculpture.<ref name="p169">Pächt (1999), 169</ref> As with most of the other panels on these wings, they are lit from the right.<ref name="h81" /> Shadows thrown by the figures establish depth and bring realism to both the faux statues and their painted niches.<ref name="borchert30">Borchert (2011), 30</ref>

Each saint stands on a stone [[plinth]] inscribed with his name. John the Baptist, the son of the priest [[Zechariah (priest)|Zechariah]] (not to be confused with the prophet of the same name shown on the upper register), holds a lamb in his left arm and is turned towards Joost Vijdt. His right hand is raised and his finger extended to point towards the lamb, a gesture that implies that he is reciting the [[Agnus Dei (liturgy)|Agnus Dei]]. John the Evangelist holds a [[chalice]], a reference to the early medieval tradition that he had ability with cures; he could drink poison from a cup without ill effects.<ref name ="J392">Jolly (1998), 392</ref>

The donors are painted life-size,<ref name="p169"/> and thus to a much larger scale than the saints; this is most noticeable in the relative sizes of their heads and hands. Their bright and warmly coloured clothes contrast sharply with the grey of the lifeless saints. Van Eyck brings a high degree of realism to his portrayal of the Vijdts; his study of the ailing couple in old age is unflinching and far from flattering. Details that reveal their ageing include Joost's watering eyes, wrinkled hands, warts, bald head and stubble streaked with grey. The folds of both figures' skin are meticulously detailed, as are their protruding veins and fingernails.<ref name="b30" />{{efn-ua|The panels resemble passages from van Eyck's c 1436 ''[[Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele]]'', and the manner of depicting the aged in such a way is characteristic of a number of works produced by the workshop after his death. See Borchert (2011), 30}} They are generally thought to be among the final panels completed for the altarpiece and are so dated to 1431 or the early months of 1432.<ref>Meiss (1952), 137</ref>

==History==
===Commission===
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Ghent Altarpiece G - Joos Vijdt.jpg
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| caption1 = Jodocus Vijd (d. 1439)
| image2 = Ghent Altarpiece G - Lysbette Borluut.jpg
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Jodocus (known as Joos) Vijd was a wealthy merchant and came from a family that had been influential in Ghent for several generations. His father, Vijd Nikolaas (d. 1412), had been close to [[Louis II of Flanders]]. Jodocus was one of the most senior and politically powerful citizens of Ghent. He was titled ''Seigneur'' of [[Oudenaarde|Pamele]] and [[Ledeberg]], and in a difficult and rebellious political climate, became one of the [[Duke of Burgundy]] [[Philip the Good]]'s most trusted local councilmen. Around 1398 Jodocus married Lysbette Borluut, also from an established city family.<ref name="B31">Borchert (2008), 31</ref>

The couple died childless. Their endowment to the church and the commissioning of the unprecedentedly monumental altarpiece was primarily intended to secure a legacy. But, according to Borchert, also to "secure his position in the hereafter" and, important to such an ambitious politician, demonstrate his social prestige, revealing, according to Borchert, a desire to "show off and&nbsp;... outstrip by far all other endowments to St John's, if not each and every other church and monastery in Ghent."<ref name="b32&3">Borchert (2008), 32–33</ref>

[[File:Rogier van der Weyden - Presentation Miniature, Chroniques de Hainaut KBR 9242.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Philip the Good]] presented with a History of Hainault, flanked by his son [[Charles the Bold|Charles]] and his chancellor [[Nicolas Rolin]]. [[Rogier van der Weyden]] miniature {{Circa|1447–48|lk=no}}.|alt=]]

Ghent prospered through the early 15th century, and a number of local councillors sought to establish a sense of independence from Burgundian rule. Philip was in financial difficulty and asked the city for revenue, a burden many city councillors felt unreasonable and could ill afford, financially or politically. The situation became tense, and because there was division within the council over the burden, this led to a mistrust that meant council membership was dangerous and precarious. During a power play in 1432, a number of councillors were murdered, seemingly for their loyalty to Philip. Tensions came to with head in a [[Revolt of Ghent (1449–53)|1433 revolt]], which ended with the [[Decapitation|beheading]] of the councillors who had acted as ringleaders.<ref name="h37">Hagen et al., 37</ref>

Throughout Vijd stayed loyal to Philip. His position as warden at St. John the Baptist's church (now [[Saint Bavo Cathedral]]) reflects this; the church was favoured by the Burgundians for official ceremonies held in Ghent. On the day of the altarpiece's consecration, 6 May 1432, Philip's and [[Isabella of Portugal, Duchess of Burgundy|Isabella of Portugal]]'s son was baptised there, indicating Vijd's status at the time.<ref name="b32">Borchert (2008), 32</ref>

As warden (''kerkmeester'') of St. John's, Vijd between 1410 and 1420 not only financed the construction of the principal chapel's [[Bay (architecture)|bay]], but endowed a new chapel near the [[Choir (architecture)|choir]], which took his family name and was regularly to hold masses in his and his ancestors' memory. It was for this new chapel that he commissioned [[Hubert van Eyck]] to create an unusually large and complex polyptych altarpiece.<ref name="B31" /> He was recorded as a donor on an inscription on the original, but now lost, frame. The chapel was dedicated to St. John the Baptist,<ref name="b17">Borchert (2008), 17</ref> whose traditional [[emblem|attribute]] is the Lamb of God, a symbol of Christ.<ref>"[http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/bartolome-esteban-murillo-the-infant-saint-john-with-the-lamb The Infant Saint John with the Lamb] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829103126/http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/bartolome-esteban-murillo-the-infant-saint-john-with-the-lamb |date=2012-08-29 }}". [[National Gallery]], London. Retrieved 5 April 2021</ref>

===First major restoration===
The first significant restoration was carried out in 1550 by the painters [[Lancelot Blondeel]] and [[Jan van Scorel]], following the earlier and poorly executed cleaning by Jan van Scorel, that led to damage to the [[predella]].<ref name="P120ff">Pächt (1999), 120</ref> The 1550 undertaking was performed with a care and reverence that a contemporary account writes of "such love that they kissed that skilful work in art in many places".<ref>Nash (2008), 67</ref> The predella was destroyed by fire in the 16th century.<ref>Pächt (1999), 132</ref> Comprising a strip of small square panels<ref>Charney (2010), 15</ref> and executed in water based paints, it showed hell or [[limbo]] with Christ arriving to redeem those about to be saved. During the [[Protestant Reformation]] the piece was moved out of the chapel to prevent damage in the ''[[Beeldenstorm]]'', first to the attic and later to the [[Ghent City Hall|town hall]], where it remained for two decades.<ref name="P120ff" /> In 1662 the Ghent painter [[Antoon van den Heuvel]] was commissioned to clean the Ghent Altarpiece.<ref>Voll (1906), 245</ref>

===Later history===
The altarpiece has been moved several times over the centuries.<ref name="P120ff" /> Art historian [[Noah Charney]] describes the altarpiece as one of the more coveted and desired pieces of art, the victim of 13 crimes since its installation,<ref>Charney (2010), x</ref> and seven thefts.<ref>Charney (2010), 1</ref> After the [[French Revolution]] the altarpiece was among a number of art works plundered in today's Belgium and taken to Paris where they were exhibited at the [[Musée du Louvre|Louvre]]. It was returned to Ghent in 1815 after the French defeat at the [[Battle of Waterloo]].<ref name="Deam3">Deam (1998), 3</ref>

The painting's wings (not including the Adam and Eve panels)<ref name="Deam3" /> were pawned in 1815 by the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Ghent|Diocese of Ghent]] for the equivalent of £240. When the diocese failed to redeem them, many of them were sold by the dealer Nieuwenhuys in 1816 to the English collector [[Edward Solly]] for £4,000 in Berlin.<ref name="nazi contraband">Kurtz (2004), 24</ref> They were sold in 1821 to the King of Prussia, [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]] for £16,000, an enormous sum at the time and [[List of most expensive paintings|the highest for a painting]] at the time and for many decades they were exhibited in the [[Gemäldegalerie, Berlin]].<ref name="nazi contraband" /><ref>Reitlinger (1961), 130</ref> The panels still in Ghent were damaged by fire in 1822, and the separately hinged Adam and Eve panels sent to a museum in Brussels.<ref name="P120ff" />

During [[World War I]], other panels were taken from the cathedral by German forces. Under the terms of the [[Versailles Treaty|Treaty of Versailles]] and its subsequent [[World War I reparations|reparations]] transfers, in 1920 Germany returned the pilfered panels, along with the original panels that had been legitimately bought by Solly, to help compensate for other German "acts of destruction" during the war.<ref name="nazi contraband" /> The Germans "bitterly resented the loss of the panels".<ref name="nazi contraband" /> In 1934, ''The Just Judges'' and ''Saint John the Baptist'' panels were stolen. The panel of ''Saint John the Baptist'' was returned by the thief as a goodwill gesture, but the ''Just Judges'' panel is still missing.<ref name="P120ff" /><ref>Lee, Alexander, [https://www.historytoday.com/archive/missing-pieces/theft-ghent-altarpiece?utm_source=Weekly+Newsletter&utm_campaign=31c4dca59f-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2017_09_20_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_fceec0de95-31c4dca59f-473541&mc_cid=31c4dca59f&mc_eid=8953632cc0 "The Theft of the Ghent Altarpiece"], ''History Today'', Vol. 74, Issue 6, June 2024</ref> [[Albert Camus]] in ''[[The Fall (Camus novel)|The Fall]]'' imagines it is kept by the protagonist, Clamence, in his Amsterdam apartment.

[[File:Ghent altarpiece at Altaussee.jpg|thumb|280px|The ''Ghent Altarpiece'' during recovery from the [[Altaussee]] salt mine at the end of World War II]]

In 1940, at the start of another invasion by Germany, a decision was made in Belgium to send the altarpiece to the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] to keep it safe during [[World War II]].<ref name="nazi contraband" /> The painting was ''en route'' to the Vatican, but still in [[France]], when [[Italy]] declared war as an [[Axis powers|Axis power]] alongside Germany. The painting was stored in a museum in [[Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Pau]] for the duration of the war, with French, Belgian and German military representatives signing an agreement which required the consent of all three before the masterpiece could be moved.<ref name="nazi contraband" /> In 1942, [[Adolf Hitler]] ordered the painting to be seized and brought to Germany to be stored in the [[Schloss Neuschwanstein]] in [[Bavaria]]. The seizure, led by senior museum administrator [[Ernst Buchner (curator)|Ernst Buchner]] and aided by officials in France, was ostensibly to protect the altarpiece from war. After Allied air raids made the castle too dangerous for the painting, it was stored in the [[Altaussee#Nazi repository for stolen art|Altaussee]] salt mines,<ref name="nazi contraband2">{{cite book|last=Kurtz|first=Michael J.|title=America and the Return of Nazi Contraband|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2006|isbn=0521849829|place=Cambridge|page=25|author-link=Michael J. Kurtz}}</ref> which greatly damaged the paint and varnish. Belgian and French authorities protested the seizing of the painting, and the head of the German army's Art Protection Unit was dismissed after he disagreed with the seizure.<ref name="nazi contraband2" /> Following the war, in 1945, the altarpiece was recovered by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] group [[Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives program]]{{efn-ua|The story of the recovery of the altarpiece, and many other great works, was at the heart of the 2014 film ''[[The Monuments Men]]''.<ref>{{cite news |date=February 15, 2014 |title=Monuments Men sought to return the most desired object in history |newspaper=Sfgate |url=https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Monuments-Men-sought-to-return-the-most-desired-5236683.php |access-date=April 28, 2019 |last1=Charney |first1=Noah |archive-date=April 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428130808/https://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Monuments-Men-sought-to-return-the-most-desired-5236683.php |url-status=live }}</ref>}} and returned to Belgium in a ceremony presided over by Belgian royalty at the [[Royal Palace of Brussels]], where the 17 panels were displayed for the press. French officials were not invited as the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government had allowed the Germans to remove the painting.<ref name="nazi contraband3">Kurtz (2006), 132</ref>

The Belgian art restorer [[Jef Van der Veken]] produced a copy of 'The Just Judges', as part of an overall restoration effort.

In addition to war damage, the panels were threatened during outbreaks of [[iconoclasm]], and have suffered fire damage.

===Restorations===
Another restoration began in 1950–51, due to damage sustained during the altarpiece's stay in the Austrian [[Nazi storage sites for art during World War II|mines during WWII]]. In this period, newly developed restoration technology, such as x-ray, was applied to the panels.<ref name="P120ff" />

[[File:Ghent Altarpiece - 21c restoration - Lamb of God detail.jpg|thumb|340px|The Lamb of God, before and after restoration]]
A program of restoration at the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent]] began in October 2012. With a budget of €2.2 million, the project was carried out by the [[Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage]] (KIK-IRPA).<ref>{{cite web|title=Ghent Altarpiece project|url=http://www.getty.edu/foundation/initiatives/current/panelpaintings/panel_paintings_ghent.html|publisher=[[Getty Foundation]]|access-date=2016-02-18|archive-date=2018-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180111004236/http://www.getty.edu/foundation/initiatives/current/panelpaintings/panel_paintings_ghent.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Only the panels being worked on were in the museum at any one time, with the others remained on display in the cathedral. At the museum the public could see the work in progress from behind a glass screen.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Museum voor Schone Kunsten Gent &#124; MSK Gent|url=https://www.mskgent.be/nl|website=www.mskgent.be|access-date=2020-08-26|archive-date=2021-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230200232/https://www.mskgent.be/nl|url-status=live}}</ref>

The eight outer panels were restored between 2012 and 2016; some 70% of the outer panels' surface had been overpainted in the 16th century, a subtle discovery made possible by advances in imaging techniques during the 2010s. Mathematician Ingrid Daubechies and a group of collaborators developed new mathematical techniques to both reverse the effects of aging and untangle and remove the effects of past ill-fated conservation efforts. Using highly precise photographs and X-rays of the panels as well as various filtering methods, the team of mathematicians found a way to automatically detect the cracks caused by aging.  They were able to decipher the apparent text of the polyptych, which was attributed to Thomas Aquinas.<ref name=restoration>{{cite web | title=Using Mathematics to Repair a Masterpiece | website=Quanta Magazine | date=29 September 2016 | url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/using-mathematics-to-repair-a-masterpiece-20160929/ | ref={{sfnref | Quanta Magazine | 2016}} | access-date=6 August 2021 | archive-date=22 September 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922160726/https://www.quantamagazine.org/using-mathematics-to-repair-a-masterpiece-20160929 | url-status=live }}</ref>

Restoration of the five lower panels took three years, was completed in January 2020, and they were returned to St Bavo's Cathedral.<ref>{{Cite web|author=McGivern, Hannah|date=18 December 2019|title=Ghent Altarpiece: latest phase of restoration unmasks the humanised face of the Lamb of God|url=http://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/facelift-for-the-mystic-lamb|access-date=2020-01-23|website=The Art Newspaper|archive-date=2020-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124224457/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/facelift-for-the-mystic-lamb|url-status=live}}</ref> The uncovering of the original face of the Lamb of God was a notable change;<ref>{{Cite web|last=Güner|first=Fisun|title=The restoration that shocked the world|url=http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20200201-is-this-the-first-view-of-god-the-father-in-art|access-date=2020-03-27|website=www.bbc.com|date=3 February 2020 |language=en|archive-date=2020-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401072915/http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20200201-is-this-the-first-view-of-god-the-father-in-art|url-status=live}}</ref> the original Lamb has unusually humanoid features, with forward-facing eyes that appear to look directly at the viewer of the panel.<ref>{{Cite news|date=January 22, 2020|title=Art restored with 'alarmingly humanoid' lamb face|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51205614|access-date=January 22, 2020|archive-date=September 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927025500/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51205614|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of works by Jan van Eyck]]

==References==
{{notelist-ua|30em}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|25em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Ainsworth, Maryan Wynn. ''From Van Eyck to Bruegel: Early Netherlandish painting in the Metropolitan Museum of Art''. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999. {{ISBN|978-0-3000-8609-6}}
* [[Till-Holger Borchert|Borchert, Till-Holger]]. ''Van Eyck''. London: Taschen, 2008. {{ISBN|3-8228-5687-8}}
* Borchert, Till-Holger. ''Van Eyck to Durer: The Influence of Early Netherlandish painting on European Art, 1430–1530''. London: Thames & Hudson, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0-5210-8831-2}}
* Boorman, Stanley (ed). ''Studies in the Performance of Late Medieval Music''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-521-08831-3}}
* Burroughs, Bryson. "A Diptych by Hubert van Eyck". ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', Volume 28, No. 11, Pt 1, 1933
* [[Lorne Campbell (art historian)|Campbell, Lorne]]. ''The Fifteenth-Century Netherlandish Schools''. London, National Gallery, 1998. {{ISBN|978-0-3000-7701-8}}
* Charney, Noah. ''Stealing the Mystic Lamb''. New York: Public Affairs. 2010. {{ISBN|978-1586-48800-0}}
* [[Kenneth Clark|Clark, Kenneth]]. ''The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form''. Princeton University Press, 1972. {{ISBN|978-0691-01788-4}}
* Deam, Lisa. "Flemish versus Netherlandish: A Discourse of Nationalism". ''Renaissance Quarterly'', Volume 51, No. 1, Spring 1998 
* Deneffe, Dominique & Jeroen Reyniers, [https://www.kikirpa.be/fr/publications/the-ghent-altarpiece?lang=fr The Ghent Altarpiece. A Bibliography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021091833/https://www.kikirpa.be/fr/publications/the-ghent-altarpiece?lang=fr |date=2021-10-21 }}, Contributions to the Study of the Flemish Primitives, 15, Brussels, 2019, 96p.{{ISBN|978-2-930054-39-1}}
* [[Elisabeth Dhanens|Dhanens, Elisabeth]]. ''Hubert and Jan van Eyck''. New York: Tabard Press. 1980. {{ISBN|978-0-9144-2700-1}}
* Hammer, Karl. ''Secret of the sacred panel''. London: Stacey International, 2010. {{ISBN|978-1-9067-6845-4}}
* [[Craig Harbison|Harbison, Craig]]. "The Art of the Northern Renaissance". London: Laurence King Publishing, 1995. {{ISBN|978-1-78067-027-0}}
* Homa, Ramsay. "Jan van Eyck and the Ghent Altar-Piece". ''The Burlington Magazine'', Volume 116, No. 855, 1974
* Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John. "A World History of Art". London: Laurence King Publishing, 2005. {{ISBN|1-85669-451-8}}
* Jolly, Penny. "Jan van Eyck's Italian Pilgrimage: A Miraculous Florentine Annunciation and the Ghent Altarpiece". ''Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte''. 61. Bd., H. 3, 1998 
* Kurtz, Michael. ''America and the Return of Nazi Contraband''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-521-84982-1}}
* Lane, Barbara. ''The Altar and the Altarpiece, Sacramental Themes in Early Netherlandish Painting''. London: Harper & Row, 1984. {{ISBN|978-0-0643-0133-6}}
* McNamee, W.B. "The Origin of the Vested Angel as a Eucharistic Symbol in Flemish Painting". ''The Art Bulletin'', Volume 53, No. 3, 1972
* Meiss, Millard. "'Nicholas Albergati' and the Chronology of Jan van Eyck's Portraits". ''The Burlington Magazine'', Volume 94, No. 590, 1952 
* Nash, Susie. ''Northern Renaissance art''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-1928-4269-5}}
* Pächt, Otto. ''Van Eyck and the Founders of Early Netherlandish Painting''. 1999. London: Harvey Miller Publishers. {{ISBN|978-1-8725-0128-4}}
* Reitlinger, Gerald. ''The Economics of Taste, Vol I: The Rise and Fall of Picture Prices 1760–1960''. London: Barrie and Rockliffe, 1961
* Ridderbos, Bernhard; van Buren, Anne; van Veen, Henk. ''Early Netherlandish paintings: Rediscovery, Reception and Research''. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|90-5356-614-7}}
* Schmidt, Peter. ''Het Lam Gods''. Leuven: Uitgeverij Davidsfonds, 2005. {{ISBN|90-77942-03-3}}
* Seidel, Linda. "The Value of Verisimilitude in the Art of Jan van Eyck". ''Yale French Studies'': Special Issue: "Contexts: Style and Values in Medieval Art and Literature", 1991
* Snyder, James. "Jan van Eyck and Adam's Apple". ''The Art Bulletin'', Volume 58, No. 4, 1976 
* Voll, Karl. ''Die Altniederländische Malerei von Jan van Eyck bis Memling''. Poeschel & Kippenberg, 1906
* Wolff, Martha; Hand, John Oliver. ''Early Netherlandish painting''. National Gallery of Art Washington; Oxford University Press, 1987. {{ISBN|978-0-5213-4016-8}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ghent Altarpiece by Jan van Eyck}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181107011644/http://www.lukasweb.be/en/search/content/The%20Ghent%20Altarpiece The authorized images of the Saint-Bavo's Cathedral] (archived)
* [http://closertovaneyck.kikirpa.be Closer to Van Eyck: Rediscovering the ''Ghent Altarpiece''] Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage (Belgium). Zoomable 100 billion pixels high-resolution macro photography, infrared reflectography and X-radiography of the ''Ghent Altarpiece''.
* [http://balat.kikirpa.be/object/21 The ''Ghent Altarpiece'' on BALaT – Belgian Art Links and Tools (KIK-IRPA, Brussels)]
* [http://www.rechtvaardigerechters.be The Just Judges Without a Trace, The Historical - Correct - Facts]
* [https://lightsonvaneyck.be/experience/ LIGHTS ON VAN EYCK - a light and sound experience and tribute to the Flemish Master Jan Van Eyck]
* [https://artsandculture.google.com/story/igVxmZszGRczIA Online exhibition]

{{Jan van Eyck}}
{{Authority control (arts)}}

[[Category:1432 paintings]]
[[Category:Gothic paintings]]
[[Category:Paintings by Jan van Eyck]]
[[Category:Polyptychs]]
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[[Category:Stolen works of art]]
[[Category:Paintings of Adam and Eve]]
[[Category:Cultural depictions of Cain and Abel]]
[[Category:Culture of Ghent]]
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[[Category:Altarpieces]]
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