View source for Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)

{{short description|Feudal state in Southern Europe}}
{{broader|Kingdom of Sardinia}}

{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = {{native name|la|Regnum Sardiniae}}<br>{{native name|ca|Regne de Sardenya}}<br>{{native name|es|Reino de Cerdeña}}<br>{{native name|sc|Rennu de Sardigna}}<br> {{native name|it|Regno di Sardegna}}<br> {{native name|co|Regnu di Sardegna}}
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Sardinia
| common_name            = {{plainlist|
* Sardinia
}}
| year_start             = 1324
| year_end               = 1720
| image_flag             = Flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia (1324-1720).svg
| flag_type              = [[Flag of Sardinia|Flag]]<ref name="Rbvex.it">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbvex.it/sardegna.html |title=Bandiere degli Stati preunitari italiani: Sardegna |website=Rbvex.it|language=it|access-date=31 May 2019 |archive-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531182859/http://www.rbvex.it/sardegna.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image_coat             = Cross of Alcoraz Arms.svg
| symbol_type            = [[#Flags, royal standards, and coats of arms|Coat of arms]]
| image_map              = Kingdom of Sardinia & Royal cities - 16th century.png
| image_map_caption      = Map of the Kingdom of Sardinia
| status                 = Non-sovereign kingdom
| status_text            = {{plainlist|
* Associate state of the [[Crown of Aragon]] and the [[Spanish Empire]] (1324–1708, 1717–1720)
* Part of [[Habsburg Empire|Austria]] (1708–1717)
}}
| capital                = [[Cagliari]]
| common_languages       = [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], [[Corsican language|Corsican]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Ingrassia|editor-first1=Giorgia|editor-last2=Blasco Ferrer|editor-first2=Eduardo|year=2009|title=Storia della lingua sarda<!-- See also https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zrph.2011.117/html -->|language=it|volume=3|location=Sassari|publisher=Cuec Editrice|isbn=978-8-88467-543-9}}</ref>
| religion               = [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] ([[State religion|official]])
| demonym                = Sardinian
| government_type        = [[Feudal monarchy]]
| title_leader           = [[List of monarchs of Sardinia|King]]
| leader1                = [[James II of Aragon|James II]]
| year_leader1           = 1324–1327 (first)
| leader2                = [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]]
| year_leader2           = 1720 (last before the Savoyard rule)
| era                    = {{ubl|[[Middle Ages]]|[[Early modern]]|[[Late modern]]}}
| event_pre              = [[Treaty of Anagni|Papal investiture]]
| date_pre               = 1297
| event_start            = [[Battle of Lucocisterna|Actual establishment]]
| event1                 = [[Habsburg monarchy|Became Habsburg]]
| date_event1            = 1708
| event2                 = [[Spanish conquest of Sardinia|Spanish reconquest]]
| date_event2            = 1717
| event3                 = [[Treaty of The Hague (1720)|Became part of Savoy]]
| date_event3            = 1720
| event_end              = [[Perfect Fusion]] with [[Duchy of Savoy|Piedmont]]
| currency               = {{plainlist|
* [[Cagliarese]] 
* [[Sardinian scudo]]
}}
| p1                     = Judicate of Arborea
| flag_p1                = Flag of the Giudicato of Arborea.svg
| p2                     = Republic of Pisa
| flag_p2                = Flag of the Republic of Pisa.svg
| p3                     = Republic of Sassari
| flag_p3                = Flag_of_Sassari_(1259%E2%80%931323).svg
| p8                     = Crown of Aragon
| flag_p8                = Royal Banner of Aragón.svg
| s1                     = Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)
| flag_s1                = State Flag of the Savoyard States (late 16th - late 18th century).svg
| today                  = [[Italy]]
}}
The '''Kingdom of Sardinia''' was a [[feudal]] state in [[Southern Europe]] created in the early 14th century and a possession of the [[Crown of Aragon]] first and then of the [[Spanish Empire]] until 1708, then of the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburgs]] until 1717, and then of the Spanish Empire again until 1720.

The kingdom was a part of the [[Crown of Aragon]] and initially consisted of the islands of [[Sardinia]] and a claim to the island of [[Corsica]], sovereignty over both of which was claimed by the [[papacy]], which granted them as a [[fief]], the {{lang|la|Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae}} (Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica),{{refn|The name of the state was originally {{lang|la|Regnum Sardiniae}} or {{lang|la|Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae}} (when the kingdom was still considered to include Corsica) in Latin. It is {{lang|it|Regno di Sardegna}} in Italian, {{lang|sc|Rennu de Sardigna}} {{IPA|sc|ˈrenːu ðɛ zaɾˈdiɲːa|}} in Sardinian, {{lang|pms|Regn ëd Sardëgna}} in Piedmontese, {{lang|co|Regnu di Sardegna}} in Corsican, {{lang|es|Reino de Cerdeña}} in Spanish, {{lang|ca|Regne de Sardenya}} {{IPA|ca|ˈrɛŋnə ðə səɾˈðɛɲə|}} in Catalan, and {{lang|fr|Royaume de Sardaigne}} in French. Despite this, every [[king of Sardinia]] continued to retain the nominal title of {{lang|la|Rex Corsicae}} (King of Corsica). The kingdom was initially called {{lang|la|Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae}}, in that it was originally meant to also include the neighbouring island of Corsica, until its status as a [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] land was eventually acknowledged by [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Casùla |first=Francesco Cesare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSdXAwAAQBAJ |title=Italia. <!-- - --> Il grande inganno. 1861–2011 |publisher=Carlo Delfino Editore; Logus mondi interattivi (e-book) |year=2012 <!-- 12-18 --> |isbn=978-88-98062-13-3 |edition=e-book |location=Sassari; Ussana |pages=44–45 |language=it |access-date=20 December 2024 |via=Google Books}}</ref> who dropped the last original bit mentioning Corsica in 1479.<ref>{{cite book |last=Casùla |first=Francesco Cesare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eSdXAwAAQBAJ |title=Italia. <!-- - --> Il grande inganno. 1861–2011 |publisher=Carlo Delfino Editore; Logus mondi interattivi (e-book) |year=2012 <!-- 12-18 --> |isbn=978-88-98062-13-3 |edition=e-book |location=Sassari; Ussana |pages=32–49 |language=it |quote=... 1479, Regno di 'Sardegna e Corsica' malgrado non rappresentasse tutta la Sardegna e malgrado la Corsica non fosse interessata ma considerata solo ambita (non sarà mai conquistata). Poi, dal 1479, si chiamo solo Regno di Sardegna ... poi solo Regno di Sardegna (fino al 1861), poi Regno d'Italia (fino al 1946), e, finalmente, Repubblica Italiana. E, tutto questo, senza alcuna soluzione di continuità. |trans-quote=... 1479, Kingdom of 'Sardinia and Corsica' even though it did not represent all of Sardinia and even though Corsica was not interested but only considered coveted (it will never be conquered). Then, from 1479, it was called only the Kingdom of Sardinia ... then only the Kingdom of Sardinia (until 1861), then the Kingdom of Italy (until 1946), and, finally, the Italian Republic. And, all this, without any solution of continuity. |access-date=20 December 2024 |via=Google Books}}</ref>|group=nb}} to King [[James II of Aragon]] in 1297. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors [[Aragonese conquest of Sardinia|conquered the island of Sardinia]] and established ''[[de facto]]'' their ''[[de jure]]'' authority. In 1420, after the [[Sardinian–Aragonese war]], the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning [[Spanish Empire]].

In 1720, the island was ceded by the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] and [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] claimants to the Spanish throne to the [[Duke of Savoy]], [[Victor Amadeus II of Savoy]]. Sardinia retained its autonomous institutions according to the [[Treaty of The Hague (1720)|treaty of cession]] until 1847, when [[King Charles Albert]] enacted the [[Perfect Fusion]], which expanded to the island the centralized administrative system which was adopted by the mainland [[Savoyard state]] during the [[Napoleonic era]].

== Early history ==
{{main|History of Sardinia|List of monarchs of Sardinia}}
In 238 BC, Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a [[Corsica and Sardinia|joint province]] of the [[Roman Republic]]. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century when it was occupied by the [[Vandals]], who had also [[Vandalic Kingdom|settled in north Africa]]. In 534 AD it was [[Vandalic War|reconquered]] by the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire]]. It remained a Byzantine province until the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]] in the 9th century. After that, communications with the Byzantine capital, [[Constantinople]], became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land.

Starting from 705 to 706, [[Saracens]] from north Africa ([[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|recently conquered]] by Arab armies) harassed the population of the coastal cities. Facing Arab attempts to sack and conquer the island, while having almost no outside help, Sardinia used the principle of ''[[translatio imperii]]'' ("transfer of rule") and continued to organize itself along the ancient Roman and Byzantine model. The island was not the personal property of the ruler and of his family, as was then the dominant practice in western Europe, but rather a separate entity and during the Byzantine rule, a [[Sardinian medieval kingdoms|monarchical republic]], as it had been since Roman times.

Information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. Due to Saracen attacks, in the 9th century [[Tharros]] was abandoned in favor of [[Oristano]], after more than 1800 years of occupation; [[Cagliari|Caralis]], [[Porto Torres]], and numerous other coastal centres suffered the same fate. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from the [[Balearics]], commanded by [[Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī]] (Latinized as ''Museto''). The Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the [[Sardinian medieval kingdoms|Judicates]] with the support of the fleets of the [[maritime republics]] of [[Republic of Pisa|Pisa]] and [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]]. Pope [[Benedict VIII]] also requested aid from the two maritime republics in the struggle against the Arabs.<ref>B. MARAGONIS, Annales pisani a.1004–1175, ed. K. PERTZ, in MGH, Scriptores, 19, Hannoverae, 1861/1963, pp. 236–2 and Gli Annales Pisani di Bernardo Maragone, a cura di M. L.GENTILE, in Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, n.e., VI/2, Bologna 1930, pp. 4–7. "1017. Fuit Mugietus reversus in Sardineam, et cepit civitatem edificare ibi atque homines Sardos vivos in cruce murare. Et tunc Pisani et Ianuenses illuc venere, et ille propter pavorem eorum fugit in Africam. Pisani vero et Ianuenses reversi sunt Turrim, in quo insurrexerunt Ianuenses in Pisanos, et Pisani vicerunt illos et eiecerunt eos de Sardinea."</ref>

After the [[East–West Schism]], Rome made many efforts to restore [[Liturgical Latinisation|Latinity]] to the Sardinian church,{{dubious|Where is the evidence that Greek Rite was introduced or became common in Sardinia? The island was never, e.g. under the Patriarchate of Constantinople|date=November 2022}} politics and society, and to finally reunify the island under one Catholic ruler, as it had been for all of southern Italy, when the Byzantines had been driven away by Catholic [[Normans]]. Even the title of "Judge" was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state,<ref>{{cite web|title=Periodi storici – Giudicale|url=https://www.sardegnacultura.it/periodistorici/giudicale/|access-date=2 August 2021|website=Sardegna Cultura|language=it}}</ref> in times of harsh relations between eastern and western churches ([[Massacre of the Latins]], 1182, [[Siege of Constantinople (1204)]], [[Recapture of Constantinople]], 1261).

Before the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, the [[archon]]s ({{langx|grc|ἄρχοντες}}), or {{lang|la|judices}} in Latin,<ref>C. Zedda-R. Pinna, La nascita dei giudicati, proposta per lo scioglimento di un enigma storiografico, su Archivio Storico Giuridico Sardo di Sassari, vol. n°12, 2007, Dipartimento di Scienze Giuridiche dell'Università di Sassari</ref><ref>F. Pinna, Le testimonianze archeologiche relative ai rapporti tra gli Arabi e la Sardegna nel medioevo, in Rivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, n°4, 2010</ref> who reigned in the island from the 9th or 10th century until the beginning of the 11th century, can be considered real kings of all Sardinia ({{lang|grc|Κύριε βοήθε ιοῦ δούλου σου Tουρκοτουρίου ἅρχωντοσ Σαρδινίας καί τής δούλης σου Γετιτ}}),<ref>Archeological museum of Cagliari, from Santa Sofia church in Villasor</ref><ref>Georg Heinrich (ed.), MGH, Scriptores, Hannoverae, 1863, XVIII, pp. 56–96."Antiquitas nostra primum Calarense iudicatum, quod tunc erat caput tocius Sardinie, armis subiugavit, et regem Sardinie Musaitum nomine civitati Ianue captum adduxerunt, quem per episcopum qui tunc Ianue erat, aule sacri palatii in Alamanniam mandaverunt, intimantes regnum illius nuper esse additum ditioni Romani imperii." –Oberti Cancellarii, ''Annales'' p. 71.</ref><ref>Crónica del califa 'Abd ar-Rahmân III an-Nâsir entre los años 912–942,(al-Muqtabis V), édicion. a cura de P. CHALMETA – F. CORRIENTE, Madrid, 1979, p. 365 "Tuesday, August 24th 942 (A.D.), a messenger of the Lord of the island of Sardinia appeared at the gate of al-Nasir ... asking for a treaty of peace and friendship. With him were the merchants, people Malfat, known in al-Andalus as from Amalfi, with the whole range of their precious goods, ingots of pure silver, brocades etc. ... transactions which drew gain and great benefits"</ref> even though nominal vassals of the Byzantine emperors. Of these sovereigns, only two names are known: Turcoturiu and Salusiu ({{lang|grc|Tουρκοτουρίου βασιλικοῦ πρωτοσπαθαρίου}}<ref>Constantini Porphyrogeneti De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae, in Patrologia cursus completus. Series Graeca CXII, Paris 1857</ref> ({{lang|grc|καὶ Σαλουσίου των εὐγενεστάτων ἀρχόντων}}),<ref>Roberto Coroneo, Scultura mediobizantina in Sardegna, Nuoro, Poliedro, 2000</ref><ref>Roberto Coroneo, Arte in Sardegna dal IV alla metà dell'XI secolo, edizioni AV, Cagliari 2011</ref> who probably ruled in the 10th century. The archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the oldest documents left of the [[Judicate of Cagliari]] (the ''Carta Volgare''), issued by [[Torchitorio I of Cagliari|Torchitorio I de Lacon-Gunale]] in 1070, was already written in the [[Romance languages|Romance]] [[Sardinian language]], albeit with the [[Greek alphabet]].<ref>Ferrer, Eduardo Blasco (1984). ''Storia Linguistica Della Sardegna'', p. 65, De Gruyter</ref>

The realm was divided into four small kingdoms, the Judicates of [[Judicate of Cagliari|Cagliari]], [[Judicate of Arborea|Arborea]], [[Judicate of Gallura|Gallura]] and [[Judicate of Logudoro|Logudoro]], perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the [[papacy]], which claimed sovereignty over the entire island, and in particular of the [[Italian city-states|Italian states]] of Genoa and Pisa, that through alliances with the "judges" (the local rulers), secured their political and economic zones of influence. While Genoa was mostly, but not always, in the north and west regions of Sardinia, that is, in the Judicates of Gallura and Logudoro; Pisa was mostly, but not always, in the south and east, in the Judicates of Cagliari and Arborea.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Besta|first=Enrico|year=1933|title=Giudicati|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giudicati_(Enciclopedia-Italiana)|access-date=20 December 2024|encyclopedia=Enciclopedia Italiana|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=28 July 1998|title=Sardinia – Vandal and Byzantine rule|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sardinia-island-Italy|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213021322/https://www.britannica.com/place/Sardinia-island-Italy|archive-date=13 December 2024|access-date=20 December 2024|website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|postscript=. Updated 23 November 2024.}}</ref> That was the cause of conflicts leading to a long war between the Judges, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doria|first=Barisone|title=Archivo de la Corona d'Aragon. Colleccion de documentos inéditos|volume=XLVIII|language=es|quote=La senyoria no la tenim ne havem haùda ne del rey ne da regina, e no som tenguts a rey ne a regina axi com eren los dits harons de Sicilia, abans de la dita senyoria e domini obtenim per Madonna Elionor, nostra muller, che és jutgessa d'Arborea e filla e succehidora per son pare per lo jutgat d'Arborea, la qual Casa d'Arborea ha D anys que ha hauda senyioria en la present illa|trans-quote=We had our lordship not from any king or queen and have not to be loyal to any king or queen as sicilian Barons, because we had our lordship from Madonna Elionor, our wife, who is Lady Judge (''Juighissa'' in Sardinian) of Arborea, daughter and successor of her father of the Judicate of Arborea, and this House of Arborea has reigned for five hundreds years in this island.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=10 November 2017|title=Storia di Sardegna, Pisa e Genova in guerra per il dominio|url=https://www.lanuovasardegna.it/tempo-libero/2017/11/10/news/storia-di-sardegna-pisa-e-genova-in-guerra-per-il-dominio-1.16101585|access-date=2 August 2021|work=La Nuova Sardegna|language=it}}</ref>

Later, the title of King of Sardinia was granted by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to [[Barisone II of Arborea]],<ref>G. Seche, "L'incoronazione di Barisone 'Re di Sardegna' in due fonti contemporanee: gli Annales genovesi e gli Annales pisani", in ''Rivista dell'Istituto di storia dell'Europa mediterranea'', Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, no. 4, 2010.</ref> and subsequently also to [[Enzio of Sardinia]]. The first could not reunify the island under his rule, despite years of war against the other Sardinian judges, and he finally concluded a peace treaty with them in 1172.<ref>Dino Punchu (ed.), "I Libri Iurium della Repubblica de Genova", Ministero per i Beni Culturali e Ambientali, Rome, 1996, no. 390, p. 334.</ref> The second did not have the opportunity. Invested with the title from his father, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick II]] in 1239, he was soon recalled by his parent and appointed Imperial Vicar for Italy. He died in 1272 without direct recognized heirs after a detention of 23 years in a prison in Bologna.

The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica, later only the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1460,<ref>Geronimo Zurita, ''Los cinco libros postreros de la segunda parte de los Anales de la Corona d'Aragon, Oficino de Domingo de Portonaris y Ursono, Zaragoza'', 1629, libro XVII, pp. 75–76.</ref> was a state whose king was the [[King of Aragon]], who started to conquer it in 1324, gained full control in 1410, and directly ruled it until 1460. In that year it was incorporated into a sort of confederation of states, each with its own institutions, called the [[Crown of Aragon]], and united only in the person of the king. The Crown of Aragon was made by a council of representatives of the various states and grew in importance for the main purpose of separating the legacy of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] from that of [[Isabella I of Castile]] when they married in 1469.

{{history of Sardinia|width=210|picwidth=175}}
The idea of the kingdom was created in 1297 by [[Pope Boniface VIII]], as a hypothetical entity created for [[James II of Aragon]] under a secret clause in the [[Treaty of Anagni]]. This was an inducement to join in the effort to restore [[Sicily]], then under the rule of James's brother [[Frederick III of Sicily]], to the [[Capetian House of Anjou|Angevin dynasty]] over the oppositions of the Sicilians. The two islands proposed for this new kingdom were occupied by other states and fiefs at the time. In Sardinia, three of the four states that had succeeded [[Byzantine imperial]] rule in the 9th century had passed through marriage and partition under the direct or indirect control of Pisa and Genoa in the 40 years preceding the [[Treaty of Anagni]]. Genoa had also ruled [[Corsica]] since conquering the island nearly two centuries before (c. 1133).

[[File:Stemma del Regno di Sardegna metà del XVI secolo.JPG|thumb|right|The flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia at the funeral ceremony of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]]]
There were other reasons beside this papal decision: it was the final successful result of the long fight against the [[Ghibelline]] (pro-imperial) city of Pisa and the Holy Roman Empire itself. Furthermore, Sardinia was then under the control of the very Catholic kings of Aragon, and the last result of rapprochement of the island to Rome. The Sardinian church had never been under the control of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]]; it was an autonomous province loyal to Rome and belonging to the [[Latin Church]], but during the Byzantine period became influenced by Byzantine liturgy and culture.

== Foundation of the Kingdom of Sardinia ==
[[File:Kingdom of Sardinia 16th century map.jpg|thumb|upright|The Kingdom of Sardinia in a 16th-century map]]
{{main|History of Sardinia}}
In 1297, [[Pope Boniface VIII]], intervening between the [[Capetian House of Anjou|Houses of Anjou]] and [[House of Barcelona|Aragon]], established on paper a ''Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae'' that would be a [[fief]] of the papacy. Then, ignoring the indigenous states which already existed, the pope offered his newly invented fief to [[James II of Aragon]], promising him papal support should he wish to conquer Pisan Sardinia in exchange for Sicily. In 1323 James II formed an alliance with [[Hugh II of Arborea]] and, following a military campaign which lasted a year or so, occupied the Pisan territories of [[Cagliari]] and [[Gallura]] along with the city of [[Sassari]], claiming the territory as the ''Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica''.{{sfn|Casula|1994|pp=303–304}}

In 1353, [[Judicate of Arborea|Arborea]] waged war on Aragon. The Crown of Aragon did not reduce the last of the judicates (indigenous kingdoms of Sardinia) until 1420. The Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica retained its separate character as part of the Crown of Aragon and was not merely incorporated into the Kingdom of Aragon. At the time of his struggles with Arborea, [[Peter IV of Aragon]] granted an autonomous legislature to the kingdom and its legal traditions. The kingdom was governed in the king's name by a [[viceroy]].

In 1420, [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], King of Sicily and heir to Aragon, bought the remaining territories of the Judicate of Arborea for 100,000 gold florins from the last judge, [[William III of Narbonne]]. After that transaction, the Kingdom of Sardinia extended throughout the island, except for the city of [[Castelsardo]] (at that time called ''Casteldoria'' or ''Castelgenovese'') that was stolen from the [[Doria (family)|Doria]] in 1448, and renamed ''Castillo Aragonés'' (''Aragonese Castle'').{{sfn|Casula|1994|p=372}}

Corsica, which had never been conquered, was dropped from the formal title and Sardinia passed with the Crown of Aragon to a united Spain. The defeat of the local kingdoms, [[Medieval commune|communes]] and [[Signoria|signorie]], the firm Aragonese (later Spanish) rule, the introduction of a sterile [[feudalism]], as well as the discovery of the Americas, provoked an unstoppable decline of the Kingdom of Sardinia. A short period of uprisings occurred under the local noble [[Leonardo Alagon]], [[Marquisate of Oristano|Marquess of Oristano]], who defended his territories against Viceroy Nicolò Carroz and managed to defeat the viceroy's army in the 1470s, but was later crushed at the [[Battle of Macomer]] in 1478, ending any further revolts in the island. The unceasing attacks from [[Berber people|north African pirates]] and a series of plagues (in 1582, 1652 and 1655) further worsened the situation.

=== Aragonese conquest of Sardinia ===
{{further|Aragonese conquest of Sardinia|Sardinian–Aragonese war}}
Although the "''Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica''" could be said to have started as a questionable and extraordinary ''de jure'' state in 1297, its ''de facto'' existence began in 1324 when, called by their allies of the [[Judicate of Arborea]] in the course of war with the [[Republic of Pisa]], James II seized the Pisan territories in the former states of [[Cagliari]] and [[Gallura]] and asserted his papally-approved title. In 1347, Aragon made war on landlords of the Doria House and the Malaspina House, who were citizens of the [[Republic of Genoa]], which controlled most of the lands of the former [[Logudoro]] state in north-western Sardinia, including the city of [[Alghero]] and the semiautonomous [[Republic of Sassari|Republic]] of [[Sassari]], and added them to its direct domains.

The [[Judicate of Arborea]], the only Sardinian state that remained independent of foreign domination, proved far more difficult to subdue. Threatened by the Aragonese claims of suzerainty and consolidation of the rest of the island, in 1353 Arborea, under the leadership of [[Marianus IV of Arborea|Marianus IV]], started the conquest of the remaining Sardinian territories, which formed the Kingdom of Sardinia. In 1368 an Arborean offensive succeeded in nearly driving the Aragonese from the island, reducing the Kingdom of Sardinia and Corsica to just the port cities of [[Cagliari]] and [[Alghero]], and incorporating everything else into their own kingdom.

A peace treaty returned the Aragonese their previous possessions in 1388 but tensions continued. In 1382, the Arborean army led by [[Brancaleone Doria]] again swept most of the island into Arborean rule. This situation lasted until 1409 when the army of the Judicate of Arborea suffered a heavy defeat by the Aragonese army in the [[Battle of Sanluri]]. After the sale of the remaining territories for 100,000 gold florins to the Judicate of Arborea in 1420, the Kingdom of Sardinia extended throughout the island, except for the city of [[Castelsardo]] (at that time called ''Casteldoria'' or ''Castelgenovese''), which had been stolen from the [[Doria (family)|Doria]] in 1448. The subduing of Sardinia having taken a century, Corsica, which had never been wrestled from the Genoese, was dropped from the formal title of the Kingdom.

In 1527, during the [[War of the League of Cognac|Franco-Spanish War]], a French army of 4000 men led by the Italian [[Renzo da Ceri]] attacked the north of the island, besieging [[Castelsardo|Castellaragonese]] and sacking [[Sorso]] and then [[Sassari]] for almost a month.<ref>Massimo Guidetti, ''Storia dei sardi e della Sardegna'', Volume 3 pp. 55–56</ref> In 1566, the first [[typography]] of Sardinia was established in Cagliari, while in 1607 and 1617 were founded the [[University of Cagliari]] and the [[University of Sassari]]. In the late 15th and in the early 16th century the Spaniards built watchtowers all along the coast (today called "Spanish towers") to protect the island against Ottoman incursions. In 1637 a French fleet led by [[Henri, Count of Harcourt]] sacked Oristano for about a week.

== Exchange of Sardinia for Sicily ==
{{main|Kingdom of Sardinia (1700–1720)}}
[[File:QUATTRO MORI.jpg|thumb|19th-century coat of arms of the Kingdom of Sardinia under the Savoy dynasty]]
The Spanish domination of Sardinia ended at the beginning of the 18th century, as a result of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. By the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] of 1713, Spain's European empire was divided: [[House of Savoy|Savoy]] received [[Sicily]] and parts of the [[Duchy of Milan]], while [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]] (the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[Archduke of Austria]]), received the [[Spanish Netherlands]], the [[Kingdom of Naples]], Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan.

During the [[War of the Quadruple Alliance]], [[Victor Amadeus II]], Duke of Savoy, Prince of Piedmont, and by now also King of Sicily, had to agree to yield Sicily to the Austrian Habsburgs and receive Sardinia in exchange. The exchange was formally ratified in the [[Treaty of The Hague (1720)|Treaty of The Hague]] of 17 February 1720. Because the Kingdom of Sardinia had existed since the 14th century, the exchange allowed Victor Amadeus to retain the title of king in spite of the loss of Sicily.

Victor Amadeus initially resisted the exchange, and until 1723 he continued to style himself King of Sicily rather than King of Sardinia. The state took the official title of ''Kingdom of Sardinia, Cyprus and Jerusalem'', as the House of Savoy still claimed the thrones of [[Cyprus]] and [[Jerusalem]], although both had long been under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule. Under the [[Perfect Fusion]] of 1847, the local Sardinian institutions including the Viceroy were abolished; however, the title of King of Sardinia was maintained by the House of Savoy until their fall from the [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian throne]] in 1946.

== Flags, royal standards, and coats of arms ==
{{main|Flag of Sardinia}}
<gallery class="center" caption="Coats of arms">
File:Arms of Sardinia.svg|[[Middle Ages]] (union with Aragon)
File:Aquila imperiale bicefala di Carlo V.jpg|Imperial Eagle of Roman Holy Emperor Charles V with the four Moors of the Kingdom of Sardinia (16th century)
</gallery>
<gallery class="center" caption="State flags">
File:Flag Kingdom of Sardinia 1324-1848.jpg|Flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1568
</gallery>
* Sources:<ref name="Rbvex.it"/>

== Maps ==
=== Territorial evolution of Sardinia from 1324 to 1720 ===
<gallery class="center">
File:Sardinia_1324.png|The political situation in [[Sardinia]] after 1324 when the [[Crown of Aragon|Aragonese]] conquered the [[Republic of Pisan]] territories of [[Sardinia]], which included the defunct [[Judicate of Cagliari]] and [[Judicate of Gallura|Gallura]].
File:Kingdom of Sardinia 1368-1388 -- 1392-1409.png|The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1368 to 1388 and 1392 to 1409, after the wars with Arborea, consisted of only the cities of Cagliari and Alghero.
File:Kingdom of Sardinia 1410-1420.png|The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1410 to 1420, after the defeat of the [[Judicate of Arborea|Arborean Judicate]] in the [[Battle of Sanluri]] (1409)
File:Kingdom of Sardinia & Royal cities - 16th century.png|The Kingdom of Sardinia from 1448 to 1720; the [[Maddalena archipelago]] was conquered in 1767–1769.
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[List of viceroys of Sardinia]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* Luttwak, Edward (2009). [https://archive.org/details/victoremanuelcav0000mack ''The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire'']. The Belknap Press. {{ISBN|9780674035195}}.
* Schena, Olivetta (2019). "The Role Played by Towns in Parliamentary Commissions in the Kingdom of Sardinia in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth centuries". ''Parliaments, Estates and Representation''. '''39'' (3): 304–315.

=== In Italian ===
* AAVV. (edited by F. Manconi), ''La società sarda in età spagnola'', Consiglio Regionale della Sardegna, Cagliari, 2 volumes, 1992–1993.
* Blasco Ferrer Eduardo, ''Crestomazia Sarda dei primi secoli'', collection Officina Linguistica, Ilisso, Nuoro, 2003, {{ISBN|9788887825657}}.
* Boscolo Alberto, ''La Sardegna bizantina e alto giudicale'', Edizioni Della Torre, Cagliari, 1978.
* {{cite book |author-link=Francesco Cesare Casula |last=Casula |first=Francesco Cesare |title=La storia di Sardegna |publisher=Carlo Delfino Editore |location=Sassari |year=1994 |isbn=8871380843}}
* Coroneo Roberto, ''Arte in Sardegna dal IV alla metà dell'XI secolo'', AV eds., Cagliari, 2011.
* Coroneo Roberto, ''Scultura mediobizantina in Sardegna'', Nuoro, Poliedro, 2000.
* Gallinari Luciano, "Il Giudicato di Cagliari tra XI e XIII secolo. Proposte di interpretazioni istituzionali", in ''Rivista dell'Istituto di Storia dell'Europa Mediterranea'', no. 5, 2010.
* Manconi Francesco, ''La Sardegna al tempo degli Asburgo'', Il Maestrale, Nuoro, 2010, {{ISBN|9788864290102}}.
* Manconi Francesco, ''Una piccola provincia di un grande impero'', CUEC, Cagliari, 2012, {{ISBN|8884677882}}.
* Mastino Attilio, ''Storia della Sardegna Antica'', Il Maestrale, Nuoro, 2005, {{ISBN|9788889801635}}.
* Meloni Piero, ''La Sardegna Romana'', Chiarella, Sassari, 1980.
* Motzo Bachisio Raimondo, ''Studi sui bizantini in Sardegna e sull'agiografia sarda'', Deputazione di Storia Patria della Sardegna, Cagliari, 1987.
* Ortu Gian Giacomo, ''La Sardegna dei Giudici'', Il Maestrale, Nuoro, 2005, {{ISBN|9788889801024}}.
* Paulis Giulio, ''Lingua e cultura nella Sardegna bizantina: testimonianze linguistiche dell'influsso greco'', Sassari, L'Asfodelo, 1983.
* Spanu Luigi, ''Cagliari nel seicento'', Edizioni Castello, Cagliari, 1999.
* Zedda Corrado and Pinna Raimondo, "La nascita dei Giudicati. Proposta per lo scioglimento di un enigma storiografico", in ''Archivio Storico Giuridico di Sassari'', second series, no. 12, 2007.

{{Sardinia}}
{{viceroyalties of the Spanish Empire}}
{{countries of the Kingdom of Sardinia}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Kingdom of Sardinia (1324-1720)}}
[[Category:1324 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:Christian states|Sardinia]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Europe]]
[[Category:History of Sardinia]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1324]]
[[Category:Viceroyalties of the Spanish Empire]]