View source for Kingdom of Sicily

{{Short description|State in southern Italy (1130–1816)}}
{{About|the Norman kingdom founded in 1130 and its successors based on the island of Sicily|the mainland southern Italian kingdom after 1282|Kingdom of Naples}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Sicily
| common_name            = Sicily
| native_name            = {{ubl|{{native name|la|Regnum Siciliae}}|{{native name|scn|Regnu di Sicilia}}|{{native name|it|Regno di Sicilia}}}}
| image_flag             = Bandiera del Regno di Sicilia 4.svg
| flag_type              = [[Flag of Sicily#Fourth flag|Flag<br />(from 14th century)]]
| image_coat             = Arms of the Aragonese Kings of Sicily(Crowned).svg
| symbol_type            = Coat of arms<br />(from 14th century)
| symbol                 = List of Sicilian monarchs
| image_map              = Kingdom of Sicily 1190.svg
| image_map2             = Administrative Map of Kingdom of Trinacria (1375).png
| image_map_caption      = The Kingdom of Sicily in 1190
| government_type        = [[Feudal monarchy]]
| event_start            = [[Roger II of Sicily#Royal investiture|Coronation of Roger]]
| year_start             = 1130
| event6                 = [[History of Bourbon Sicily|Conquest by the Spanish Bourbons]]
| date_event6            = 1735
| event_end              = [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies|Two Sicilies established]]
| date_end               = 
| year_end               = 1816
| event1                 = [[Sicilian Vespers]]
| date_event1            = 1282
| event2                 = Annexed to Aragonese dominions
| date_event2            = 1412
| event3                 = Spanish domination
| date_event3            = 1479–1713
| event4                 = [[Kingdom of Sicily under Savoy|Savoyard period]]
| date_event4            = 1713–1720
| event5                 = [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austrian rule]]
| date_event5            = 1720–1735
| event_post             = 
| date_post              = 
| p1                     = County of Sicily
| p2                     = County of Apulia and Calabria
| p3                     = Duchy of Naples
| p4                     = Duchy of Amalfi
| p5                     = Duchy of Sorrento
| p6                     = Principality of Capua
| p7                     = Duchy of Gaeta
| s1                     = Kingdom of Naples{{!}}'''1282:'''<br /> Kingdom of Naples
| flag_s1                = Flag of the Kingdom of Naples.svg
| s2                     = Hospitaller Malta{{!}} '''1753''': <br> Hospitaller Malta
| flag_s3                = Flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816).svg
| s3                     = Kingdom of the Two Sicilies{{!}} '''1816''': <br> Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
| flag_s2                = Flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.svg
| map_caption2           = The Kingdom of Sicily and its territorial divisions in the 14th century.
| capital                = [[Palermo]]
| national_motto         = {{langnf|la|Animus Tuus Dominus|Courage is thy Lord}}<br />(in use in the [[Sicilian Vespers]] of 1282)
| national_anthem        = 
| leader1                = [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger II]] (first)
| year_leader1           = 1130–1154
| leader2                = [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand III]] (last)
| year_leader2           = 1759–1816
| title_leader           = [[List of Sicilian monarchs|King]]
| legislature            = [[Sicilian Parliament|Parliament]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|38|35|31|N|16|4|44|E|display=inline,title}}
| demonym                = [[Sicilians|Sicilian]]
| today                  = [[Italy]]<br>[[Malta]]
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| status                 = {{ubli|Sovereign state <br> (1130–1412, 1713–1720, 1735–1816)| Part of the [[Crown of Aragon]] <br>(1412–1479) | [[List of viceroys of Sicily|Viceroyalty]] of the [[Spanish Empire]] <br>(1479–1713) | Part of the [[Habsburg monarchy]]<br>(1720–1735)}}
| religion               = [[Latin Church|Roman Catholicism]] (official)
| largest_city           = [[Palermo]]
| official_languages     = {{ubl|
|[[Latin]] (bureaucracy){{sfn|Mallette|2011|p=5}}
[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] | 
[[Italian language|Italian]]}}
}}The '''Kingdom of Sicily''' ({{langx|la|Regnum Siciliae}}; {{langx|scn|Regnu di Sicilia}}; {{langx|it|Regno di Sicilia}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XSNSAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR32 |title=Documenti per servire alla storia di Sicilia: Diplomatica, Volumes 14-16 |date=1891-01-01 |publisher=U. Manfredi Editori |language=it |page=XXXII |access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=2024-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120173856/https://books.google.com/books?id=XSNSAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR32#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYg74wTJS7oC&pg=PA314 |title=Felicis, et fidelissimæ urbis Panormitanæ selecta aliquot ad civitatis decus, et commodum spectantia privilegia per instrumenta varia Siciliæ ... opera don Michaelis De Vio .. |last=Vio |first=Michele Del |date=1706-01-01 |publisher=in palatio senatorio per Dominicum Cortese |language=it |page=314 |access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=2024-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120173741/https://books.google.com/books?id=rYg74wTJS7oC&pg=PA314#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqANAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303 |title=Considerazioni sopra la storia di Sicilia dai tempi normanni sino al presenti, Volume 3 |last=Gregorio |first=Rosario |date=1833-01-01 |publisher=dalla Reale Stamperia |language=it |page=303 |access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=2024-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120173744/https://books.google.com/books?id=hqANAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA303#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CW9UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109 |title=Parlamenti generali del regno di Sicilia dall' anno 1446 sino al 1748: con le memorie istoriche dell' antico, e moderno uso del parlamento appresso varie nazioni, ed in particolare della sua origine in Sicilia, e del modo di celebrarsi, Volume 1 |last1=Mongitore |first1=Antonino |last2=Mongitore |first2=Francesco Serio e |date=1749-01-01 |publisher=Presso P. Bentivenga |language=it |page=109 |access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=2024-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120174755/https://books.google.com/books?id=CW9UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>) was a state that existed in [[Sicily]] and the southern [[Italian peninsula|Italian Peninsula]] as well as, for a time, in [[Kingdom of Africa|Northern Africa]], from its founding by [[Roger II of Sicily]] in 1130 until 1816. It was a successor state of the [[County of Sicily]], which had been founded in 1071 during the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Norman conquest of the southern peninsula]]. The island was divided into [[Three valli of Sicily|three regions]]: Val di Mazara, [[Val Demone]] and [[Val di Noto]].

After a brief rule by Charles of Anjou, a revolt in 1282 known as the [[Sicilian Vespers]] threw off [[Capetian House of Anjou|Angevin]] rule in the island of Sicily. The Angevins managed to maintain control in the mainland part of the kingdom, which became a separate entity also styled ''Kingdom of Sicily'', although it is retroactively referred to as the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. Sicily (officially known as the [[Kingdom of Trinacria]] between 1282 and 1442)<ref>{{cite book |last=Gillespie |first=Alexander |title=The Causes of War: Volume II: 1000 CE to 1400 CE |publisher=Hart Publishing |year=2016 |volume=II |pages=115}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Merlo |first=Grado Giovanni |title=Basso Medioevo |publisher=Il Mulino |year=1981 |editor-last=Tabacco |editor-first=Giovanni |series=Medioevo V-XV secolo |location=Italy |pages=535 |language=Italian}}</ref> at the other hand, remained an independent kingdom ruled by relatives of the [[House of Barcelona]], and was then added permanently to the [[Crown of Aragon]] as a result of the [[Compromise of Caspe]] of 1412.<ref name="anar">{{Cite book |author=Allan W. Atlas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ub_XZK1F-8UC&q=independent+kingdoms+transferred+by+election+to+Alfonso%27s+father%2C+Ferdinando+de+Antequera%2C+of+the+Trastamare+dynasty. |title=Music at the Aragonese court of Naples |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1985 |isbn=0-521-24828-0 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="Compromise">{{cite book |last1=Rzhevskaya |first1=Valentina |url=https://eppd13.cz/wp-content/uploads/2014/2014-1-5/25.pdf |title=THE COMPROMISE OF CASPE: AN EPISODE FROM THE HISTORY OF PEACEFUL DISPUTE SETTLEMENT |date=31 March 2025 |publisher=European Political and Law Discourse |pages=241–243 |quote=Page 241: On March 29 1412 the nine electors got down to their task in an Aragonese town of Caspe and on June 25 they declared the Castilian prince don Fernando elected. Fernando de Antequera was solemnly proclaimed King of Aragon three days later.}}</ref> Following the [[dynastic union]] of the crowns of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and Aragon in 1479, it was a [[viceroyalty]] of the Spanish kingdom.<ref name="jws">{{Cite book |author=N. Zeldes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRYe5dCFq4YC |title=The Former Jews of This Kingdom: Sicilian Converts After the Expulsion, 1492–1516 |publisher=BRILL |year=2003 |isbn=90-04-12898-0 |pages=5, 69, 296–97}}</ref> During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1700–1714), the island was taken over by the [[House of Savoy]]. In 1720, Savoy gave it to Austria in exchange for Sardinia. Later, the island was ruled by a branch of the Bourbons. Following the Napoleonic period, the Kingdom of Sicily was formally merged with the Kingdom of Naples to form the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], which in 1861 became part of the [[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy|new unified Kingdom of Italy]].

== History ==
=== Norman conquest ===
{{Main|Norman conquest of southern Italy|County of Sicily}}
By the 11th century, mainland southern [[Duchy of Benevento|Lombard]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] powers were hiring [[Normans|Norman]] mercenaries, who were descendants of [[Vikings]] in northern [[Kingdom of France|France]]; it was the Normans under [[Roger I of Sicily|Roger I]] who conquered Sicily, taking it away from the Sicilian Muslims. After taking [[Apulia]] and [[Calabria]], Roger occupied [[Messina]] with an army of 700 knights. In 1068, Roger I of Sicily and his men defeated the Muslims at [[Misilmeri]] but the most crucial battle was the Siege of [[Palermo]], which led to Sicily being completely under Norman control by 1091.<ref name="initalymag">{{cite news |url=http://www.initaly.com/regions/sicily/chronol.htm |publisher=In Italy Magazine |title=Chronological - Historical Table Of Sicily |date=7 October 2007 |access-date=3 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727225426/http://www.initaly.com/regions/sicily/chronol.htm |archive-date=27 July 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Norman kingdom (1130–1198) ===
{{See also|Kingdom of Africa}}
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 235
| footer            = 
| image1            = Roger II Sicily.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger II]], the first King of Sicily
| image2            = Weltliche Schatzkammer Wienc.jpg
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = The royal mantle
| image3            = Scribes 01 Kingdom of Sicily Petrus de Ebulo.PNG
| alt3              = 
| caption3          = Scribes of and for the various populations of the Kingdom of Sicily: Greeks, Saracens, Latins
}}
The [[Italo-Normans|Norman]] Kingdom was created on Christmas Day, 1130, by [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger&nbsp;II of Sicily]], with the agreement of [[Pope Innocent II]]. Roger II united the lands he had inherited from his father, [[Count Roger I of Sicily|Roger&nbsp;I of Sicily]].<ref>Douglas, David. ''The Norman Fate, 1100-1154''. Los Angeles: [[University of California Press]], 1976.</ref> These areas included the [[Malta (island)|Maltese Archipelago]], which was conquered from the [[Emirate of Sicily|Arabs of the Emirates of Sicily]]; the [[Duchy of Apulia]] and the [[County of Sicily]], which had belonged to his cousin [[William II, Duke of Apulia|William&nbsp;II, Duke of Apulia]], until William's death in 1127; and the other Norman vassals. Roger declared his support for the [[Antipope Anacletus II]], who enthroned him as King of Sicily on Christmas Day 1130.<ref name="houben">{{Cite book |last=Houben |first=Hubert |title=Roger II of Sicily: A Ruler between East and West |year=2002 |pages=7, 148 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-65573-0}}</ref>

In 1136, the rival of Anacletus, [[Pope Innocent II]], convinced [[Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor]] to attack the Kingdom of Sicily with help from the [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[John II Comnenus]]. Two main armies, one led by Lothair, the other by [[Henry X, Duke of Bavaria]], invaded Sicily. On the River [[Tronto]], [[William of Loritello]] surrendered to Lothair and opened the gates of [[Termoli]] to him.<ref name="nrki"/> This was followed by Count Hugh&nbsp;II of Molise. The two armies were united at [[Bari]], from where in 1137 they continued their campaign. Roger offered to give Apulia as a [[fief]] to the Empire, which Lothair refused after being pressured by Innocent. At the same period, the army of Lothair revolted.<ref name="houben"/><ref name="twc"/>

Lothair, who had hoped for the complete conquest of Sicily, then gave [[Capua]] and Apulia from the Kingdom of Sicily to Roger's enemies. Innocent protested, claiming that Apulia fell under Papal claims. Lothair turned north, but died while crossing the Alps on 4 December 1137. At the [[Second Council of the Lateran]] in April 1139, Innocent excommunicated Roger for maintaining a [[Schism (religion)|schismatic]] attitude. On 22 March 1139, at Galluccio, Roger's son [[Roger III, Duke of Apulia]], ambushed the Papal troops with a thousand knights and captured the pope.<ref name="twc">{{Cite book |author=Malcolm Barber |title=The Two Cities: Medieval Europe, 1050–1320 |year=2004 |page=211 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-17414-7}}</ref> On 25 March 1139, Innocent was forced to acknowledge the kingship and possessions of Roger with the [[Treaty of Mignano]].<ref name="houben"/><ref name="twc"/>

Roger spent most of the decade, beginning with his coronation and ending with the [[Assizes of Ariano]], enacting a series of laws with which Roger intended to centralise the government. He also fended off several invasions and quelled rebellions by his premier vassals: [[Grimoald of Bari]], [[Robert II of Capua]], [[Ranulf of Alife]], [[Sergius VII of Naples]] and others.

It was through his admiral [[George of Antioch]] that Roger then conquered the littoral of [[Ifriqiya]] from the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]], taking the unofficial title "[[Kingdom of Africa|King of Africa]]" and marking the foundation of the Norman Kingdom of Africa. At the same time, Roger's fleet also attacked the [[Byzantine Empire]], making Sicily a leading maritime power in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] for almost a century.<ref name="houben"/>

Roger's son and successor was [[William I of Sicily]], known as "William the Bad", though his nickname derived primarily from his lack of popularity with the chroniclers, who supported the baronial revolts which William suppressed. In the mid-1150s, William lost the majority of his African possessions to a series of revolts by local North African lords. Then, in 1160, the final Norman African stronghold of Mahdia was taken by the [[Almohads]]. His reign ended in peace in 1166. His elder son [[Roger IV, Duke of Apulia]] had been killed in previous revolts, and his son, [[William II of Sicily|William&nbsp;II]], was a minor. Until the end of the boy's [[Regent|regency]] by his mother [[Margaret of Navarre]] in 1172, turmoil in the kingdom almost brought the ruling family down. The reign of William II is remembered as two decades of almost continual peace and prosperity. For this more than anything, he is nicknamed "the Good". However, he had no issue, which led to a succession crisis: his aunt [[Constance I of Sicily|Constance]], the sole heir to the throne as the daughter of Roger II, was long confined in a monastery as a nun, with her marriage beyond consideration due to a prediction that "her marriage would destroy Sicily". Nevertheless, in 1184, she was betrothed to Henry, the eldest son of [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]] and the future Emperor [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]]. William named Constance and Henry the heirs to the throne and had the noblemen swear oath, but the officials did not want to be ruled by a German, so the death of William in 1189 led the kingdom to decline.<ref name="nrki">{{Cite book |title=The Norman Kingdom of Sicily |author=Donald Matthew |year=1992 |pages=4–6, 71–74, 86–92, 285, 286, 304 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-26911-3}}</ref>

With the support of the officials, [[Tancred of Lecce]] seized the throne. In the same year, he had to contend with the revolt of his distant cousin [[Roger of Andria]], a former contender who supported Henry and Constance but was tricked to execution in 1190, as well as the invasion of Henry, King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor since 1191, who invaded on behalf of his wife. Henry had to retreat after his attack failed, with Empress Constance captured and only released under the pressure of the Pope. Tancred died in 1194, and Constance and Henry prevailed: the kingdom fell in 1194 to the [[House of Hohenstaufen]]. [[William III of Sicily]], the young son of Tancred, was deposed, and Henry and Constance were crowned as king and queen. Through Constance, the [[Hauteville family|Hauteville]] blood was passed to [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick]], who reigned in Sicily as Frederick I.<ref name="nrki"/>

=== Hohenstaufen period (1198–1266) ===
{{main|History of Swabian Sicily}}
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 230
| footer            = 
| image1            = Liber2.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Imperial]] troops storming [[Salerno]] in 1194
| image2            = Jindrich6 triumf.jpg
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = Triumph march of [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] into [[Palermo]]
| image3            = Woodcut illustration of Constance of Sicily, her husband HRE Henry VI and her son HRE Frederick II - Penn Provenance Project.jpg
| alt3              = 
| caption3          = Woodcut illustration of [[Constance I of Sicily|Constance of Sicily]], her husband [[Holy Roman Empire|Emperor]] Henry VI and their son [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]
}}

In 1197, the accession of Frederick, a child who would also become [[Holy Roman Emperor]] Frederick II in 1220, greatly affected the immediate future of Sicily. For a land so used to centralised royal authority, the king's young age caused a serious power vacuum. His uncle [[Philip of Swabia]] moved to secure Frederick's inheritance by appointing [[Markward von Anweiler]], [[margrave]] of [[Ancona]], regent in 1198. Meanwhile, [[Pope Innocent III]] had reasserted papal authority in Sicily, but recognised Frederick's rights. The pope was to see papal power decrease steadily over the next decade and was unsure about which side to back at many junctures.<ref name="hoh"/>

The Hohenstaufen's grip on power, however, was not secure. [[Walter III of Brienne]] had married the daughter of [[Tancred of Sicily]]. She was sister and heiress of the deposed King William III of Sicily. In 1201, William decided to claim the kingdom. In 1202, an army led by the chancellor [[Walter of Palearia]] and [[Dipold of Vohburg]] was defeated by Walter III of Brienne. Markward was killed, and Frederick fell under the control of [[William of Capparone]], an ally of the [[Republic of Pisa|Pisans]]. Dipold continued the war against Walter on the mainland until the claimant's death in 1205. Dipold finally wrested Frederick from Capparone in 1206 and gave him over to the guardianship of the chancellor, Walter of Palearia. Walter and Dipold then had a falling out, and the latter captured the royal palace, where he was besieged and captured by Walter in 1207. After a decade, the wars over the regency and the throne itself had ceased.<ref name="nrki"/>
[[File:Kingdom of Sicily 1200.png|thumb|The Kingdom of Sicily in 1200]]
The reform of the laws began with the [[Assizes of Ariano]] in 1140 by Roger II of Sicily. Frederick I continued the reformation with the [[Assizes of Capua]] (1220) and the promulgation of the [[Constitutions of Melfi]] (1231, also known as ''[[Liber Augustalis]]''), a collection of laws for his realm that was remarkable for its time.<ref name="hoh"/> The Constitutions of Melfi were created in order to establish a centralized state. For example, citizens were not allowed to carry weapons or wear armour in public unless they were under royal command.<ref name="hoh">{{Cite book |title=Italian Medieval Armies 1000–1300 |author=David Nicolle |year=2002 |pages=5–10, 18–19, 34 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=1-84176-322-5}}</ref> As a result, rebellions were reduced. The Constitutions made the Kingdom of Sicily an [[absolute monarchy]], the first centralized [[Sovereign state|state]] in Europe to emerge from [[feudalism]]; it also set a precedent for the primacy of written law.<ref name="twc"/> With relatively small modifications, the ''Liber Augustalis'' remained the basis of Sicilian law until 1819.<ref>{{Cite book |author=James Ross Sweeney, Stanley Chodorow |title=Popes, Teachers, and Canon Law in the Middle Ages |year=1989 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=0-8014-2264-7}}</ref> During this period, he also built the [[Castel del Monte (Apulia)|Castel del Monte]], and in 1224, he founded the [[University of Naples]], now called [[University of Naples Federico II]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Hunt Janin |title=The University in Medieval Life, 1179–1499 |year=2008 |page=132 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-3462-6}}</ref>

Frederick had to beat off a Papal invasion of Sicily in the [[War of the Keys]] (1228–1230).<ref>{{cite book |first=G. A. |last=Loud |author-link=Graham Loud |chapter=The Papal 'Crusade' against Frederick II in 1228–1230 |pages=91–103 |title=La Papauté et les croisades / The Papacy and the Crusades |editor=Michel Balard |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |orig-year=2011}}</ref> After his death, the kingdom was ruled by [[Conrad IV of Germany]]. The next legitimate heir was [[Conradin]], who was too young at the period to rule. [[Manfred of Sicily]], the illegitimate son of Frederick, took power and ruled the kingdom for fifteen years while other Hohenstaufen heirs were ruling various areas in Germany.<ref name="hoh"/> After long wars against the [[Papal States]], the Kingdom managed to defend its possessions, but the [[Papacy]] declared the Kingdom escheated because of the disloyalty of the Hohenstaufen.<ref name="magcar"/> Under this pretext, Manfred came to an agreement with [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]], King of France. Louis's brother, [[Charles I of Anjou|Charles of Anjou]], would become king of Sicily. In exchange, Charles recognized the overlordship of the Pope in the Kingdom, paid a portion of the Papal debt, and agreed to pay annual tribute to the Papal States, the [[Chinea]].<ref name="magcar">{{Cite book |author=Katherine Fisher |title=Magna Carta |year=2004 |pages=53, 84–85 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-313-32590-1}}</ref><ref name="runc">{{Cite book |author=Steve Runciman |title=The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century |pages=32–34, 209, 274 |year=1958 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-43774-1}}</ref>

The [[Miossi family]], a noble family, was commissioned in 1251 by [[Pope Innocent IV]] to administer the Kingdom of Sicily.<ref>Adams, C.F.  The Lost Kingdom of the Lombardo's.  Oxford Press,1967.</ref> The Hohenstaufen rule in Sicily ended after the 1266 [[Capetian House of Anjou|Angevin]] invasion and the death of [[Conradin]], the last male heir of Hohenstaufen, in 1268.<ref name="runc"/>

=== Angevin Sicily (1266–1282) ===
[[File:Vespro22.jpg|thumb|[[Santo Spirito, Palermo|Church of the Holy Spirit]] in Palermo]]
In 1266, conflict between the Hohenstaufen house and the Papacy led to Sicily's conquest by [[Charles I of Sicily#Conquest of Sicily|Charles I]], Duke of [[Duchy of Anjou|Anjou]]. With the usurpation of the Sicilian throne from Conradin by [[Manfred of Sicily]] in 1258, the relationship between the Papacy and the Hohenstaufen had changed again. Instead of the boy Conradin, safely sequestered across the Alps, the Papacy now faced an able military leader who had greatly supported the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Ghibelline]] cause at the [[Battle of Montaperti]] in 1260. Accordingly, when negotiations broke down with Manfred in 1262, [[Pope Urban IV]] again took up the scheme of disseising the Hohenstaufen from the kingdom, and offered the crown to [[Charles I of Anjou|Charles of Anjou]] again. With Papal and [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Guelph]] support Charles descended into Italy and defeated Manfred at the [[Battle of Benevento]] in 1266 and in 1268 Conradin at the [[Battle of Tagliacozzo]].

Opposition to French officialdom and taxation combined with incitement of rebellion by agents from the [[Crown of Aragon]] and the [[Byzantine Empire]] led to the successful insurrection of the [[Sicilian Vespers]] followed by the invitation and intervention by King [[Peter III of Aragon]] in 1282. The resulting [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]] lasted until the [[Peace of Caltabellotta]] in 1302, dividing the old Kingdom of Sicily in two. The island of Sicily, called the "Kingdom of Sicily beyond the Lighthouse" or the Kingdom of Trinacria, went to [[Frederick III of Sicily|Frederick III]] of the [[House of Barcelona]], who had been ruling it. The peninsular territories (the [[Mezzogiorno]]), contemporaneously called the Kingdom of Sicily but called the [[Kingdom of Naples]] by modern scholarship, went to [[Charles II of Naples|Charles II]] of the [[Capetian House of Anjou|House of Anjou]], who had likewise been ruling it. Thus, the peace was formal recognition of an uneasy ''status quo''.<ref name="runc"/> The division in the kingdom became permanent in 1372, with the [[Treaty of Villeneuve]]. Though the king of Aragon was able to seize both crowns in the 16th century, the administrations of the two halves of the Kingdom of Sicily remained separated until 1816, when they were reunited in the [[Kingdom of Two Sicilies]].

=== Sicily under Aragon and Spain (1282–1700) ===
{{See also|Kingdom of Trinacria}}[[File:KingdomofSicily.PNG|thumb|Map of the Kingdom from 1282 (following the Sicilian Vespers) to 1816.]]
[[File:Martin1Sicilsky.jpg|thumb|right|220px|[[Martin I of Sicily|Martin I]], King of Sicily in 1390–1409]]
Sicily was ruled as an independent kingdom by relatives of the [[House of Barcelona]], and was then added permanently to the [[Crown of Aragon|Crown of Aragon]] as a result of the [[Compromise of Caspe]] of 1412.<ref name="anar" /><ref name="Compromise" /> The Kingdom of Naples was ruled by the Angevin ruler [[René of Anjou]] until the two thrones were reunited by [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], after the successful siege of Naples and the defeat of René on 6 June 1443.<ref name="anar" /> Alfonso of Aragon divided the two kingdoms during his rule. He gave the rule of Naples to his illegitimate son [[Ferdinand I of Naples]], who ruled from 1458 to 1494, and the rest of the Crown of Aragon and Sicily to his brother [[John II of Aragon]]. From 1494 to 1503, successive kings of France [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] and [[Louis XII]], who were heirs of the Angevins, tried to conquer Naples (see [[Italian Wars]]) but failed. Eventually, the Kingdom of Naples was reunited with the Crown of Aragon. The titles were held by the [[List of Aragonese monarchs|Aragonese kings]] of the Crown of Aragon and [[Kingdom of Spain]] until the end of the Spanish branch of the [[House of Habsburg]] in 1700.

[[File:Prise de Malte en 1530 (cropped).jpg|thumb|''[[Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam|Philippe de Villiers de l'Isle Adam]] takes possession of the island of Malta, 26 October 1530'' by [[René Théodore Berthon]]]]

In 1530, in an effort to protect [[Rome]] from [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] invasion from the south, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], as king of Spain and Sicily, gave the islands of [[Malta]] and [[Gozo]] to the [[Knights Hospitaller]] in [[History of Malta under the Order of Saint John|perpetual fiefdom]], in exchange for an [[Tribute of the Maltese Falcon|annual fee of two Maltese falcons]], which they were to send on [[All Souls' Day]] to the [[Viceroy]] of Sicily.<ref name="malgoz">{{Cite book |author=Carolyn Bain |title=Malta & Gozo |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetmalt00caro/page/23 23] |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=1-74059-178-X |url=https://archive.org/details/lonelyplanetmalt00caro/page/23}}</ref> The Maltese Islands had formed part of the county, and later the Kingdom of Sicily, since 1091. The feudal relationship between Malta and the Kingdom of Sicily was continued throughout the rule of the Knights, until the [[French occupation of Malta]] in 1798.<ref name="malgoz"/>

=== Savoyard and Habsburg rule (1713–1735) ===
{{Main|Kingdom of Sicily under Savoy}}
From 1713 until 1720, the Kingdom of Sicily was ruled briefly by the [[House of Savoy]], which had received it by the terms of the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], which brought an end to the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. The kingdom was a reward to the Savoyards, who were thus elevated to royal rank. The new king, [[Victor Amadeus II]], travelled to Sicily in 1713 and remained a year before returning to his mainland capital, [[Turin]], where his son the [[Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont|Prince of Piedmont]] had been acting as regent. In Spain, the results of the war had not been truly accepted, and the [[War of the Quadruple Alliance]] was the result. Sicily was occupied by Spain in 1718. When it became evident that Savoy had not the strength to defend as remote a country as Sicily, [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]] stepped in and exchanged its [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1700–1720)|Kingdom of Sardinia]] for Sicily. Victor Amadeus protested this exchange, Sicily being a rich country of over one million inhabitants and Sardinia a poor country of a few hundred thousand, but he was unable to resist his "allies". Spain was finally defeated in 1720, and the [[Treaty of The Hague (1720)|Treaty of the Hague]] ratified the changeover. Sicily belonged to the Austrian Habsburgs, who already ruled Naples.<ref name="fromr">{{Cite book |author=Danforth Prince |title=Frommer's Sicily |year=2007 |page=314 |publisher=Frommer's |isbn=978-0-470-10056-1}}</ref> Victor Amadeus, for his part, continued to protest for three years, and only in 1723 decided to recognize the exchange and desist from using the Sicilian royal title and its subsidiary titles (such as King of Cyprus and Jerusalem).

=== Bourbon rule (1735–1816) ===
{{main|History of Bourbon Sicily}}
[[File:Real Casina di Caccia della Ficuzza, luglio 2010.JPG|thumb|[[Royal Palace of Ficuzza]]]]
[[File:Palazzina cinese 0001.JPG|thumb|La [[Palazzina Cinese]] di Palermo, built by [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand III of Sicily]]]]
In 1734, in the aftermath of the [[War of the Polish Succession]], Naples was reconquered by King [[Philip V of Spain]], a Bourbon, who installed his younger son, Duke Charles of Parma, as King [[Charles III of Spain|Charles VII of Naples]], starting a cadet branch of the [[House of Bourbon]]. Adding to his Neapolitan possessions, he became also King of Sicily with the name of Charles V of Sicily the next year after Austria gave up Sicily and her pretensions to Naples in exchange for the [[Duchy of Parma]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]]. This change of hands opened up a period of economic flourishing and social and political reforms, with many public projects and cultural initiatives directly started or inspired by the king. He remained King of Sicily until his accession to the Spanish throne as [[Charles III of Spain]] in 1759, the [[Treaty of Vienna (1738)]] with Austria forbidding a union of the Italian domains with the Crown of Spain.

Charles III abdicated in favour of [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand]], his third son, who acceded to the thrones with the names of Ferdinand IV of Naples and III of Sicily. Still a minor, Ferdinand grew up amongst pleasures and leisure while the real power was safely held by [[Bernardo Tanucci]], the president of the regency council. During this period most of the reform process initiated by Charles came to a halt, with the king mostly absent or uninterested in the matters of state and the political helm steered by [[Queen Maria Carolina]] and prime ministers Tanucci (until 1777) and [[Sir John Acton, 6th Baronet|John Acton]]. The latter tried to distance Naples and Sicily from the influence of Spain and Austria and to place them nearer to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], then represented by ambassador [[William Hamilton (diplomat)|William Hamilton]]. This is the period of the [[Grand Tour]], and Sicily with its many natural and historical attractions was visited by a score of intellectuals from all over Europe that brought to the island the winds of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], and spread the fame of its beauty in the continent.

In 1799, [[Napoleon]] conquered Naples, forcing King Ferdinand and the court to flee to Sicily under the protection of the British fleet under the command of Horatio Nelson. While Naples was formed into the [[Parthenopean Republic]] with French support and later again a [[Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic)|kingdom]] under French protection and influence, Sicily became the British base of operation in the Mediterranean in the long struggle against Napoleon. Under British guidance, especially from [[Lord William Bentinck]] who was commander of British troops in Sicily, Sicily tried to modernise its constitutional apparatus, forcing the King to ratify a Constitution modeled after the British system.<ref name="fromr"/> The island was under British occupation from 1806 to 1814.<ref>W. H. Clements, "The Defences of Sicily, 1806-1815," ''Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research,'' Autumn 2009, Vol. 87 Issue 351, pp 256-272</ref> The main feature of the new system was that a two-chamber parliament was formed (instead of the three of the existing one). The formation of the parliament brought the end of [[feudalism]] in the Kingdom.

After the defeat of [[Napoleon]] in 1815, Ferdinand repealed all reforms and even erased the Kingdom of Sicily from the map (after a history of 800 years) by creating the brand-new [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] with Naples as its capital in 1816. The people of Sicily rebelled to this violation of its centuries-old statutes (which every king, including Ferdinand, had sworn to respect) but were defeated by the Neapolitan and [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] forces in 1820. In 1848–49, another [[Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848|Sicilian revolution of independence]] occurred, which was put down by the new king, [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies]], who was nicknamed ''Re Bomba'' after his 5-day bombardment of Messina. The increased hostility of the peoples and the elites of Sicily towards Naples and the Bourbon dynasty created a very unstable equilibrium, kept under control only by an increasingly oppressive police-state, political executions and exiles.

== Society ==
During the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, the local communities maintained their privileges. The rulers of the Hohenstaufen kingdom replaced the local nobility with lords from northern Italy, leading to clashes and rebellions against the new nobility in many cities and rural communities. These revolts resulted in the destruction of many agrarian areas and the rise of middle class nationalism, which eventually led to urban dwellers becoming allies of the [[Crown of Aragon|Aragonese]].<ref name="hoh"/> This situation was continued during the short rule of the Angevins until their overthrowing during the Sicilian Vespers. The Angevins began feudalising the country, increasing the power of the nobility by granting them jurisdiction over high justice.<ref name="samkel">{{Cite book |author=Samantha Kelly |title=The New Solomon: Robert of Naples (1309–1343) and Fourteenth-Century Kingship |year=2003 |page=134 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=90-04-12945-6}}</ref>

At the same period, the feudalisation of the Kingdom of Sicily was intensified, through the enforcement of feudal bonds and relations among its subjects. The [[1669 Etna eruption]] destroyed [[Catania]]. In 1693, 5% of the Kingdom's population was killed because of [[1693 Sicily earthquake|earthquakes]]. During that period, there were also plague outbreaks. The 17th and 18th century were an era of decline of the kingdom. Corruption was prevalent among the upper and middle classes of the society. Widespread corruption and mistreatment of the lower classes by the feudal lords led to the creation of groups of brigands, attacking the nobility and destroying their [[fief]]s.<ref name="fromr"/> These groups, which were self-named "mafia", were the foundation of the modern [[Sicilian Mafia]]. The escalation of revolts against the monarchy eventually led to the unification with Italy.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Lucy Riall |title=Sicily and the Unification of Italy: Liberal Policy and Local Power, 1859–1866 |year=1998 |page=206 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-820680-1}}</ref>

The kingdom had a [[Sicilian Parliament|parliament]] from 1097, which continued to sit throughout the realm's history until the Sicilian Constitution of 1812.

== Demographics ==
By the mid to late 13th century, estimates of the kingdom’s population range from 4 to perhaps 4.5 million, and given the proportion of mountain and pasture-land in the South, some districts must therefore have supported relatively large numbers of people.<ref name="crus">{{Cite book |author=Donald Matthew |title=The Norman Kingdom of Sicily |year=1992 |page=71 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0521269113}}</ref> During the Hohenstaufen era, the Kingdom had 3 towns with a population of over 20,000 each.<ref name="linabs">{{Cite book |author=Perry Anderson |title=Lineages of the Absolutist State |year=1984 |page=146 |publisher=Verso |isbn=0-86091-710-X}}</ref> After the loss of the northern provinces in 1282 during the [[Sicilian Vespers]] and several natural disasters like the [[1669 Etna eruption]], the population of the Kingdom of Sicily was reduced.<ref name="fromr"/> In 1803, the population of the Kingdom was 1,656,000.<ref name="twocom">{{Cite book |author=Jedidiah Morse |title=A Compendious and Complete System of Modern Geography: or, A View of the Present State of the World. |page=503 |publisher=Thomas and Andrews}}</ref> The main cities of the Kingdom at that time were [[Palermo]], [[Catania]], [[Messina]], [[Modica]], [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]].<ref name="twocom"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Population of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1803<ref name="twocom"/>
! Division !! Population
|-
| Val di Mazzara || 643,000
|-
| Val di Demona || 521,000
|-
| [[Val di Noto]] || 459,000
|-
| [[Lipari Islands]] || 18,000
|-
| [[Aegadian Islands]] || 12,000
|-
| [[Pantelleria|Pantelleria Island]] || 3,000
|-
! Total Population
| 1,656,000
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Population of the main cities of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1803<ref name="twocom"/>
! City !! Population
|-
| [[Palermo]] || 120,000
|-
| [[Catania]] || 40,000
|-
| [[Messina]] || 36,000
|-
| [[Modica]] || 23,500
|-
| [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] || 17,000
|}

== Economy ==
{{See also|Subventio generalis|Hemp in the Kingdom of Sicily}}
The high fertility of the land led the Norman kings to bring settlers from neighbouring regions or to resettle farmers to areas where cultivation of land was needed. This led to an increase in agricultural production. The main sources of wealth for the Kingdom of Sicily in that time were its maritime cities, most important of which were the ancient port cities of [[Naples]] and its nearby counterpart [[Amalfi]], from which local products were exported. The main export was [[durum wheat]], with other exports including [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[timber]], [[oil]], bacon, [[cheese]], furs, [[hide (skin)|hide]]s, [[hemp]] and [[cloth]].<ref name="nrki"/> Grain and other dry products were measured in salme, which was equivalent to 275.08&nbsp;litres in the western part of the Kingdom, and 300.3&nbsp;litres in the eastern part. The salma was divided in 16&nbsp;tumoli. One tumolo was equivalent to 17,193&nbsp;[[litre]]s. Weight was measured in cantari. One cantaro was equivalent to {{convert|79.35|kg}} and was divided in one hundred rottoli. Cloth was measured in canne. One canna was 2.06&nbsp;meters long.<ref name="jws"/> By the end of the 12th century, [[Messina]] had become one of the leading commercial cities of the kingdom.

Under the kingdom, Sicily's products went to many different lands. Among these were [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], [[Republic of Pisa|Pisa]], the [[Byzantine Empire]], and [[Egypt]]. Over the course of the 12th century, Sicily became an important source of raw materials for north Italian cities such as Genoa. As the centuries went on, however, this economic relationship became less advantageous to Sicily, and some modern scholars see the relationship as definitely exploitative.<ref>Henri Bresc (in ''Un monde mediteranéen'') claims that Sicily was relegated to being an agricultural satellite for wealthier northern Italian cities, and sees the Sicilian people as an early proletariat</ref> Furthermore, many scholars believe that Sicily went into decline in the [[Late Middle Ages]], though they do not agree about when this decline occurred. Clifford Backman argues that it is a mistake to see the economic history of Sicily in terms of victimization, and contends that the decline really began in the second part of the reign of Frederick III, in contrast to earlier scholars who believed that Sicilian decline had set in earlier.<ref>Backman, ''The Decline and Fall of Medieval Sicily,'' 1995.</ref> Where earlier scholars saw late medieval Sicily in continuous decline, Stephen Epstein argued that Sicilian society experienced something of a revival in the 15th century.<ref>Epstein, ''An Island for Itself: Economic Development and Social Change in Late Medieval Sicily,'' (2003).</ref>

Various treaties with Genoa secured and strengthened the commercial power of Sicily.<ref name="nrki"/>

The feudalisation of society during the Angevin rule reduced royal wealth and treasury. The dependence of the Angevins on north Italian commerce and financing by [[Florence|Florentine]] bankers were the main factors which led to the decline of the Kingdom's economy.<ref name="samkel"/> The continuation of the economic decline combined with the increased population and [[urbanization]] led to decrease of agrarian production.

In 1800, one-third of the available crops was cultivated with obsolete methods, exacerbating the problem. In the later period of Spanish rule, the trading system was also inefficient compared with previous periods because of high taxes on exports and monopolising corporations which had total control of prices.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Desmond Gregory |title=Sicily: The Insecure Base: A History of the British Occupation of Sicily, 1806–1815 |year=1988 |page=35 |publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press |isbn=0-8386-3306-4}}</ref>

== Coinage ==
[[File:Augustale.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A gold coin, which depicts the bust of a man and an eagle|Example of a Messinese augustale]]
The Norman kings in the 12th century used the [[tarì|tari]], which had been used in Sicily from 913 as the basic coin. One tari weighed about one gram and was {{frac|16|1|3}} carats of gold. The [[Arab]] [[dinar]] was worth four tari, and the [[Byzantine]] [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] six tari.<ref name="nrki"/> In the kingdom, one onza was equivalent to thirty tari or five florins. One tari was worth twenty grani. One grana was equivalent to six denari. After 1140, the circulation of the copper coin romesina stopped and it was replaced by the follaris. Twenty-four follari were equivalent to one Byzantine [[miliaresion]].

After defeating the [[History of medieval Tunisia|Tunisians]] in 1231, King [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I]] minted the [[augustalis]]. It was minted in {{frac|21|1|2}} carats and weighed 5.28&nbsp;grams.<ref name="pogo">{{Cite book |author=Peter L. Bernstein |title=The power of gold: the history of an obsession |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/powerofgoldhisto00bern/page/90 90] |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=0-471-25210-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/powerofgoldhisto00bern/page/90}}</ref> In 1490, the triumphi were minted in Sicily. They were equivalent to the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] [[ducat]]. One triumpho was worth {{frac|11|1|2}} aquilae. One aquila was worth twenty grani. In transactions tari and pichuli were mainly used.<ref name="jws"/>

== Religion ==
[[File:Panoramica Cattedrale di Palermo.jpg|thumb|right|[[Palermo Cathedral]]]]
During the Norman reign, several different religious communities coexisted in the Kingdom of Sicily. These included Latin Catholics ([[Latin Church|Roman Catholics]]), Greek-rite Catholics ([[Eastern Catholic Churches|Greek Catholic]]), [[Islam|Muslims]] and [[Judaism|Jews]]. Although local religious practices were not interrupted, the fact that Latin Catholics were in power tended to favor Latin Catholicism (Roman Catholicism). Bishops of the Greek rite were obliged to recognize the claims of the Latin Church in Sicily, while Muslim communities were no longer ruled by local [[emir]]s. Greek-speaking Christians, Latin Christians, and Muslims interacted on a regular basis, and were involved in each other's lives, economically, linguistically, and culturally. Some intermarried. Catholics living in an Arabic-speaking area might adopt Arabic or even Muslim names.<ref>Metcalfe, Alex. ''Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily: Arabic Speakers and the End of Islam'' (2003).</ref> In many cities, each religious community had its own administrative and judicial order. In [[Palermo]], Muslims were allowed to publicly call for prayer in mosques, and their legal issues were settled by [[qadi]]s, judges who ruled in accordance with Islamic law.<ref name="nrki"/> Since the 12th century, the Kingdom of Sicily recognized [[Christianity]] as the [[state religion]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gwynne-Timothy |first1=John |title=Quest for democracy: People and power in an age of upheaval, 1919 to the present |date=1970 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0771037260  |page=41 |quote=}}</ref>

After the establishment of Hohenstaufen authority, Latin- and Greek-speaking Catholics maintained their privileges, but the Muslim population was increasingly oppressed. The settlements of Italians brought from northern Italy (who wanted Muslim property for their own) led many Muslim communities to revolt or resettle in mountainous areas of Sicily.<ref name=":0" /> These revolts resulted in some acts of violence, and the eventual deportation of Muslims, which began under [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]. Eventually, the government removed the entire Muslim population to [[Lucera]] in [[Apulia]] and [[Girifalco]] in [[Calabria]], where they paid taxes and served as agricultural laborers, craftsmen, and crossbowmen for the benefit of the king. The colony at Lucera was finally disbanded in 1300 under [[Charles II of Naples]], and many of its inhabitants sold into slavery.<ref name=":0">The best discussion of the fate of Sicilian Muslims can be found in Julie Taylor, ''Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera'' (2003), but is also discussed in Alex Metcalfe, ''The Muslims of Medieval Italy'' (2009).</ref> The Jewish community was [[Expulsion of the Jews from Sicily|expelled]] after the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition from 1493 to 1513 in Sicily. The remaining Jews were gradually assimilated, and most of them converted to Roman Catholicism.<ref name="jws"/>

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
* [[Angelo da Furci]]
* [[County palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos]]
* [[Emirate of Sicily]]
* [[Expedition of the Thousand]]
* [[Expulsion of the Jews from Sicily]]
* [[Kingdom of Naples]]
* [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]]
* [[Kingdom of Sicily under Savoy]]
* [[List of Sicilian monarchs]]
* [[Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture]]
* [[Norman conquest of southern Italy]]
* [[Redshirts (Italy)|Redshirts]]
* [[Sicilian Parliament]]
* [[War of the Sicilian Vespers]]
{{div col end}}
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* Abulafia, David. ''Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor,'' 1988.
* Abulafia, David. ''The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes,'' Cambridge University Press, 1977. 
* Abulafia, David. ''The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms 1200–1500: The Struggle for Dominion,'' Longman, 1997. (a political history)
* Alio, Jacqueline. ''Queens of Sicily 1061-1266: The Queens Consort, Regent and Regnant of the Norman-Swabian Era of the Kingdom of Sicily,'' Trinacria, 2018.
* Aubé, Pierre. «Les Empires normands d'Orient, XIe-XIIIe siècles», Paris, rééd. Perrin, 2006.
* Aubé, Pierre. «Roger II de Sicile. Un Normand en Méditerranée», Paris 2001, rééd. Perrin, 2006.
* Johns, Jeremy. ''Arabic administration in Norman Sicily : the royal dīwān,'' Cambridge University Press, 2002.
* {{cite book |title=The Kingdom of Sicily, 1100-1250: A Literary History |first=Karla |last=Mallette |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2011}}
* Mendola, Louis. ''The Kingdom of Sicily 1130-1266: The Norman-Swabian Age and the Identity of a People,'' Trinacria Editions, New York, 2021.
* Metcalfe, Alex. ''Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily: Arabic Speakers and the End of Islam,'' Routledge, 2002.
* Metcalfe, Alex. ''The Muslims of Medieval Italy,'' 2009.
* Norwich, John Julius. ''Sicily: An Island at the Crossroads of History,'' 2015.
* Runciman, Steven. ''The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Late 13th Century,'' Cambridge University Press, 1958.

== External links ==
* [https://kos.aahvs.duke.edu/ Image database - The Medieval Kingdom of Sicily, a visual resource of historical sites c. 1100 - c. 1450] (Duke University)

{{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}}
{{Italy topics}}
{{Spanish Empire}}
{{Sicily}}
{{Malta topics}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sicily, Kingdom Of}}
[[Category:Kingdom of Sicily| ]]
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[[Category:Crown of Aragon]]
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[[Category:Christian states]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1130|Kingdom of Sicily]]
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