View source for Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor

{{Short description|Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 to 1519}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Maximilian I
| title        = [[Imperator Romanorum]]
| image        = Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.jpg
| alt          = 
| caption      = [[Portrait of Emperor Maximilian I|Portrait by Albrecht Dürer]], 1519
| succession   = [[Holy Roman Emperor]]
| reign        = 4 February 1508 – {{nowrap|12 January 1519}}
| coronation   = 4 February 1508, [[Trento]]{{sfn|Cuyler|1972|p=490}}
| cor-type     = {{nowrap|Proclamation}}
| predecessor  = [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]]
| successor    = [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]
| succession1  = [[King of the Romans]]<br/>[[King of Germany]]
| reign1       = 16 February 1486 – {{nowrap|12 January 1519}}
| coronation1  = 9 April 1486
| predecessor1 = [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]]
| successor1   = [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]
| reg-type1    = Alongside
| regent1      = [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] (1486–1493)
| succession2  = [[Archduke of Austria]]
| reign2       = 19 August 1493 – {{nowrap|12 January 1519}}
| predecessor2 = [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick V]]
| successor2   = [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]]
| succession3  = Co-ruler of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]], and titular [[Duke of Burgundy]]
| moretext3    = (''[[jure uxoris]]'')
| reign3       = 19 August 1477 – {{nowrap|27 March 1482}}
| predecessor3 = [[Mary, Duchess of Burgundy|Mary]]
| successor3   = [[Philip I of Castile|Philip IV]]
| reg-type3    = Alongside
| regent3      = Mary
| birth_date   = 22 March 1459
| birth_place  = [[Wiener Neustadt]], [[Inner Austria]]
| death_date   = 12 January 1519 (aged 59)
| death_place  = [[Wels]], [[Upper Austria]]
| burial_date  = 
| burial_place = [[Wiener Neustadt]], [[Archduchy of Austria|Austria]]
| spouses      = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Mary, Duchess of Burgundy]]|19 August 1477|27 March 1482|end=d}}
* {{marriage|[[Anne, Duchess of Brittany]]|19 December 1490|15 February 1492|end={{abbr|ann.|annulled}}}}
* {{marriage|[[Bianca Maria Sforza]]|16 March 1494|31 December 1510|end=d}}}}
| issue        = {{plainlist|
* [[Philip the Handsome]]
* [[Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy|Margaret, Duchess of Savoy]]}}
{{it col|Illegitimate}} {{plain list|
 * [[George of Austria|George, Prince-Bishop of Liège]]
* [[Leopoldo de Austria|Leopoldo, Bishop of Córdoba]]
}}
| issue-link   = #Marriages and offspring
| issue-pipe   = more...
| house        = [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]]
| father       = [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]]
| mother       = [[Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress|Eleanor of Portugal]]
| religion     = [[Catholic Church]]
| signature    = Maximilian gA 1497.jpg
}}

'''Maximilian I''' (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was [[King of the Romans]] from 1486 and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] from 1508 until his death in 1519. He was never crowned by the Pope, as the [[Italienzug|journey to Rome]] was blocked by the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]].{{sfn|Weaver|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5_P_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 68]}} He proclaimed himself elected emperor in 1508 at [[Trento|Trent]], with [[Pope Julius II]] later recognizing it.{{sfn|Emmerson|2013|p=462}}{{sfn|Stollberg-Rilinger|2020|p=13}}{{sfn|Whaley|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cZFlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} This broke the tradition of requiring a papal coronation for the adoption of the Imperial title. Maximilian was the only surviving son of [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]], and [[Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress|Eleanor of Portugal]]. From his coronation as King of the Romans in 1486, he ran a double government, or ''Doppelregierung'' with his father until Frederick's death in 1493.<ref name="Wolf 2005">{{cite book |last=Wolf |first=Susanne |title=Die Doppelregierung Kaiser Friedrichs III. und König Maximilians (1486–1493) |date=2005 |location=Köln |pages=561, 570 |language=de |url=http://www.regesta-imperii.de/fileadmin/user_upload/downloads/Regesta_Imperii_Beiheft_25.pdf |access-date=14 December 2022 |isbn=978-3-412-22405-9}}</ref><ref name=Heinig>{{cite journal |last=Heinig |first=Paul-Joachim |title=Rezension von: Reinhard Seyboth (Bearb.): Deutsche Reichstagsakten unter Maximilian I. Vierter Band: Reichsversammlungen 1491–1493, München: Oldenbourg 2008 |trans-title=Review of: Reinhard Seyboth (Ed.): German Reichstag files under Maximilian I. Fourth volume: Reich assemblies 1491–1493, Munich: Oldenbourg 2008 |language=de |journal=Sehepunkte |volume=10 |date=15 June 2010 |issue=6 |url=http://www.sehepunkte.de/2010/06/14188.html |access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref>

Maximilian expanded the influence of the [[House of Habsburg]] through war and his marriage in 1477 to [[Mary, Duchess of Burgundy]]. However, he also lost his family's lands in Switzerland to the [[Swiss Confederacy]]. Through the marriage of his son [[Philip the Handsome]] to eventual queen [[Joanna of Castile]] in 1496, Maximilian helped to establish the [[Habsburg Spain|Habsburg dynasty in Spain]], which allowed his grandson [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles]] to hold the thrones of both [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]].<ref>{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Maximilian I. (emperor) |display=Maximilian I. |volume= 17 |last= Holland |first= Arthur William | pages = 922–923 [922] |quote=...and about the same time arranged a marriage between his son Philip and Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon.}}</ref> Historian Thomas A. Brady Jr. describes him as "the first Holy Roman Emperor in 250 years who ruled as well as reigned" and the "ablest royal warlord of his generation".{{sfn|Brady|2009|pp=110, 128}}

Nicknamed "Coeur d'acier" ("Heart of steel") by [[Olivier de la Marche]] and later historians (either as praise for his courage and soldierly qualities or reproach for his ruthlessness as a warlike ruler),{{sfn|Terjanian|2019|p=37}}{{sfn|Hollegger|2012|pp=25–26}} Maximilian has entered the public consciousness, at least in the German-speaking world, as "the last knight" (''der letzte Ritter''), especially since the eponymous poem by [[Count Anton Alexander von Auersperg|Anastasius Grün]] was published (although the nickname likely existed even in Maximilian's lifetime).{{sfn|Fichtner|2017|p=4}} Scholarly debates still discuss whether he was truly the last knight (either as an idealized medieval ruler leading people on horseback, or a [[Don Quixote]]-type dreamer and misadventurer), or the first Renaissance prince—an amoral [[wikt:Machiavellian|Machiavellian]] politician who carried his family "to the European pinnacle of dynastic power" largely on the back of loans.{{sfn|Trevor-Roper|2017|p=3}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vann |first=James Allen |title=Review: [Untitled]. Reviewed work: Maximilian I, 1459–1519: An Analytical Biography. by Gerhard Benecke |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |date=Spring 1984 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=69–71 |doi=10.2307/2862003 |jstor=2862003 |s2cid=163937003}}</ref>

Historians of the late nineteenth century like [[Leopold von Ranke]] often criticized Maximilian for putting the interest of his dynasty above that of Germany, hampering the nation's unification process. Since [[:de:Hermann Wiesflecker|Hermann Wiesflecker]]'s ''Kaiser Maximilian I. Das Reich, Österreich und Europa an der Wende zur Neuzeit'' (1971–1986) became the standard work, a more positive image of the emperor has emerged. He is seen as a modern, innovative ruler who carried out important reforms and promoted significant cultural achievements, even if the financial costs weighed down the Austrians and his military expansion and caused the deaths and sufferings of many people.{{sfn|Hollegger|2012|pp=25–26}}{{sfn|Whaley|2012|pp=72–111}}<ref name=oeaw>{{cite web |last=Hollegger |first=Manfred |date=25 March 2019 |title=Maximillian Believed in Progress |publisher=Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften |url=https://www.oeaw.ac.at/detail/news/maximilian-believed-in-progress |website=oeaw.ac.at |access-date=20 September 2021 |archive-date=20 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920213128/https://www.oeaw.ac.at/detail/news/maximilian-believed-in-progress |url-status=live}}</ref>

Through an "unprecedented" image-building program, with the help of many notable scholars and artists, in his lifetime, the emperor—"the promoter, coordinator, and prime mover, an artistic impresario and entrepreneur with seemingly limitless energy and enthusiasm and an unfailing eye for detail"—had built for himself "a virtual royal self" of a quality that historians call "unmatched" or "hitherto unimagined".<ref name=Munck>{{cite book |last1=Munck |first1=Bert De |last2=Romano |first2=Antonella |title=Knowledge and the Early Modern City: A History of Entanglements |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-80843-2 |page=114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT114 |access-date=23 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hayton|2015|p=13}}{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=128}}{{sfn|Terjanian|2019|p=62}}{{sfn|Whaley|2009|p=2}} To this image, new layers have been added by the works of later artists in the centuries following his death, both as continuation of deliberately crafted images developed by his program as well as development of spontaneous sources and exploration of actual historical events, creating what Elaine Tennant dubs the "[[Cultural depictions of Holy Emperor Maximilian I|Maximilian industry]]".{{sfn|Terjanian|2019|p=62}}<ref name=Tennant>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Tennant |first=Elaine C. |contribution=Productive Reception: Theuerdank in the Sixteenth Century |title=Maximilians Ruhmeswerk |date=27 May 2015 |pages=295, 341|doi=10.1515/9783110351026-013 |isbn=978-3-11-034403-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-W_yCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA340 |access-date=23 January 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Background and childhood==
[[File:Frederick III and Eleanor of Portugal.jpg|thumb|left|Frederick III and Eleanor of Portugal.]]

Maximilian was born at [[Wiener Neustadt]] on 22 March 1459. His father, [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]], named him after [[Maximilian of Tebessa]], who Frederick believed had once warned him of imminent peril in a dream. In his infancy, he and his parents were besieged in Vienna by [[Albert VI, Archduke of Austria|Albert of Austria]]. One source relates that, during the siege's worst days, he wandered around the castle garrison, begging the servants and men-at-arms for bread.<ref>{{cite book |last=Janssen |first=Johannes |title=Gesch. des deutschen Volkes |volume=i |year= |publisher= |page=593}}{{full citation needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> He was the favourite child of his mother, whose personality contrasted his father's. Reportedly she told Maximilian that, "If I had known, my son, that you would become like your father, I would have regretted having born you for the throne." Her early death pushed him even more towards a man's world, where one grew up first as a warrior rather than a politician.{{sfn|Brady|2009|pp=108–109}}{{sfn|Kahl|2018|pp=69–70}}
[[File:147Eleonore von Portugal u Maximilian.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|Eleanor and Maximilian, from Empress Eleanor's Book of Hours. The mother fed him knights' tales, encouraged him to fence, dance and hunt, while the father wanted Maximilian to be good at Latin.<ref>{{cite news |title=Der Romantiker auf dem Kaiserthron – Kaiserslautern |url=https://www.rheinpfalz.de/lokal/kaiserslautern_artikel,-der-romantiker-auf-dem-kaiserthron-_arid,89036.html |access-date=28 January 2022 |work=RHEINPFALZ Redaktion |agency=Der Rheinpfalz |date=12 April 2014 |language=de}}</ref>]]

Despite the efforts of his father Frederick and his tutor Peter Engelbrecht, whom Maximilian held in contempt, he became an indifferent and belligerent student, who preferred physical activities than learning. Although the two remained on good terms overall, Frederick was horrified by his only surviving son and heir's overzealousness in chivalric contests, extravagance, and heavy tendencies towards wine, feasts and young women, which became evident during their trips in 1473 and 1474. Even though he was very young, the prince's skills and physical attractiveness often made him the center of attention. Although Frederick had forbidden the princes of the Empire from fighting with Maximilian in tournaments, Maximilian gave himself the necessary permission at the first chance he got. Frederick did not allow him to participate in the 1474 war against Burgundy though and placed him under the care of the Bishop of Augsburg instead.{{sfn|Kahl|2018|pp=79–80, 89–93}}{{sfn|Fichtner|2017|p=3}}{{sfn|Anderson|2017|p=212}}

The powerful Duke of Burgundy, [[Charles the Bold]], who also held warious fiefs within the Empire, was one of the chief political opponents of Maximilian's father Frederick III. Frederick was concerned about expansionist tendencies of the [[House of Valois-Burgundy]] towards the western regions of his [[Holy Roman Empire]], and, to forestall military conflict, he attempted to secure the marriage of Charles' daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to Maximilian. After the [[Siege of Neuss]] (1474–75), he was successful and the marriage was agreed, but concluded later, in 1477.{{sfn|Armstrong|1975|p=228}}

Perhaps as preparation for his task in the Netherlands, in 1476 at the age of 17, Maximilian commanded a military campaign against Hungary. This was the first actual battlefield experience in his life, even though the responsibility was likely shared with more experienced generals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Menzel |first=Thomas |title=Der Fürst als Feldherr: militärisches Handeln und Selbstdarstellung zwischen 1470 und 1550 : dargestellt an ausgewählten Beispielen |date=2003 |publisher=Logos |isbn=978-3-8325-0240-9 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlUvAAAAYAAJ |access-date=17 December 2021 |language=de}}</ref>{{sfn|Kahl|2018|p=92}}

The Maximilian and Mary's wedding took place on 19 August 1477.{{sfn|Gunn|Grummitt|Cools|2007|p=10}}

==Co-ruler in the Netherlands and Burgundy==
[[File:Karte Haus Burgund 5.png|thumb|right|250px|[[War of the Burgundian Succession]] (1477-1482-1493){{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{legend|#9966CC|Taken by the French in 1477}}
{{legend|Orange|Kept by [[Mary of Burgundy]], and secured for her's and Maximilian's son [[Philip the Handsome|Philip ]] in 1482, by the [[Treaty of Arras (1482)|Treaty of Arras]]}}
{{Legend striped|#9966CC|orange|Returned to Habsburgs in 1493, by the [[Treaty of Senlis]]}}
{{legend|#bdcb1e|Domains of [[John II, Count of Nevers]]|up=yes}}
{{Col-end}}]]

Upon her father's death in the [[Battle of Nancy]] on 5 January 1477, [[Mary of Burgundy]] claimed the inheritance of all of her father's domains, both in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Kingdom of France. In the same time, king [[Louis XI|Louis XI of France]] asserted his claims through military force, capturing the [[Duchy of Burgundy]] and other Valois-Burgundian fiefs that belonged to the French realm, citing the [[Salic law]] that favored male succession.<ref name="WB1976">World Book Encyclopedia, Field Enterprises Educational Corporation, 1976.{{full citation needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> Faced with those challenges, Mary agreed to marry Maximilian (19 August 1477), who undertook the defence of his wife's dominions. Without support from the Empire and with an empty treasury left by [[Charles the Bold]]'s campaigns,<ref>{{cite book |last=Wee |first=H. Van der |title=The Growth of the Antwerp Market and the European Economy: Fourteenth-Sixteenth Centuries |date= 2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-94-015-3864-0 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dcvrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |access-date=17 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> he carried out a campaign against the French during 1478–1479 and reconquered [[Le Quesnoy]], [[Condé-sur-l'Escaut|Conde]] and [[Antoing]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Loades |editor-first=Judith |title=Medieval History, Volume 4 |date=1994 |publisher=Headstart History |isbn=978-1-85943-125-2 |page=126 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srFmAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024132247/https://books.google.com/books?id=srFmAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> He defeated the French forces at the [[Battle of Guinegate (1479)|Battle of Guinegate]], in modern [[Enguinegatte]], on 7 August 1479.<ref name="eb1911">{{cite EB1911|wstitle= Maximilian I. (emperor) |display=Maximilian I. |volume= 17 |last= Holland |first= Arthur William | pages = 922–923 [922]}}</ref>

[[File:The Lover and Dame Oyseuse outside a walled garden - Roman de la Rose (c.1490-1500), f.12v - BL Harley MS 4425 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Garden scene in an MS of the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'', [[Bruges]] c. 1490, possibly depicting Maximilian and Mary. Maximilian wrote, "Had we but peace, we would sit here as in a rose garden."{{sfn|Trevor-Roper|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TNUrDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP5]}}]]

Despite winning, Maximilian had to abandon the siege of [[Thérouanne]] and disband his army, either because the Netherlanders did not want him to become too strong or because his treasury was empty. The battle was an important landmark in military history though: the Burgundian pikemen were the precursors of the [[Landsknechte]], while the French side derived the momentum for military reform from their loss.<ref name="Hans Delbruck">{{cite book|last=Delbruck|first=Hans|title=History of the Art of War Volume IV: The Dawn of Modern Warfare|year=1985|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|location=Lincoln|isbn=978-0-8032-6586-8|pages=6–7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsBMpfMVp-AC&pg=PR4|access-date=25 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925134706/https://books.google.com/books?id=MsBMpfMVp-AC&pg=PR4|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Bibliotheek Brugge, ms. 437, f384r.png|thumb|Maximilian offers [[Mary of Burgundy]] an engagement ring. [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|Miniature]] from a copy of the ''Excellent Chronicle of Flanders'' by [[Anthonis de Roovere]], c.&nbsp;1485–1515 ([[Bruges Public Library]] Ms. 437).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roovere |first=Anthonis de |title=Ms. 437 – [Excellente cronike van Vlaenderen en Gedicht op de bijeenkomst van Frederik III en Karel de Stoute] {{!}} Bibliotheek Brugge |url=https://www.bibliotheek.be/catalogus/anthonis-de-roovere/ms-437-excellente-cronike-van-vlaenderen-en-gedicht-op-de-bijeenkomst-van-frederik/library-v-obbrugge-oudedrukken_2980 |access-date=1 April 2022 |website=bibliotheek.be |language=nl}}</ref>]]

According to some, Maximilian and Mary's wedding contract stipulated that their children would succeed them but that the couple could not be each other's heirs. Mary tried to bypass this rule with a promise to transfer territories as a gift in case of her death, but her plans were confounded. After Mary's death in a riding accident on 27 March 1482 near the [[Wijnendale Castle]], Maximilian's aim was now to secure the inheritance to his and Mary's son, [[Philip the Handsome]].<ref name=heimann_maximilian>{{cite book |last=Heimann |first=Heinz-Dieter |title=Die Habsburger: Dynastie und Kaiserreiche |date=2001 |publisher=C.H.Beck |isbn=978-3-406-44754-9 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DHQea0JsytMC&pg=PA48 |access-date=20 February 2022 |language=de}}</ref> According to Haemers and Sutch, the original marriage contract stipulated that Maximilian could not inherit her Burgundian lands if they had children.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Sutch|first=Susie Speakman|contribution=Politics and Print at the Time of Philip the Fair|editor-last1=Wijsman |editor-first1=Hanno |editor-last2=Wijsman |editor-first2=Henri Willem |editor-last3=Kelders |editor-first3=Ann |last4=Sutch |first4=Susie Speakman |title=Books in Transition at the Time of Philip the Fair: Manuscripts and Printed Books in the Late Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Century Low Countries |date=2010 |publisher=Brepols |isbn=978-2-503-52984-4 |page=235 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_sxEAQAAIAAJ |access-date=17 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Haemers|2009|p=1}}

The Guinegate victory made Maximilian popular, but as an inexperienced ruler, he hurt himself politically by trying to centralize authority without respecting traditional rights and consulting relevant political bodies. The Belgian historian Eugène Duchesne comments that these years were among the saddest and most turbulent in the history of the country, and despite his later great imperial career, Maximilian unfortunately could never compensate for the mistakes he made as regent in this period.<ref>{{cite book |author=Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Belgique |entry=Maximilian |title=Biographie nationale, Volume 14 |date=1897 |publisher=H. Thiry-Van Buggenhoudt |page=161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fu0bAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA161 |access-date=24 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Morren |first=Paul |title=Van Karel de Stoute tot Karel V (1477–1519 |date=2004 |publisher=Garant |isbn=978-90-441-1545-1 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CMxU68_9lJoC&pg=PA57 |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024041927/https://books.google.com/books?id=CMxU68_9lJoC&pg=PA57 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some of the Netherlander provinces were hostile to Maximilian. In 1482, the [[Treaty of Arras (1482)|Treaty of Arras]] was signed between Maximilian and Louis XI, leaving the [[Duchy of Burgundy]] in the French hands, and also designating the [[County of Artois]] and the [[Free County of Burgundy]] (region of [[Franche-Comté]]) as a dowry for Maximilian′s daughter Margaret, who was engaged to the French prince.<ref name="WB1976"/>

Various regions in the Low Countries [[Flemish revolts against Maximilian of Austria|openly rebelled]] twice in the period 1482–1492, attempting to regain the [[Great Privilege|autonomy]] they had enjoyed under Mary. Flemish rebels managed to capture Philip and even Maximilian himself, but they released Maximilian when Frederick III intervened.<ref name="vanleeuwen">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Balancing Tradition and Rites of Rebellion: The Ritual Transfer of Power in Bruges on 12 February 1488 |encyclopedia=Symbolic Communication in Late Medieval Towns |publisher=Leuven University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEhNBaRxXWAC&pg=PA65 |author=Jacoba Van Leeuwen |isbn=978-90-5867-522-4 |access-date=25 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="buylaert">{{Cite journal |last1=Frederik Buylaert |last2=Jan Van Camp |last3=Bert Verwerft |year=2011 |editor2-last=Adrian R. Bell |title=Urban militias, nobles and mercenaries. The organization of the Antwerp army in the Flemish-Brabantine revolt of the 1480s |journal=Journal of Medieval Military History |volume=IX |editor1=Anne Curry}}</ref> In 1489, as he turned his attention to his hereditary lands, he left the Low Countries in the hands of [[Albert III, Duke of Saxony|Albert of Saxony]], who proved to be an excellent choice, as he was less emotionally committed to the Low Countries and more flexible as a politician than Maximilian, while also being a capable general.{{sfn|Koenigsberger|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2V1dbsvEWnkC&pg=PA67 67]}} By 1492, rebellions were completely suppressed. Maximilian revoked the Great Privilege and established a strong ducal monarchy undisturbed by particularism. But he would not reintroduce Charles the Bold's centralizing ordinances. Since 1489 (after his departure), the government under Albert of Saxony had made more efforts in consulting representative institutions and showed more restraint in subjugating recalcitrant territories. Notables who had previously supported rebellions returned to city administrations. The Estates General continued to develop as a regular meeting place of the central government.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tracy |first=James D. |title=Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-81431-7 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXKMvr09dB4C&pg=PA71 |access-date=26 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Blockmans|Prevenier|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uj9nGDCiW64C&pg=PA207 207]}}

The harsh suppression of the rebellions did have an unifying effect, in that provinces stopped behaving like separate entities each supporting a different lord.{{sfn|Gunn|Grummitt|Cools|2007|p=12}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=Edward Sylvester |last2=Horne |first2=Charles Francis |title=The Story of the Greatest Nations: A Comprehensive History, Extending from the Earliest Times to the Present, Founded on the Most Modern Authorities, and Including Chronological Summaries and Pronouncing Vocabularies for Each Nation; and the World's Famous Events, Told in a Series of Brief Sketches Forming a Single Continuous Story of History and Illumined by a Complete Series of Notable Illustrations from the Great Historic Paintings of All Lands |date=1914 |publisher=Niglutsch |page=1904 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y8RLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1857 |access-date=26 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026123821/https://books.google.com/books?id=y8RLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1857 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Helmut Koenigsberger]] opines that it was not the erratic leadership of Maximilian, who was brave but hardly understood the Netherlands, but the Estates' desire for the survival of the country that made the Burgundian monarchy survive.{{sfn|Koenigsberger|2001|p=70}} Jean Berenger and C.A. Simpson argue that Maximilian, as a gifted military champion and organizer, did save the Netherlands from France, although the conflict between the Estates and his personal ambitions caused a catastrophic situation in the short term.{{sfn|Berenger|Simpson|2014|pp=194–195}} Peter Spufford opines that the invasion was prevented by a combination of the Estates and Maximilian, although the cost of war, Maximilian's spendthrift liberality and the interests enforced by his German bankers did cause huge expenditure while income was falling.{{sfn|Spufford|1970|pp=8–9}} Jelle Haemers comments that the Estates stopped their support towards the young and ambitious ''impresario'' (director) of war because they knew that after Guinegate, the nature of the war was not defensive anymore.{{efn|"Internal division, political competition among the representatives in the Estates, the tradition of a strong corps of officials used to governing the state in a centralising manner, and the arrival of a new, ambitious 'impresario of war' as the head of state undermined the privileges of 1477.", pg.100.{{sfn|Haemers|2009|pp=23, 25–26, 38, 41, 100, 266}}}}

Maximilian and his followers had managed to achieve remarkable success in stabilizing the situation though, and a stalemate was kept in Ghent as well as in Bruges, before the tragic death of Mary in 1482 completely turned the political landscape in the whole country upside down.{{sfn|Haemers|2014|pp=50–64}} According to Haemers, while Willem Zoete's indictment of Maximilian's government was a one-sided picture that exaggerated the negative points and the Regency Council displayed many of the same problems, Maximilian and his followers could have been more prudent when dealing with the complaints of their opponents before matters became bigger.{{sfn|Haemers|2014|pp=279–290}}
[[File:Postcard - Bruges Cranenburg (Excelsior Series 11, No. 51, Albert Sugg a Gand; ca. 1905).jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Cranenburg House]] in Bruges, a favorite residence of Mary and Maximilian, near which he organized tournaments, and also the place in which he was imprisoned for four weeks in 1488.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vossen |first=Carl |title=Maria von Burgund: des Hauses Habsburg Kronjuwel |date=1982 |publisher=Seewald |isbn=978-3-512-00636-4 |pages=146–147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeobAAAAMAAJ |access-date=12 November 2021 |language=de}}</ref> c.&nbsp;1905.]]

During his time in the Low Countries, he had experimented with all kinds of military models available, first urban militia and vassalic troops, then French-style companies that were too rigid and costly, and finally Germanic mercenaries. The brutal efficiency of Germanic mercenaries, together with the financial support of cities outside Flanders like Antwerp, Amsterdam, Mechelen and Brussels as well as a small group of loyal landed nobles proved decisive in the Burgundian-Habsburg regime's final triumph.{{sfn|Haemers|2014|pp=279–290}}{{sfn|Tracy|2002|p=71}}<ref name=Lassalmonie/> Reviewing the French historian Amable Sablon du Corail's ''La Guerre, le prince et ses sujets. Les finances des Pays-Bas bourguignons sous Marie de Bourgogne et Maximilien d'Autriche (1477–1493)'', Marc Boone comments that the brutality described shows Maximilian and the Habsburg dynasty's insatiable greed of expansion and inability to adapt to local traditions, while Jean-François Lassalmonie opines that the nation building process (successful, with the establishment of a common tax) was remarkably similar to the same process in France, including the hesitation in working with local levels of the political society, except that the struggle was shorter and after 1494 a peaceful dialogue between the prince and the estates was reached.<ref name=Lassalmonie>{{cite journal |last=Lassalmonie |first=Jean-François |title=''Amable Sablon du Corail'', La Guerre, le prince et ses sujets. Les finances des Pays-Bas bourguignons sous Marie de Bourgogne et Maximilien d'Autriche (1477–1493), ''Turnhout, Brepols, 2019, 632 p., ISBN 978-2503580982'' |journal=Revue d'histoire moderne & contemporaine |date=2021 |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=189–191 |language=fr |doi=10.3917/rhmc.684.0191 |s2cid=247271703|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Boone |first=Marc |title=Amable Sablon du Corail, La guerre, le prince et ses sujets. Les finances des Pays-Bas bourguignons sous Marie de Bourgogne et Maximilien d'Autriche (1477–1493), Turnhout (Brepols) 2019 |journal=Francia-Recensio |date=30 June 2020 |pages=2020/2|doi=10.11588/frrec.2020.2.73238 |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8664225/file/8664226.pdf |archive-url= https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8664225/file/8664226.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=10 May 2022}}</ref> Jelle Haemers suggests that the level of violence associated with the suppression of the revolts as traditionally imagined has been exaggerated and that most of the violence happened in a symbolical manner, but also cautions against the tendency to consider the "central state" in the sense of a modern state.{{sfn|Haemers|2014|pp=279–290}}<ref>{{cite interview|interviewer-last=De Keyzer |interviewer-first=Laurens |last=Haemers |first=Jelle |title=Een mislukte greep naar macht: Jelle Haemers over Vlaamse Opstand tegen Maximiliaan |magazine=Bibliotheek- & archiefgids|volume=85 |date=2009a |issue=5 |pages=5–9 |language=nl |url=https://adoc.pub/queue/een-mislukte-greep-naar-macht.html |access-date=12 December 2022}}</ref>

While it has been suggested that Maximilian displayed a class-based mentality that favoured the aristocrats,{{sfn|Koenigsberger|2001|p=52}} recent studies suggest that, as evidenced by the court ordinance of 1482 among others, he sought to promote "parvenus" who were beholden to himself, and at an alarming speed for the traditional elites.{{sfn|Cho|2013|p=210}}{{sfn|Haemers|2009|pp=118–128}}<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Spijkers |first=J.H. |title=Punished and corrected as an example to all: On the treatment of rebellious nobles during and after the Flemish Revolts (1482–1492) |date=2014 |publisher=Leiden University |pages=6, 42, 45 |url=https://studenttheses.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887/32074 |access-date=27 October 2021}}</ref> After the rebellions, concerning the aristocracy, although Maximilian punished few with death, their properties were largely confiscated and they were replaced with a new elite class loyal to the Habsburgs—among whom, there were noblemen who had been part of traditional high nobility but elevated to supranational importance only in this period. The most important of these were [[John III of Egmont|John III]] and [[Frederik of Egmont]], [[Engelbert II of Nassau|Engelbrecht II of Nassau]], [[:nl:Huis Corsselaar|Henry of Witthem]] and the [[Cornelis of Glymes|brothers of Glymes–Bergen]].{{sfn|Spijkers|2014|pp=5, 42, 103}}
[[File:David Diptych The Judgment of Cambyses.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|''[[The Judgment of Cambyses]]'', Bruges's symbolic apology to Maximilian. In a twist, the corrupted judge had the likeness of Maximilian's hated official [[:nl:Pieter Lanchals|Peter Lanchals]], who was executed by Bruges.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=Helene E. |title=Encyclopedia of Comparative Iconography: Themes Depicted in Works of Art |date= 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-78792-8 |page=1184 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0fq1fPD-itIC&pg=PT1184 |access-date=22 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Painted by [[Gerard David]]. Previously, when Maximilian was moved to Jean Gros's mansion, his second prison, Bruges hired David to paint the strong iron gratings, added to the windows to prevent escape, in order to amuse the prisoner, whom they tried to cheer up in various ways.<ref>{{cite book |last=Macfall |first=Haldane |title=A History of Painting: The renaissance in the North; and the Flemish genius |date=1999 |publisher=T. C. and E. C. Jack |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9DlAAAAMAAJ |access-date=22 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Duclos |first=Adolphe |title=Bruges: histoire et souvenirs |date=1910 |publisher=K. van de Vyvere-Petyt |page=548 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9tGAgPsHS4C&pg=PA548 |access-date=22 December 2021 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Huizinga |first=Johan |title=The Waning of the Middle Ages |date=1999 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-40443-1 |page=226 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YydsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA226 |access-date=22 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>]]

In early 1486, he retook Mortaigne, l'Ecluse, Honnecourt and even Thérouanne, but the same thing like in 1479 happened—he lacked financial resources to exploit and keep his gains. Only in 1492, with a stable internal situation, he was able to reconquer various regions that were defined in 1482 as his daugthers dowry, on the pretext that the French had canceled her engagement with the French prince, now king Charles VIII.{{sfn|Gunn|Grummitt|Cools|2007|p=12}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Potter |first=David |title=War and Government in the French Provinces |date=13 February 2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89300-8 |pages=42, 44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZA5mJmoB1oC&pg=PA44 |access-date=26 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026123813/https://books.google.com/books?id=bZA5mJmoB1oC&pg=PA44 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1493, Maximilian and Charles VIII of France signed the [[Treaty of Senlis]], by which the [[County of Artois]] and the [[Free County of Burgundy]] were officially returned to Habsburg rule, while Picardy was confirmed as French possession. The French also continued to keep the [[Duchy of Burgundy]]. Thus a large part of the Netherlands (known as the [[Seventeen Provinces]]) stayed in the Habsburg patrimony.<ref name="WB1976"/>

On 8 January 1488, using a similar 1373 French ordinance as the model, together with Philip, he issued the Ordinance of Admiralty, that organized the Admiralty as a state institution and strove to centralize maritime authority (this was a departure from the policy of Philip the Good, whose 1458 ordinance tried to restore maritime order by decentralizing power).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bes |first1=Lennart |last2=Frankot |first2=Edda |last3=Brand |first3=Hanno |title=Baltic Connections: Archival Guide to the Maritime Relations of the Countries Around the Baltic Sea (Including the Netherlands) 1450–1800 |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-16429-1 |page=1256 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYSfMk22m-YC&pg=PA1256 |access-date=12 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sicking |first=Louis |title=Neptune and the Netherlands: State, Economy, and War at Sea in the Renaissance |date=2004 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-474-0535-1 |page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rIVSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |access-date=12 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This was the [[Royal Netherlands Navy#History|beginning of the Dutch navy]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Defensie |first=Ministerie van |title=Geschiedenis marine – Koninklijke Marine – Defensie.nl |url=https://www.defensie.nl/organisatie/marine/geschiedenis |website=defensie.nl |access-date=12 January 2022 |language=nl-NL |date=16 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wragg |first=David |title=The World Sea Power Guide |date=2012 |publisher=Pen and Sword |isbn=978-1-78303-558-8 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XMhD6TYhvmAC&pg=PT243 |access-date=12 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> although initially the policy faced opposition and unfavourable political climate, which only improved with the appointment of [[Philip of Burgundy-Beveren]] in 1491.{{sfn|Sicking|2004|p=129}} A permanent navy only took shape after 1555 under the governorship of his granddaughter Mary of Hungary.{{sfn|Sicking|2004|pp=482–484}}

In 1493, Frederick III died, thus Maximilian I became de facto leader of the Holy Roman Empire. He decided to transfer power to the 15-year-old Philip.<ref>{{cite book |last=Limm |first=P. |title=The Dutch Revolt 1559–1648 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-88058-5 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibmOAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=13 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> During the time in the Low Countries, he contracted such emotional problems that except for rare, necessary occasions, he would never return to the land again after gaining control. When the Estates sent a delegation to offer him the regency after Philip's death in 1506, he evaded them for months.{{sfn|Koenigsberger|2001|pp=67, 91, 102}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Géoris |first=Michel |title=Les Habsbourg |date=1995 |publisher=Editions France-Empire |isbn=978-2-7048-0766-6 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vukWAQAAIAAJ |access-date=13 November 2021 |language=fr}}</ref>

[[File:Pieter van Coninxloo - Diptych.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Philip the Handsome]] and [[Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy|Margaret of Austria]], usually attributed to Pieter van Coninxloo (1460–1513), c.&nbsp;1494]]
As suzerain, Maximilian continued to involve himself with the Low Countries from afar. His son's and daughter's governments tried to maintain a compromise between the states and the Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Krahn |first=Cornelius |title=Dutch Anabaptism: Origin, Spread, Life and Thought (1450–1600) |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-015-0609-0 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SnboCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=25 October 2021 |language=en |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160632/https://books.google.com/books?id=SnboCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref> Philip, in particular, sought to maintain an independent Burgundian policy, which sometimes caused disagreements with his father.{{sfn|Blockmans|Prevenier|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uj9nGDCiW64C&pg=PA211 211]}} As Philip preferred to maintain peace and economic development for his land, Maximilian was left fighting [[Charles II, Duke of Guelders|Charles of Egmond]] over Guelders on his own resources. At one point, Philip let French troops supporting Guelders's resistance to his rule pass through his own land.{{sfn|Blockmans|Prevenier|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uj9nGDCiW64C&pg=PA211 211]}} Only at the end of his reign, Philip decided to deal with this threat together with his father.{{sfn|Gunn|Grummitt|Cools|2007|p=13}}

By this time, Guelders had been affected by the continuous state of war and other problems. The duke of Cleves and the bishop of Utrecht, hoping to share spoils, gave Philip aid. Maximilian invested his own son with Guelders and Zutphen. Within months and with his father's skilled use of field artillery, Philip conquered the whole land and Charles of Egmond was forced to prostrate himself in front of Philip. Maximilian would have liked to see the Guelders matter to be dealt with once and for all, but as Charles later escaped and Philip was at haste to make his 1506 fatal journey to Spain, troubles would soon arise again, leaving Margaret to deal with the problems. Maximilian was exasperated by the attitude of Philip (who, in Maximilian's imagination, was probably influenced by insidious French agency) and the Estates, whom he considered to be unbelievably nonchalant and tightfisted about a threat to their own country's security.{{sfn|Cauchies|2003|pp=173–176}} Philip's death in Burgos was a heavy blow personally (Maximilian's entourage seem to have concealed it from him for more than ten days) and also politically, as by this time, he had become his father's most important international ally, although he retained his independent judgement. All their joint ventures fell apart, including the planned Italian expedition in 1508.{{sfn|Wiesflecker|1971b|p=304}}{{sfn|Metzig|2016|p=45}}{{sfn|Cauchies|2003|pp=156, 208}}

[[File:Flemish School, 16th century - The Meeting of Henry VIII and the Emperor Maximilian I - RCIN 405800 - Royal Collection.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Flemish painting showing the encounter between Maximilian and [[Henry VIII]] of England. In the background is depicted the [[Battle of the Spurs]] against [[Louis XII]] of France.]]
The Estates preferred to maintain peace with France and Guelders. But Charles of Egmont, the de facto lord of Guelders continued to cause trouble. In 1511, Margaret made an alliance with England and besieged Venlo, but Charles of Egmont invaded Holland so the siege had to be lifted.{{sfn|Armstrong|1975|p=251-252}} [[James Tracy (historian)|James D. Tracy]] opines that Maximilian and Margaret were reasonable in demanding more stern measures against Guelders, but their critics in the Estates General (that had continuously voted against providing funds for wars against Guelders) and among the nobles naively thought that Charles of Egmont could be controlled by maintaining the peaceful relationship with the King of France, his patron. Leading [[Renaissance humanist]]s in the Netherlands like [[Erasmus]] and [[Adrianus Barlandus|Hadrianus Barlandus]] displayed a distrust towards the government and especially the person of Maximilian, whom they believed to be a warlike and greedy prince. After the brutal 1517 campaign of Charles of Egmont in Friesland and Holland, these humanists, in their mistaken belief, spread the stories that the emperor and other princes were concocting clever schemes and creating wars just to expand the Habsburg dominion and extracting money.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tracy |first=James D. |title=Holland Under Habsburg Rule, 1506–1566: The Formation of a Body Politic |date=23 October 2018 |publisher=Univ of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-30403-1 |pages=68–69 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x7nADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Janin |first1=Hunt |last2=Carlson |first2=Ursula |title=Mercenaries in Medieval and Renaissance Europe |date=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-1-4766-1207-2 |pages=8, 21, 150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fwQAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tracy |first=James D. |title=Erasmus of the Low Countries |date=1996 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08745-3 |page=94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvbNbNMP_vcC&pg=PA94 |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

By the time Margaret became Regent, Maximilian was less inclined to help regarding the Guelders matter. He suggested to her that the Estates in the Low Countries should defend themselves, forcing her to sign the 1513 treaty with Charles. Habsburg Netherlands would only be able to incorporate Guelders and Zutphen under Charles V.<ref>{{cite book |last=Edmundson |first=George |title=History of Holland |date= 2018 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-7340-5543-0 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-VdwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |access-date=1 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103222332/https://books.google.com/books?id=-VdwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Blok |first=Petrus Johannes |title=History of the People of the Netherlands: From the beginning of the fifteenth century to 1559 |date=1970 |publisher=AMS Press |isbn=978-0-404-00900-7 |pages=188–191 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ANwCltINVAC |access-date=1 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103222313/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ANwCltINVAC |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Koenigsberger|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2V1dbsvEWnkC&pg=PA99 99]}}

Following Margaret's strategy of defending the Low Countries with foreign armies, in 1513, at the head of [[Henry VIII]]'s army, Maximilian gained a victory against the French at the [[Battle of the Spurs]], at little cost to himself or his daughter (in fact according to Margaret, the Low Countries got a profit of one million of gold from supplying the English army).{{sfn|Armstrong|1975|p=251-252}}{{sfn|Potter|2014|p=322}} For the sake of his grandson Charles's Burgundian lands, he ordered Thérouanne's walls to be demolished (the stronghold had often served as a backdoor for French interference in the Low Countries).{{sfn|Potter|2014|p=322}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Gorrevod |first=Laurent de |title=Correspondance politique et administrative de Laurent de Gorrevod, conseiller de Marguerite d'Autriche et gouverneur de Bresse: Thèse ... présentée ... |date=1913 |publisher=Protat |page=271 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3MKP8fonSkC&pg=PA271 |access-date=1 November 2021 |language=fr |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103222314/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3MKP8fonSkC&pg=PA271 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Reign in the Holy Roman Empire==
[[File:Strigel, Bernhard - Maximilian I - Tiroler Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait by [[Bernhard Strigel]], c. 1508]]
===Recapture of Austria===
{{Main|War of the Hungarian Succession}}
[[File:Hungarian post-Matthias succession wars (1490-94).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Succession wars in Hungary after the death of [[Matthias Corvinus]] (Vladislas marked dark red)]]
Maximilian was elected King of the Romans on 16 February 1486 in [[Frankfurt-am-Main]] and was crowned on 9 April 1486 in [[Aachen]]. Much of the Austrian territories and Vienna were under the rule of King [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]], as a result of the [[Austrian–Hungarian War (1477–1488)]]. Maximilian was now a king without lands. Matthias Corvinus offered Emperor Frederick and his son Maximilian, the return of Austrian provinces and Vienna, if they would renounce the treaty of 1463 and accept Matthias as Frederick's designated heir and favoured successor as Holy Roman Emperor. Before this was settled, Matthias died in Vienna in 1490.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alexander Gillespie|title=The Causes of War: Volume III: 1400 CE to 1650 CE|publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]]|page=66|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5099-1766-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3UpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66}}</ref> However, after Matthias Corvinus' death, civil war broke out in Hungary between the supporters of [[John Corvinus]] and the supporters of [[Vladislaus II of Hungary|Vladislaus of Bohemia]]. Due to the Hungarian civil war and [[interregnum]], new possibilities were opened for Maximilian.

In July 1490, Maximilian began a series of short sieges that reconquered cities and fortresses that his father had lost in Austria. Maximilian entered Vienna, already evacuated by the Hungarians, in August 1490. He was injured while attacking the citadel guarded by a garrison of 400 Hungarians troops who repelled his forces twice, but after a few days they surrendered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ackerl |first=Isabella |title=König Mathias Corvinus: ein Ungar, der in Wien regierte |date=1985 |publisher=Österreichischer Bundesverlag |isbn=978-3-215-05786-1 |page=208 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WOBnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=25 September 2021 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103222315/https://books.google.com/books?id=WOBnAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Dyer |first=Thomas Henry |title=Modern Europe: 1453–1530 |date=1877 |publisher=G. Bell and Sons |page=205 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FHPGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA205 |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103222315/https://books.google.com/books?id=FHPGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA205 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In addition, the [[County of Tyrol]] and [[Duchy of Bavaria]] went to war in the late 15th century. Bavaria demanded money from Tyrol that had been loaned on the collateral of Tyrolean lands. In 1490, the two states demanded that Maximilian I step in to mediate the dispute. His Habsburg cousin, the childless [[Sigismund, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Sigismund]], was negotiating to sell Tyrol to their Wittelsbach rivals rather than let Emperor Frederick inherit it. Maximilian's mediation led to a reconciliation and a reunited dynastic rule in the 1490.{{sfn|Benecke|2019|pp=13, 26}} Because Tyrol had no law code at this time, the nobility freely expropriated money from the populace, which caused the court in [[Innsbruck]] to fester with corruption. After taking control, Maximilian instituted immediate financial reform. Gaining control of Tyrol for the Habsburgs was of strategic importance because it linked the Swiss Confederacy to the Habsburg-controlled Austrian lands, which facilitated some imperial geographic continuity.

From 1497 to 1498, Maximilian negotiated an inheritance contract with the last [[House of Gorizia|Meinhardin]] prince, Count [[Leonhard of Gorizia]], which was intended to bring the [[County of Gorizia]] to the Habsburgs. However, it was only after a dispute with the [[Republic of Venice]] that the Gorizia stadtholder, [[Virgil von Graben]], finally succeeded in realizing this contract.<ref>Erich Zöllner: [https://books.google.com/books?id=4NGyjatKdKQC&dq=virgil+von+graben&pg=PA159 ''Geschichte Österreichs: von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart.''] Verlag für Geschichte und Politik, 1990, ISBN 3-486-46708-5, p 159.</ref>

===Expedition in Hungary===
[[Beatrice of Naples]], Matthias Corvinus's widow, initially supported Maximilian out of hope that he would marry her, but Maximilian did not want this.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellis |first1=Edward Sylvester |last2=Keller |first2=Augustus R. |title=History of the German People from the First Authentic Annals to the Present Time |date=1916 |publisher=International Historical Society |page=347 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_5tDAAAAYAAJ |access-date=12 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The Hungarian magnates found Maximilian impressive, but they wanted a king they could dominate. The crown of Hungary thus fell to King [[Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Vladislaus II]], who was deemed weaker in personality and also agreed to marry Beatrice.{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=14}}<ref>{{cite book |last=d'Avray |first=David |title=Papacy, Monarchy and Marriage 860–1600 |date= 2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-06253-5 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kPkGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 |access-date=12 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lendvai |first=Paul |title=The Hungarians: A Thousand Years of Victory in Defeat |date=2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-20027-9 |page=86 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2C33DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 |access-date=12 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> [[Tamás Bakócz]], the Hungarian chancellor, allied himself with Maximilian and helped him to circumvent the 1505 Diet which declared that no foreigner could be elected as King of Hungary.{{sfn|Lendvai|2021|p=86}}

With money from [[Innsbruck]] and southern German towns, he raised enough cavalry and [[Landsknecht]]e to campaign into Hungary. Despite Hungary's gentry's hostility to the Habsburg, he managed to gain many supporters from higher aristocracy, including several of Corvinus's supporters. One of them, Jakob Székely, handed over Styrian castles to him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Engel |first=Pal |title=The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 |date=2001 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85773-173-9 |page=539 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yCmAQGTW28C&pg=PA539 |access-date=22 September 2021 |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922052711/https://books.google.com/books?id=9yCmAQGTW28C&pg=PA539 |url-status=live }}</ref> He claimed his status as King of Hungary. In the meantime, Vladislas was proclaimed King of Hungary on July 15, 1490, and was crowned at [[Székesfehérvár]] in September. Maximilian responded with great force, using a massive grant of funds from the Tyrolean Estates to invade Hungary with an army of around 17,000 men. Crossing the Raab River in late October, Maximilian encountered little resistance in Hungary, as the unprepared Vladislas was not inclined towards action. Maximilian was joined by numerous Hungarian nobles and even [[magnate]]s. Despite stiff resistance, the city was bombarded, and eventually captured. This resulted in looting and slaughter that Maximilian and his officers were unable to prevent. The next day became a turning point in the campaign, as his mercenaries mutinied due to the prohibition of looting.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cuneo |first=Pia F. |title=Artful Armies, Beautiful Battles: Art and Warfare in the Early Modern Europe |date=2002 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11588-0 |page=100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jBT4V3gtkwC&pg=PA100 |access-date=22 September 2021 |archive-date=1 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001003328/https://books.google.com/books?id=7jBT4V3gtkwC&pg=PA100 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Faced with a severe winter, his troops refused to continue fighting, requesting Maximilian to double their pay, which he could not afford. The revolt turned the situation in favour of the Jagiellonian forces{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=14}} and Maximilian was forced to return. He depended on his father and the territorial estates for financial support. Soon he reconquered Lower and Inner Austria for his father, who returned and settled at Linz. Worrying about his son's adventurous tendencies, Frederick decided to starve him financially.
[[File:Max Durer circle.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.8|Maximilian I, after 1504, by unknown artist in Albrecht Dürer's circle. The painting bears similarity to [[Giovanni Ambrogio de Predis]]'s style.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bildnis Kaiser Maximilians I. (1459–1519) {{!}} Albrecht Dürer (Kreis) |website=Bildindex der Kunst & Architektur |url=https://www.bildindex.de/document/obj02552099 |access-date=5 December 2021}}</ref>]]
[[File:339Kufstein Belagerung.jpg|thumb|right|Siege of [[Kufstein Fortress|Kufstein]], 1504]]

In 1491, they signed the [[Peace of Pressburg (1491)|Peace of Pressburg]], which provided that Maximilian recognized Vladislaus as King of Hungary, but the Habsburgs would inherit the throne on the extinction of Vladislaus's male line and the Austrians also received 100,000 golden florins as war reparations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cristea |first1=Ovidiu |last2=Pilat |first2=Liviu |title=From Pax Mongolica to Pax Ottomanica: War, Religion and Trade in the Northwestern Black Sea Region (14th–16th Centuries) |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-42244-5 |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RxfUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=22 September 2021 |archive-date=22 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922052711/https://books.google.com/books?id=RxfUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA197 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was Maximilian that the Croatians began to harbour a connection with. However, the Croatian nobility wanted him as King. Worrying that a multi-fronted war would leave him overextended, Maximilian evacuated from Croatia and accepted the treaty with the Jagiellons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Guldescu |first=Stanko |title=History of Medieval Croatia |date=1964 |publisher=Mouton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqRnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=12 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Guldescu |first=Stanko |title=The Croatian-Slavonian Kingdom: 1526–1792 |date= 2014 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-088162-2 |pages=10–11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5lFbDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |access-date=12 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gazi |first=Stephen |title=A History of Croatia |date=1973 |publisher=Philosophical Library |isbn=978-0-8022-2108-7 |page=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XLBnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=12 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

===Italian and Swiss wars===
{{Main|Swabian War}}
{{See also|Italian Wars}}
[[File:Sallet of Emperor Maximilian I (1459–1519) MET DP-12880-034.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Sallet]] of Maximilian I, {{circa|1490–95}}, by [[Lorenz Helmschmid]], [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].]]

As the Treaty of Senlis had resolved French differences with the Holy Roman Empire, King [[Louis XII of France]] had secured borders in the north and turned his attention to Italy, where he made claims to the [[Duchy of Milan]]. In 1499 and 1500 he conquered it and drove [[Lodovico il Moro]] into exile.<ref name="erbe">{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Erbe |title=Die Habsburger 1493–1918 |location=[[Stuttgart]] |publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-3-17-011866-9 |pages=19–30}}</ref> This brought him into a potential conflict with Maximilian, who on 16 March 1494 had married [[Bianca Maria Sforza]], a daughter of [[Galeazzo Maria Sforza]], duke of Milan.<ref name="WB1976"/><ref name=erbe/> However, Maximilian was unable to prevent Louis from capturing Milan.<ref name=erbe/> The [[Italian Wars]] resulted<ref name="WB1976"/> in Maximilian joining the [[War of the League of Cambrai#Holy League|Holy League]] to counter the French. His campaigns in Italy generally went poorly, and his progress was quickly stopped. Maximilian's campaigns tend to be criticized for being wasteful and gaining him little. Despite his work in enhancing his army, due to financial difficulties, the forces he could muster were too small to make a difference.{{sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=257}}{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=122}} In Italy, he gained the nickname of "Massimiliano di pochi denari" (Maximilian the Moneyless).{{sfn|Hare|1913|p=254}} One particularly humiliating campaign occurred in 1508, with a force mustered from hereditary lands and with limited resources, he decided to attack Venice. The force under Sixt Trautson were routed by [[Bartolomeo d'Alviano]], while Maximilian's advance was blocked by the Venetian force under [[Niccolò di Pitigliano]] and a French army under [[:it:Alessandro Trivulzio|Alessandro Trivulzio]]. Bartolomeo d'Alviano then pushed into the Imperial territory, seizing Gorizia and Trieste, and forcing Maximilian to sign a very unfavourable truce.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Christine |last2=Mallett |first2=Michael |title=The Italian Wars 1494–1559: War, State and Society in Early Modern Europe |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-72540-8 |page=161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GH10DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT161 |access-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103222315/https://books.google.com/books?id=GH10DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT161 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |url-status=live |language=en}}</ref>

Afterwards, he formed the [[League of Cambrai]] with Spain, France and [[Pope Julius II]] and won back territories he had conceded and some Venetian land. Most of the Slovenian areas were transferred to the Habsburgs. But atrocities and expenses for war devastated Austria and Carniola.{{sfn|Štih|2008|pp=137–138}} Lack of financial means meant that he depended on allies' resources.{{sfn|Berenger|Simpson|2014|pp=194–195}}{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=x}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ady |first=Cecilia Mary |title=A History of Milan Under the Sforza |date=1907 |publisher=Methuen & Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEibJXL5rzsC&pg=PA161 |access-date=13 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> When [[Matthäus Schiner|Schiner]] suggested they should let war feed war, he did not agree and was not brutal enough to do that.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schmid |first=Alfred A. |title=Raron, Burg und Kirche |date=1972 |publisher=Birkhäuser |isbn=978-3-7643-0635-9 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dVtJAQAAIAAJ |access-date=13 February 2022 |language=de}}</ref> He acknowledged French control of Milan in 1515.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=John A. |last2=Schmid |first2=Susan Walters |title=Encyclopedia of Tudor England |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-298-2 |page=749 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUCY3otvttEC&pg=PA749 |access-date=13 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

The situation in Italy wasn't the only problem Maximilian had then. The Swiss won a decisive victory against the Empire at [[Battle of Dornach|Dornach]] on 22 July 1499. Maximilian had no choice but to agree to a peace treaty signed on 22 September 1499 in [[Treaty of Basel (1499)|Basel]] that granted the [[Swiss Confederacy]] independence.

===Jewish and Romani policies===
[[File:283Maximilian I.jpg|thumb|Joos van Cleve – Portrait of Emperor Maximilian I, from ''Statutes of the Order of the Golden Fleece'', as Sovereign of the Order, after 1508]]
Jewish policy under Maximilian fluctuated greatly, usually influenced by financial considerations and the emperor's vacillating attitude when facing opposing views. In 1496, Maximilian issued a decree which expelled all [[Jews]] from [[Styria]] and [[Wiener Neustadt]].<ref name="Bell2001">{{Cite book |last=Dean Phillip Bell |title=Sacred Communities: Jewish and Christian Identities in Fifteenth-Century Germany |publisher=Brill |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-391-04102-8 |page=119}}</ref> Between 1494 and 1510, he authorized thirteen expulsions of Jews in return for fiscal compensations from local government.<ref>{{cite book |last=Österreichisches Jüdisches Museum |title=The Austrian Jewish Museum |date=1989 |publisher=Österreichisches Jüdisches Museum |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3QwAQAAIAAJ |access-date=4 October 2021 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-date=4 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211004231233/https://books.google.com/books?id=y3QwAQAAIAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Buttaroni|first1=Susanna|last2=Musiał|first2=Stanisław|title=Ritual Murder: Legend in European History|publisher=Association for Cultural Initiatives|year=2003|isbn=978-83-905911-3-1|location=Kraków|page=181|oclc=54908143}}</ref>

After 1510, this happened only once, and he showed resistance in a campaign to expel Jews from Regensburg. David Price comments that during the first seventeen years of his reign, he was a great threat to the Jews, but after 1510, even if his attitude was still exploitative, his policy gradually changed. A factor that probably played a role in the change was Maximilian's success in expanding imperial taxing over German Jewry, at this point, he likely considered the possibility of generating taxes from stable Jewish communities, instead of temporary compensations from local jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Price |first=David |title=Johannes Reuchlin and the Campaign to Destroy Jewish Books |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-539421-4 |pages=113–124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |access-date=21 September 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927135706/https://books.google.com/books?id=CIM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124}}</ref> Noflatscher and Péterfi note that Maximilian had a deep dislike for Jews since childhood, the reason of which is unknown, since both of his parents greatly favoured the Jews.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Noflatscher |first1=Heinz |last2=Péterfi |first2=Bence |contribution=Der frühe Maximilian, das Haus Habsburg, der Hof und die Juden |title="Per tot discrimina rerum" ? Maximilian I. (1459–1519) |date=4 September 2022 |pages=129–156 |doi=10.7767/9783205216032.129 |publisher=Böhlau Verlag|isbn=978-3-205-21602-5 }}</ref>

In 1509, relying on the influence of [[Kunigunde of Austria|Kunigunde]], Maximilian's pious sister and the Cologne Dominicans, the anti-Jewish agitator [[Johannes Pfefferkorn]] was authorized by Maximilian to confiscate all offending Jewish books, except the Bible. The confiscations happened in Frankfurt, Bingen, Mainz and other German cities. Responding to the order, the archbishop of Mainz, the city council of Frankfurt and various German princes tried to intervene in defense of the Jews. Maximilian consequently ordered the confiscated books to be returned. On 23 May 1510 though, influenced by a supposed "host desecration" and blood libel in Brandenburg, as well as pressure from Kunigunde, he ordered the creation of an investigating commission and asked for expert opinions from German universities and scholars. The prominent humanist [[Johann Reuchlin]] argued strongly in defense of the Jewish books, especially the [[Talmud]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Johannes Pfefferkorn |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pfefferkorn-johannes |website=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=21 September 2021 |archive-date=23 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923175150/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/pfefferkorn-johannes |url-status=live}}</ref> Reuchlin's arguments seemed to leave an impression on the emperor,<ref>{{cite book |last=Burnett |first=Stephen G. |title=Christian Hebraism in the Reformation Era (1500–1660): Authors, Books, and the Transmission of Jewish Learning |date=2012 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-22249-6 |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfIxAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |access-date=18 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> who gradually developed an intellectual interest in the Talmud and other Jewish books. Maximilian later urged the Hebraist [[Pietro Colonna Galatino|Petrus Galatinus]] to defend Reuchlin's position. Galatinus dedicated his work ''De Arcanis Catholicae Veritatis'', which provided 'a literary "threshold" where Jews and gentiles might meet', to the emperor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goldish |first1=Matt |last2=Kottman |first2=Karl A. |last3=Popkin |first3=Richard Henry |last4=Force |first4=James E. |title=Millenarianism and Messianism in Early Modern European Culture: Catholic Millenarianism: From Savonarola to the Abbé Grégoire |date=2001 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-7923-6849-6 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aGfqVCkHk08C&pg=PA42 |access-date=18 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Boer |first=Jan-Hendryk de |title=Unerwartete Absichten – Genealogie des Reuchlinkonflikts |date=2016 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-154026-4 |page=948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FCBgmeANj_sC&pg=PA948 |access-date=18 November 2021 |language=de}}</ref>

It was Maximilian's support that enabled Reuchlin to fully devote himself to Jewish literature. Like his father Frederick III and his grandson Ferdinand I, he held Jewish physicians and teachers in high esteem.<ref name=SchattnerRieser>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Schattner-Rieser |first=Ursula |contribution=Notizen zu zwei jüdisch-stämmigen Leibärzten im Umfeld Maximilians I. Wegbereiter des humanistischen Interesses an der Hebraistik |title="Per tot discrimina rerum" ? Maximilian I. (1459–1519) |date=4 September 2022 |pages=157–170 |doi=10.7767/9783205216032.157 |publisher=Böhlau Verlag|isbn=978-3-205-21602-5 }}</ref> In 1514, he appointed [[Paolo Riccio|Paulus Ricius]], a Jew who converted to Christianity, as his personal physician. He was more interested in Ricius's Hebrew skills than in his medical abilities though. In 1515, he reminded his treasurer Jakob Villinger that Ricius was admitted for the purpose of translating the Talmud into Latin, and urged Villinger to keep an eye on him. Perhaps overwhelmed by the emperor's request, Ricius only managed to translate two out of sixty-three [[Mishna]] tractates before the emperor's death.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tilg |first=Stefan |title=Zu Paulus Ricius (ca. 1480–1541/1542): eine außergewöhnliche Karriere in der Zeit des Humanismus |journal=ASCHKENAS Ð Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Kultur der Juden |date=2006 |volume=16 |issue=16/2006, H. 2 |pages=570–571 |doi=10.1515/ASCH.2008.561 |s2cid=162346777 |url=https://ur.booksc.eu/book/52202726/93320b |access-date=21 September 2021 |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921132051/https://ur.booksc.eu/book/52202726/93320b |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Ricius managed to publish a translation of [[Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla|Joseph Gikatilla]]'s [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] work ''The Gates of Light'', which was dedicated to Maximilian, though.<ref>{{cite book |last=Levita |first=Elias |title=The Massoreth Ha-Massoreth of Elias Levita: Being an Exposition of the Massoretic Notes on the Hebrew Bible |date= 2021 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-7525-2413-0 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSlBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |access-date=18 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> It was under Frederick and Maximilian that the foundation of Modern [[Judaism]] arose, steeped in Humanism.<ref name=SchattnerRieser/>

It was under Maximilian that policies concerning the [[Romani people|Romani]] became harsher. In 1500, a notice was given to the Romani that they had to leave Germany by the next Easter, or become outlaws (the Romani had to evade the law by following a constant circuit from an area to another, and at times, obtain patronage from aristocrats). The [[Reformation]] beginning in 1517 did not consider them foreigners anymore,{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} but as local beggars, they also faced discrimination. The change in policy was seemingly linked to the fear of the Turks (the Romani were accused of being spies for the Turks). Kenrich and Puxon explains that connect the situation with the consolidation of European nation-states, that also stimulated similar policies elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book |last=Solms |first=Wilhelm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l-3v2eDQzdsC&pg=PA14 |title=Zigeunerbilder: ein dunkles Kapitel der deutschen Literaturgeschichte; von der frühen Neuzeit bis zur Romantik |date=2008 |publisher=Königshausen & Neumann |isbn=978-3-8260-3833-4 |page=14 |language=de |access-date=19 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kenrick |first1=Donald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yfpTX1w3KcC&pg=PA7 |title=Gypsies Under the Swastika |last2=Puxon |first2=Grattan |date=2009 |publisher=Univ of Hertfordshire Press |isbn=978-1-902806-80-8 |page=7 |language=en |access-date=19 October 2022 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref>

===Reforms===
{{Main|Imperial Reform}}
[[File:Innsbruck - painting of Albrecht Dürer.jpg|thumb|upright=1.65|Innsbruck, imperial capital under Maximilian,{{sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=249}} seat of the ''Hofkammer'' (Court Treasury) and the Court Chancery, which functioned as "the most influential body in Maximilian's government".{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=111}} Painting of Albrecht Dürer (1496)]]

Within the Holy Roman Empire, there was consensus that reforms were needed to preserve the unity of the Empire.{{sfn|Whaley|2012|pp=32–33}} For most of his reign, Frederick III had considered reform as a threat to his imperial prerogatives and wanted to avoid confrontations on the matter. However, in his last years, mainly to secure election for Maximilian, he presided over the initial phase of reform. Maximilian was more open to reform. From 1488 through his reign as sole ruler, he practiced a policy of brokerage, acting as the impartial judge between options suggested by the princes.{{sfn|Wilson|2016|p=79}}{{sfn|Brady|2009|pp=104–106}} Many measures were launched in the [[1495 Reichstag]] at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]]. A new court was introduced, the ''[[Reichskammergericht]]'', that was largely independent from the Emperor. A new tax was launched to finance the Empire's affairs, the ''Gemeine Pfennig''.{{sfn|Whaley|2012|pp=32–33}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Burkhardt |first=Julia |title=Frictions and Fictions of Community: Structures and Representations of Power in Central Europe, c.&nbsp;1350–1500 |journal=The Medieval History Journal |date=October 2016 |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=212 |doi=10.1177/0971945816651029 |s2cid=151415223 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306526166 |access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tracy |first=James D. |title=Balkan Wars: Habsburg Croatia, Ottoman Bosnia, and Venetian Dalmatia, 1499–1617 |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-1360-9 |page=163 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KHCPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163 |access-date=17 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=The Last Muslim Conquest: The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe |date=22 June 2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-20538-0 |page=312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXALEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA312 |access-date=17 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> It was levied for the first time between 1495 and 1499, raising 136,000 florins, and another five times during the 1512–1551 period, before being supplanted by the matricular system which allowed common burdens to be assessed at imperial as well as Kreis level.{{sfn|Wilson|2016|p=404}}

To create a rival for the ''Reichskammergericht'', Maximilian established the ''[[Aulic Council|Reichshofrat]]'', which had its seat in Vienna. Unlike the ''Reichskammergericht'', the ''Reichshofrat'' looked into criminal matters and even allowed the emperors the means to depose rulers who did not live up to expectations. Pavlac and Lott note that, during Maximilian's reign, this council was not popular though.{{sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=arSYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 143]}} According to [[Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger]] though, throughout the early modern period, the ''Reichshofrat'' remained the faster and more efficient among the two Courts. The ''Reichskammergericht'' on the other hand was often torn by matters related to confessional alliance.{{sfn|Stollberg-Rilinger|2021|p=46}} Around 1497–1498, as part of his administrative reforms, he restructured his Privy Council (''Geheimer Rat''), a decision which today induces much scholarly discussion. Apart from balancing the ''Reichskammergericht'' with the ''Reichshofrat'', this act of restructuring seemed to suggest that, as Westphal quoting Ortlieb, the "imperial ruler—independent of the existence of a supreme court—remained the contact person for hard pressed subjects in legal disputes as well, so that a special agency to deal with these matters could appear sensible".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Westphal |first=Siegrid |contribution=Does the Holy Roman Empire Need a New Institutional History?|editor-last=Evans |editor-first=R.J.W |editor-last2=Schaich |editor-first2=Michael |editor-last3=Willson |editor-first3=Peter H. |title=The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-960297-1 |page=88}}</ref>

In 1500, as Maximilian urgently needed assistance for his military plans, he agreed to establish an organ called the ''[[Reichsregiment]]'' (central imperial government, consisting of twenty members including the Electors, with the Emperor or his representative as its chairman), first organized in 1501 in [[Nuremberg]] and consisted of the deputies of the Emperor, local rulers, commoners, and the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian resented the new organization as it weakened his powers, and the Estates failed to support it. The new organ proved politically weak, and its power returned to Maximilian in 1502.<ref name=erbe/>{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=429}}{{sfn|Whaley|2011|p=61}}

According to Thomas Brady Jr. and Jan-Dirk Müller, the most important governmental changes targeted the chancery. Early in Maximilian's reign, the Court Chancery at Innsbruck competed with the Imperial Chancery. By referring the political matters in Tyrol as well as Imperial problems to the Court Chancery, Maximilian gradually centralized its authority. The two chanceries became combined in 1502.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=111}} Jan-Dirk Müller opines that this chancery became the decisive government institution since 1502. In 1496, the emperor created a general treasury (''Hofkammer'') in Innsbruck, which became responsible for all the hereditary lands. The chamber of accounts (''Raitkammer'') at Vienna was made subordinate to this body.{{sfn|Berenger|Simpson|2014|p=132}} Under [[:de:Paul von Liechtenstein-Kastelkorn|Paul von Liechtenstein]], the ''Hofkammer'' was entrusted with not only hereditary lands' affairs, but Maximilian's affairs as the German king too.{{sfn|Müller|2003|p=298}}

Historian Joachim Whaley points out that there are usually two opposite views on Maximilian's rulership: one side is represented by the works of nineteenth century historians like Heinrich Ullmann or Leopold von Ranke, which criticize him for selfishly exploiting the German nation and putting the interest of his dynasty over his Germanic nation, thus impeding the unification process; the more recent side is represented by Hermann Wiesflecker's biography of 1971–86, which praises him for being "a talented and successful ruler, notable not only for his Realpolitik but also for his cultural activities generally and for his literary and artistic patronage in particular".{{sfn|Whaley|2009}}{{sfn|Whaley|2012|p=72}}
[[File:Der Weisskunig 58 Detail Maximilian talking to German knights.jpg|thumb|left|Maximilian talking to German knights (depiction from the contemporary ''[[Weisskunig]]'')]]

According to Brady Jr., Ranke is right regarding the fact [[Berthold von Henneberg]] and other princes did play the leading role in presenting the proposals for creating institutions (that would also place the power in the hands of the princes) in 1495. However, what Maximilian opposed was not reform per se. He generally shared their sentiments regarding ending feuds, sounder administrative procedures, better record-keeping, qualifications for offices etc. Responding to the proposal that an Imperial Council (the later ''Reichsregiment'') should be created, he agreed and welcomed the participation of the Estates, but he alone should be the one who appointed members and the council should function only during his campaigns. He supported modernizing reforms (which he himself pioneered in his Austrian lands), but also wanted to tie it to his personal control, above all by permanent taxation, which the Estates consistently opposed. In 1504, when he was strong enough to propose his own ideas of such a Council, the cowered Estates tried to resist.<ref name=Brady2015/> At his strongest point though, he still failed to find a solution for the common tax matter, which led to disasters in Italy later.<ref name=Brady2015/> Stollberg-Rilinger notes that had the Common Penny been successful, modern governmental structures would likely emerge on the Empire's level, but that was why it failed as it was not in the interest of territorial lords.{{sfn|Stollberg-Rilinger|2021|p=53}} Meanwhile, he explored Austria's potential as a base for Imperial power and built his government largely with officials drawn from the lower aristocracy and burghers in Southern Germany.<ref name=Brady2015>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Brady |first=Thomas A. |contribution=Maximilian I and the Imperial Reform at the Diet of Worms, 1495 |title=Maximilians Ruhmeswerk |date=27 May 2015 |pages=31–56 |doi=10.1515/9783110351026-004 |isbn=978-3-11-034403-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-W_yCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA31|access-date=24 January 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Whaley notes that the real foundation of his Imperial power lay with his networks of allies and clients, especially the less powerful Estates, who helped him to recover his strength in 1502—his first reform proposals as King of the Romans in 1486 were about the creation of a network of regional unions. According to Whaley, "More systematically than any predecessor, Maximilian exploited the potential of regional leagues and unions to extend imperial influence and to create the possibility of imperial government in the Reich." To the Empire, the mechanisms involving such regional institutions bolstered the Land Piece (''Ewiger Landfriede'') declared in 1495 as well as the creation of the ''Reichskreise'' (''Imperial Circles'', which would serve the purpose of organize imperial armies, collect taxes and enforce orders of the imperial institutions: there were six at first; in 1512, the number increased to ten),<ref>{{cite book |last=Treichel |first=Eckhardt |title=Organisation und innere Ausgestaltung des Deutschen Bundes 1815–1819 |date= 2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-042400-3 |page=1549 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9iRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1549 |access-date=14 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Putten |first=Jasper Cornelis van |title=Networked Nation: Mapping German Cities in Sebastian Münster's 'Cosmographia' |date= 2017 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-35396-1 |page=256 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sSk_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256 |access-date=14 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> between 1500 and 1512, although they were only fully functional some decades later.{{sfn|Whaley|2012|pp=76–77}} While Brady describes Maximilian's thinking as "dynastic and early modern", Heinz Angermeier (also focusing on his intentions at the 1495 Diet) writes that for Maximilian, "the first politician on the German throne", dynastic interests and imperial politics had no contradiction. Rather, the alliance with Spain, imperial prerogatives, anti-Ottoman agenda, European leadership and inner politics were all tied together.<ref name=Brady2015/><ref>{{cite book |last=Angermeier |first=Heinz |title=Das alte Reich in der deutschen Geschichte: Studien über Kontinuitäten und Zäsuren |date= 2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-82774-3 |pages=229–243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=brzyCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 |language=de}}</ref> In Austria, Maximilian defined two administrative units: [[Lower Austria]] and [[Upper Austria]] ([[Further Austria]] was included in Upper Austria).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kuzmics |first1=Helmut |last2=Axtmann |first2=Roland |title=Authority, State and National Character: The Civilizing Process in Austria and England, 1700–1900 |date= 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-95650-5 |page=109 |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yohBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109 |access-date=21 February 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Maximilian I mit Landkarte.jpg|thumb|right|Maximilian with a map of the ten Imperial Circles. Illustration from Johann Samuel's ''Tromsdorff: Accurate neue und alte Geographie von ganz Teutschland'', 1711.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tromsdorff |first=Johann Samuel |title=Accurate Neue und Alte Geographie Von gantz Teutschland: Nach dessen zehen Cräysen und in denenselben enthaltenen Königreichen, Chur-Fürsten- und Hertzogthümern, Graff- und Herrschafften, Reichs- und andern Städten, Festungen, Flecken, und vielen Dörffern ... |date=1711 |publisher=Ritschel |page=4 |url=https://books.google/books?id=mU8AAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP4 |access-date=14 February 2022 |language=de}}</ref>]]

Another development arising from the reform was that, amidst the prolonged struggles between the monarchical-centralism of the emperor and the estates-based federalism of the princes, the Reichstag (Imperial Diet) became the all-important political forum and the supreme legal and constitutional institution (without any declared legal basis or inaugural act), which would act as a guarantee for the preservation of the Empire in the long run.<ref>{{cite book |last=Neuhaus |first=Helmut |title=Das Reich in der Frühen Neuzeit |date=2010 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-486-70179-1 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9PnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |access-date=14 February 2022 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Brendle |first=Franz |title=Dynastie, Reich und Reformation: die württembergischen Herzöge Ulrich und Christoph, die Habsburger und Frankreich |date=1998 |publisher=W. Kohlhammer |isbn=978-3-17-015563-3 |page=54 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBxoAAAAMAAJ |access-date=14 February 2022 |language=de}}</ref>

Ultimately, the results of the reform movement presided over by Maximilian, as presented in the shape of newly formed structures as well as the general framework (functioning as a constitutional framework), were a compromise between emperor and estates, who more or less shared common cause but separate interests. Although the system of institutions that arose from this was not complete, a flexible, adaptive problem-solving mechanism for the Empire was formed.{{sfn|Whaley|2011|p=27}}{{sfn|Stollberg-Rilinger|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w5IIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 47]}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosich |first=Gerard |title=The Contested History of Autonomy: Interpreting European Modernity |date= 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-04865-2 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKFoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49 |access-date=20 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Stollberg also links the development of the reform to the concentration of supranational power in the Habsburgs' hand, which manifested in the successful dynastic marriages of Maximilian and his descendants (and the successful defense of those lands, notably the rich Low Countries) as well as Maximilian's development of a revolutionary post system that helped the Habsburgs to maintain control of their territories. Additionally, the communication revolution created by the combination of the postal system with printing would boost the empire's capability of disseminating orders and policies as well as its coherence in general, elevating cultural life, and also help reformers like Luther to broadcast their views effectively.<ref>{{cite book |last=Monro |first=Alexander |title=The Paper Trail: An Unexpected History of a Revolutionary Invention |date=2016 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-96230-0 |page=239 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Y6mCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA239 |access-date=2 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Wilson|2016|pp=260, 266, 277, 419}}{{sfn|Stollberg-Rilinger|2021|pp=46–53}}

Recent German research explores the importance of the Reichstags that followed the 1495 one in Worms. The 1512 Reichstag in [[Trier]] that Maximilian assembled, for example, was decisive for the development of the ''Reichskammergericht'', the Land Peace and the ''Gemeine Pfennig'', although by this point it was clear that Maximilian was already past his best years (the early signs of crisis seemed to have shown already in Cologne, 1505)—which, according to Dietmar Heil, resulted in the fact that the ''Gemeine Pfennig'' was only partially approved and then partially implemented.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kirchner |first=Thomas |title=review of: Reinhard Seyboth (ed.), Deutsche Reichstagsakten. Mittlere Reihe, Deutsche Reichstagsakten unter Maximilian I. 11,1: Die Reichstage zu Augsburg 1510 und Trier/Köln 1512, Berlin / Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2017 |journal=Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung |volume=47 |date=2020 |issue=2 |pages=303–306 |language=de |url=https://www.recensio.net/rezensionen/zeitschriften/zeitschrift-fuer-historische-forschung/47-2020/2/ReviewMonograph655034560/@@generate-pdf-recension?language=de |via=Recensio |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Laux |first=Stephan |year=2018 |title=''Ich waiß nit, wie so vil hie unterkummen mogen''. Der Doppelreichstag zu Trier und Köln von 1512 im Spiegel der neu erschienenen "Deutschen Reichstagsakten" (Mittlere Reihe, Band 11) |pages=89–108 |url=https://www.uni-trier.de/fileadmin/fb3/prof/GES/LG1/Bilder_allgemein/Allgemein_Laux/Aufs%C3%A4tze_Prof._Dr._Laux/laux__reichstag_1512__2018.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.uni-trier.de/fileadmin/fb3/prof/GES/LG1/Bilder_allgemein/Allgemein_Laux/Aufs%C3%A4tze_Prof._Dr._Laux/laux__reichstag_1512__2018.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref> Seyboth notes that, in his later years, he became more irritable, obstinate and closed, which led to growing alienation with the Estates. He recognized the trend of the Reichstag to become a more modern institution, the concern of the Estates with internal problems, and contributed to the solutions, but only so that his own interests will not be ignored.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Seyboth |first=Reinhard |contribution=Kaiser Maximilian I. und die Reichstage|title="Per tot discrimina rerum" – Maximilian I. (1459–1519) |date=5 September 2022 |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |location=Wien |isbn=978-3-205-21602-5 |pages=408–415 |edition=1 |url=https://www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com/themen-entdecken/geschichte/geschichte-der-fruehen-neuzeit/57699/per-tot-discrimina-rerum-maximilian-i-1459-1519 |access-date=11 July 2023}}</ref>

According to Whaley, if Maximilian ever saw Germany as a source of income and soldiers only, he failed miserably in extracting both. His hereditary lands and other sources always contributed much more (the Estates gave him the equivalent of 50,000 gulden per year, a lower than even the taxes paid by Jews in both the Reich and hereditary lands, while Austria contributed 500,000 to 1 million gulden per year). On the other hand, the attempts he demonstrated in building the imperial system alone shows that he did consider the German lands "a real sphere of government in which aspirations to royal rule were actively and purposefully pursued." Whaley notes that, despite struggles, what emerged at the end of Maximilian's rule was a strengthened monarchy and not an oligarchy of princes. If he was usually weak when trying to act as a monarch and using imperial instituations like the Reichstag, Maximilian's position was often strong when acting as a neutral overlord and relying on regional leagues of weaker principalities such as the Swabian league, as shown in his ability to call on money and soldiers to mediate the Bavaria dispute in 1504, after which he gained significant territories in Alsace, Swabia and Tyrol. His fiscal reform in his hereditary lands provided a model for other German princes.{{sfn|Whaley|2012|p=75}}

Benjamin Curtis suggests that while Maximilian was not able to fully create a common government for his lands (although the chancellery and court council were able to coordinate affairs across the realms), he strengthened key administrative functions in Austria and created central offices to deal with financial, political and judicial matters—these offices replaced the feudal system and became representative of a more modern system that was administered by professionalized officials. After two decades of reforms, the emperor retained his position as first among equals, while the empire gained common institutions through which the emperor shared power with the estates.{{sfn|Curtis|2013|pp=46–52}} Dietmar Heil argues that the Estates actually offered Maximilian considerable financial help, in consideration of their financial capacity. According to Heil, historians have traditionally been too receptive to the statements of the deceptive emperor (who tried to create such an impression in order to generate motivation).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Heil |first=Dietmar |contribution=Im Angesicht des Monsters: Kaiser Maximilian I. und das Heilige Römische Reich|title="Per tot discrimina rerum" – Maximilian I. (1459–1519) |date=5 September 2022 |publisher=Böhlau Verlag |location=Wien |isbn=978-3-205-21602-5 |page=401 |edition=1 |url=https://www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com/themen-entdecken/geschichte/geschichte-der-fruehen-neuzeit/57699/per-tot-discrimina-rerum-maximilian-i-1459-1519 |access-date=11 July 2023}}</ref>

In 1508, Maximilian, with the assent of [[Pope Julius II]], took the title ''Erwählter Römischer Kaiser'' ("Elected Roman Emperor"), thus ending the centuries-old custom that the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] had to be crowned by the Pope.
[[File:Execution Kufstein 1504.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Execution of the garrison troops after the Siege of Kufstein (1504). The garrison and its commander [[:de:Pienzenau#Hans von Pienzenau („der Pienzenauer“)|Hans von Pienzenau]] had angered Maximilian during the siege by refusing his offer of surrender and using brooms to sweep up damage caused by his cannons. Eighteen including Pienzenau were beheaded before [[Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Erich von Braunschweig]], a favoured commander, pleaded for the lives of the rest.{{sfn|Holland|1909|pp=283–284}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Brunner |first=Otto |title=Land and Lordship: Structures of Governance in Medieval Austria |date=2015 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-5128-0106-4 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tk9BCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> (Engraving from 1703.)]]

At the 1495 Diet of Worms, the Reception of Roman Law was accelerated and formalized. The Roman Law was made binding in German courts, except in the case it was contrary to local statutes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Burdick |first=William Livesey |title=The Principles of Roman Law and Their Relation to Modern Law |date=2004 |publisher=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-58477-253-8 |pages=19–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRkMm73NCEUC&pg=PA19 |access-date=19 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> In practice, it became the basic law throughout Germany, displacing Germanic local law to a large extent, although Germanic law was still operative at the lower courts.<ref name=Lee>{{cite book |last=Lee |first=Daniel |title=Popular Sovereignty in Early Modern Constitutional Thought |date= 2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-106244-5 |page=243 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3jfcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Thornhill |first=Chris |title=German Political Philosophy: The Metaphysics of Law |date= 2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-38280-4 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3JuU_MfVTbAC&pg=PA12 |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Haivry |first=Ofir |title=John Selden and the Western Political Tradition |date= 2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01134-2 |page=118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KNvFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mousourakis |first=George |title=The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law |date= 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-88840-0 |page=435 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6tBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT435 |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Other than the desire to achieve legal unity and other factors, the adoption also highlighted the continuity between the Ancient Roman empire and the Holy Roman Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zoller |first=Élisabeth |title=Introduction to Public Law: A Comparative Study |date=2008 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-16147-4 |page=64 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1zfs2VcJs0C&pg=PA64 |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

To realize his resolve to reform and unify the legal system, the emperor frequently intervened personally in matters of local legal matters, overriding local charters and customs. This practice was often met with irony and scorn from local councils, who wanted to protect local codes.{{sfn|Hodnet|2018|pp=79–81}} Maximilian had a general reputation of justice and clemency, but could occasionally act in a violent and resentful manner if personally affronted.{{sfn|Waas|1966|p=62}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Burke |first=Peter |title=Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe |date=2009 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-6507-6 |page=204 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSj2C2PX1p4C&pg=PA204 |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Hollegger|2012|pp=23–32}}{{sfn|Seton-Watson|1902|p=116}}
[[File:Maximilian I watching an execution during Philip and Joanna betrothal.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35 |Maximilian I paying attention to an execution instead of watching Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile's betrothal, much to his son's dismay. The top right corner shows [[Cain and Abel]]. Satire against Maximilian's legal reform. Created on behalf of the councilors of Augsburg. Plate 89 of ''Von der Arztney bayder Glück'' by the [[:de:Petrarcameister|Petrarcameister]].{{sfn|Hodnet|2018|p=81}}]]

In 1499, as the ruler of Tyrol, he introduced the ''[[:de:Maximilianische Halsgerichtsordnung|Maximilianische Halsgerichtsordnung]]'' (the Penal Code of Maximilian). This was the first codified penal law in the German speaking world. The law attempted to introduce regularity into contemporary discrete practices of the courts. This would be part of the basis for the [[Constitutio Criminalis Carolina]] established under Charles V in 1530.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vogler |first=Richard |title=A World View of Criminal Justice |date= 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-96139-4 |page=33 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P4tBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT33 |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Eibach |first1=Joachim |last2=Lanzinger |first2=Margareth |title=The Routledge History of the Domestic Sphere in Europe: 16th to 19th Century |date=29 December 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-63174-0 |page=93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A4wEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT93 |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Regarding the use of torture, the court needed to decide whether someone should be tortured. If such a decision was made, three council members and a clerk should be present and observe whether a confession was made only because of the fear of torture or the pain of torture, or that another person would be harmed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Durand |first=Bernard |title=La torture judiciaire: approches historiques et juridiques |date=2002 |publisher=Centre d'histoire judiciaire éditeur |isbn=978-2-910114-06-0 |page=603 |oclc=51941336 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jp_aAAAAMAAJ |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=fr}}</ref>

During the Austrian-Hungarian war (1477–1488), Maximilian's father Frederick III issued the first modern regulations to strengthen military discipline. In 1508, using this ordinance as the basis, Maximilian devised the first military code ("Articles"). This code included 23 articles. The first five articles prescribed total obedience to imperial authority. Article 7 established the rules of conduct in camps. Article 13 exempted churches from billeting while Article 14 forbade violence against civilians: "You shall swear that you will not harm any pregnant women, widows and orphans, priests, honest maidens and mothers, under the fear of punishment for perjury and death". These actions that indicated the early developments of a "military revolution" in European laws had a tradition in the Roman concept of a just war and ideas of sixteenth-century scholars, who developed this ancient doctrine with a main thesis which advocated that war was a matter between two armies and thus the civilians (especially women, children and old people) should be given immunity. The code would be the basis for further ordinances by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and new "Articles" by [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], which became the universal military code for the whole Holy Roman Empire until 1642.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Muravyeva |first=Marianna |title="Do not rape and pillage without command": sex offences and early modern European armies |journal=Clio |date=10 April 2015 |issue=39 |doi=10.4000/cliowgh.466 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/cliowgh/466?lang=en |access-date=2 December 2021|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The legal reform seriously weakened the ancient [[Vehmic court]] (''Vehmgericht'', or Secret Tribunal of [[Westphalia]], traditionally held to be instituted by [[Charlemagne]] but this theory is now considered unlikely),<ref>{{cite book |last=Spence |first=Lewis |title=An Encyclopedia of Occultism |date=1993 |publisher=Kensington Publishing Corporation |isbn=978-0-8065-1401-7 |page=133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDXYAAAAMAAJ |access-date=12 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Palgrave |first=Francis |title=The Collected Historical Works of Sir Francis Palgrave, K.H. |date= 2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-62636-2 |pages=xiv, 203–204 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U98aAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 |access-date=12 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> although it would not be abolished completely until 1811 (when it was abolished under the order of [[Jérôme Bonaparte]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Beccaria |first1=Cesare marchese di |last2=Beccaria |first2=Cesare |last3=Stevenson |first3=Bryan |title=On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings |date=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8990-8 |page=133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=surdzOtEZgQC&pg=PA133 |access-date=12 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ripley |first1=George |last2=Dana |first2=Charles Anderson |title=The New American Cyclopædia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge |date=1869 |publisher=D. Appleton |page=43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwIoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA43 |access-date=12 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

In 1518, after a general diet of all Habsburg hereditary lands, the emperor issued the ''Innsbrucker Libell'' which set out the general defence order (Verteidigungsordnung) of Austrian provinces, which "gathered together all the elements that had appeared and developed over the preceding centuries.". The provincial army, based on noble cavalry, was for defence only; bonded labourers were conscripted using a proportional conscription system; upper and lower Austrian provinces agreed on a mutual defence pact in which they would form a joint command structure if either were attacked. The military system and other reforms were threatened after Maximilian's deạth but would be restored and reorganized later under Ferdinand I.{{sfn|Štih|2008|pp=139–140}}

According to Brady Jr., Maximilian was no reformer of the church though. Personally pious, he was also a practical [[caesaropapism|caesaropapist]] who was only interested in the ecclesiastical organization as far as reforms could bring him political and fiscal advantages.{{sfn|Brady|2009|pp=128–129, 144}} He met [[Martin Luther|Luther]] once at the Diet of Augsburg in 1518, "a rehearsal for Worms in 1521". He saw the grievances and agreed with Luther on some points. However as the religious question was a matter of money and power to him, he had no interest in stopping the indulgences. At this point, he was too busy with his grandson's election. As Luther was about to be arrested by the papal legate, he granted him a letter of safe passage. Brady notes that blindness to the need to reform from above would lead to the reform from below.{{sfn|Brady|1998|p=330}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Reformation – Forum OÖ Geschichte |url=https://www.ooegeschichte.at/epochen/mittelalter/maximilian-i-kaiser-reformer-mensch/reformation/ |website=ooegeschichte.at |access-date=2 March 2022}}</ref>

===Finance and Economy===

[[File:Fresco op een gevel van het voormalige woonhuis van Hans Jakob Fugger in Augsburg Frescoes (titel op object), (straighten).jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|19th-century fresco at the [[Fuggerhäuser]] on the [[Maximilianstraße (Augsburg)|Maximilianstraße]], [[Augsburg]] (named after the emperor since 1957, originally named after [[Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria|Maximilian I of Bavaria]]): "The council of the free imperial city paying homage to Emperor Maximilian I".]]

Maximilian was always troubled by financial shortcomings; his income never seemed to be enough to sustain his large-scale goals and policies. For this reason he was forced to take substantial credits from Upper German banker families, especially from the [[Georg Gossembrot|Gossembrot]], Baumgarten, [[Fugger family|Fugger]], and [[Welser family|Welser families]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Häberlein |first=Mark |title=The Fuggers of Augsburg: Pursuing Wealth and Honor in Renaissance Germany |date=2012 |publisher=University of Virginia Press |isbn=978-0-8139-3258-3 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YmnlZ8hR1cYC&pg=PT41 |access-date=18 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Jörg Baumgarten even served as Maximilian's financial advisor. The connection between the emperor and banking families in Augsburg was so widely known that Francis I of France derisively nicknamed him "the Mayor of Augsburg" (another story recounts that a French courtier called him the alderman of Augsburg, to which Louis XII replied: "Yes, but every time that this alderman rings the tocsin from his belfry, he makes all France tremble.", referring to Maximilian's military ability).{{sfn|Hare|1913|p=252}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Roeck |first=Bernd |title=Geschichte Augsburgs |date=2005 |publisher=C.H. Beck |isbn=978-3-406-53197-2 |page=103 |language=de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MytxfKWsfn4C&pg=PA103 |access-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103222316/https://books.google.com/books?id=MytxfKWsfn4C&pg=PA103 |archive-date=3 November 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 70 percent of his income went to wars (and by the 1510s, he was waging wars on almost all sides of his border).{{sfn|Brady|1998|p=326}}{{sfn|Silver|Smith|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lQZ83r_u9LQC&pg=PA252 252]}} At the end of Maximilian's rule, the Habsburgs' mountain of debt totalled six million gulden to six and a half million gulden, depending on the sources. By 1531, the remaining amount of debt was estimated at 400,000 gulden (about 282,669 Spanish ducats).{{sfn|Tracy|2002|p=100}}

In his entire reign, he had spent around 25 million gulden, much of which was contributed by his most loyal subjects—the Tyrolers. The historian Thomas Brady comments: "The best that can be said of his financial practices is that he borrowed democratically from rich and poor alike and defaulted with the same even-handedness".{{sfn|Brady|2009|pp=112–113}} By comparison, when he abdicated in 1556, Charles V left [[Philip II of Spain|Philip]] a total debt of 36 million ducats (equal to the income from Spanish America for his entire reign), while Ferdinand I left a debt of 12.5 million gulden when he died in 1564.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schofield |first1=Norman |last2=Gallego |first2=Maria |title=Leadership or Chaos: The Heart and Soul of Politics |date=2011 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-19516-7 |page=66 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7yuHcBkgVbkC&pg=PA66 |access-date=19 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Nummedal |first=Tara |title=Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire |date=15 September 2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-60857-0 |page=76 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-EdcPVGWZwC&pg=PA76 |access-date=19 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Klassen |first=William |title=Marpeck: A Life of Dissent and Conformity |date=2008 |publisher=MennoMedia |isbn=978-0-8361-9832-4 |page=61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ln9IEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT61 |access-date=19 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=94}} Economy and economic policies under the reign of Maximilian is a relatively unexplored topic, according to Benecke.{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=118}}
[[File:Albrecht Dürer, Emperor Maximilian I, c. 1518, NGA 58111.jpg|thumb|left|[[Albrecht Dürer]]'s [[woodcut]] version of his painted portrait, c. 1518. The image is reversed as a result of the [[printmaking]] process.]]

Overall, according to Whaley, "The reign of Maximilian I saw recovery and growth but also growing tension. This created both winners and losers.", although Whaley opines that this is no reason to expect a revolutionary explosion (in connection to Luther and the Reformation).{{sfn|Whaley|2011|p=142}} Whaley points out, though, that because Maximilian and Charles V tried to promoted the interests of the Netherlands, after 1500, the Hanseatic League was negatively affected and their growth relative to England and the Netherlands declined.{{efn|"After 1500, however, the promotion of the interests of the Netherlands by Maximilian and Charles V inaugurated a long decline relative to the economic, and above all commercial, growth of the Low Countries and England."{{sfn|Whaley|2011|p=142}}}}

In the Low Countries, during his regency, to get more money to pay for his campaigns, he resorted to debase coins in the Burgundian mints, causing more conflicts with the interests of the Estates and the merchant class.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Cho |first=Jun Hee |title=Court in the Market: The 'Business' of a Princely Court in the Burgundian Netherlands, 1467–1503 |date=2013 |page=226 |publisher=Columbia University |doi=10.7916/D81R6W73 |url=https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8NC67HM/download |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Gunn|Grummitt|Cools|2007|p=33}}{{sfn|Spufford|1970|p=164}}

In Austria, although this was never enough for his needs, his management of mines and salt works proved efficient, with a marked increase in revenue, the fine silver production in Schwaz increased from 2,800&nbsp;kg in 1470 to 14,000&nbsp;kg in 1516. Benecke remarks that Maximilian was a ruthless, exploitative businessman while Hollegger sees him as a clearheaded manager with sober cost-benefit analysis.{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=49}}{{sfn|Hollegger|2012|p=33}} Ultimately, he had to mortgage these properties to the Fuggers to get quick cash. The financial price would ultimately fall on the Austrian population. Fichtner states that Maximilian's pan-European vision was very expensive, and his financial practices antagonized his subjects both high and low in Burgundy, Austria and Germany (who tried to temper his ambitions, although they never came to hate the charismatic ruler personally), this was still modest in comparison with what was about to come, and the Ottoman threat gave the Austrians a reason to pay.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fichtner |first=Paula Sutter |title=Historical Dictionary of Austria |date=2009 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6310-1 |page=52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilyK1_1f0zYC&pg=PR52 |access-date=10 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fichtner|2017|pp=9–11}}

For both economic and military purposes, he encouraged the mining of copper, silver and calamine, coining, brass manufacturing and the arms industry. He took pains to protect the local economy, especially in Tyrol, where there was a mining boom (accompanied by a population boom), although Safley notes that he also enabled families like the Hochstetters to exploit the economy for their own ends. Agriculture also developed significantly, except in Lower Austria which suffered from the war with Matthias Corvinus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morton |first=Vanda |title=Brass from the Past: Brass made, used and traded from prehistoric times to 1800 |date=2019 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-157-3 |page=109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RRUSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 |access-date=9 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Safley |first=Thomas Max |title=Family Firms and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe: The Business, Bankruptcy and Resilience of the Höchstetters of Augsburg |date= 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-64793-2 |pages=88–89 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNW_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 |access-date=9 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fichtner|2017|p=8}}

[[Augsburg]] benefitted majorly from the establishment and expansion of the [[Kaiserliche Reichspost]] as well as Maximilian's personal attachment to the city. The imperial city became "the dominant centre of early capitalism" of the 16th century, and "the location of the most important post office within the Holy Roman Empire". From Maximilian's time, as the "terminuses of the first transcontinental post lines" began to shift from Innsbruck to [[Venice]] and from [[Brussels]] to [[Antwerp]], in these cities, the communication system and the news market started to converge. As the Fuggers as well as other trading companies based their most important branches in these cities, these traders gained access to these systems as well. (Despite a widely circulated theory which holds that the Fuggers themselves operated their own communication system, in reality they relied upon the imperial posts, presumably from the 1490s onwards, as official members of the court of Maximilian I).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Behringer |first=Wolfgang |contribution=Core and Periphery: The Holy Roman Empire as a Communication(s) Universe |title=The Holy Roman Empire, 1495–1806 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-960297-1 |pages=347–358|url=https://perspectivia.net/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/pnet_derivate_00004689/behringer_core.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://perspectivia.net/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/pnet_derivate_00004689/behringer_core.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=7 August 2022}}</ref>

Leipzig started its rise into one of the largest European trade fair cities after Maximilian granted them wide-ranged privileges in 1497 (and raised their three markets to the status of Imperial Fair in 1507).<ref>{{cite book |last=Gross |first=Stephen G. |title=Export Empire: German Soft Power in Southeastern Europe, 1890–1945 |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-11225-4 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AabZCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |access-date=13 February 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hocquél |first=Wolfgang |title=Glanzlichter Leipziger Baukunst |date=1997 |publisher=Schlütersche |isbn=978-3-87706-794-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M01r7KIlH60C&pg=PA7 |access-date=13 February 2022 |language=de}}</ref>

==''Tu felix Austria nube''==
===Background===
Traditionally, German dynasties had exploited the potential of the imperial title to bring Eastern Europe into the fold, in addition to their lands north and south of the Alps. Under [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]], the [[House of Luxembourg]], predecessors of the Habsburgs as the Imperial dynasty, had managed to gain an empire almost comparable in scale to the later Habsburg empire, although at the same time they lost the [[Kingdom of Burgundy]] and control over Italian territories. Their focus on the East, especially Hungary (which was outside the Holy Roman Empire and also gained by the Luxembourgs with a marriage), allowed the new Burgundian rulers from the [[House of Valois]] to foster discontent among German princes. Thus, the Habsburgs were forced to refocus their attention on the West. Frederick III's cousin and predecessor, [[Albert II of Germany|Albert II]] (who was Sigismund's son-in-law and heir through his marriage with [[Elizabeth of Luxembourg]]) had managed to combine the crowns of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia under his rule, but he died young.{{sfn|Whaley|2012|pp=18–19}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Amati |first=Roberto |title=History of European integration in 2500 years: Ancient origins are renewed in the present aeternitas |date= 2022 |publisher=Tektime |isbn=978-88-354-3496-2 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ophcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP85 |access-date=6 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Irgang |first=Winfried |title=Rezension von: Karel Hruza / Alexandra Kaar (Hgg.): Kaiser Sigismund (1368–1437). Zur Herrschaftspraxis eines europäischen Monarchen, Wien: Böhlau 2012 |trans-title=Review of: Karel Hruza / Alexandra Kaar (eds.): Emperor Sigismund (1368–1437). On the rulership practice of a European monarch, Vienna: Böhlau 2012 |language=de |journal=Sehepunkte |volume=14 |issue=11 |date=15 November 2014 |url=https://sehepunkte.de/2014/11/26191.html |access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref> During his rule, Maximilian had a double focus on both the East and the West. The successful expansion (with the notable role of marriage policy) under Maximilian bolstered his position in the Empire, and also created more pressure for an [[Imperial Reform|imperial reform]], so that they could get more resources and coordinated help from the German territories to defend their realms and counter hostile powers such as France.{{sfn|Whaley|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cZFlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84]}}{{sfn|Whaley|2012|pp=18–19, 69}}

===Marriage and foreign policy under Maximilian===
[[File:Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian of Austria.jpg|thumb|upright|right|19th century reproduction (by Julien Bernard Van der Plaetsen) of a 1507 fresco depicting Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian holding the coat of arms of Burgundy. The couple stood as a pair of equals, similar to other portrayals, despite Maximilian's status as Emperor. The original work was created to celebrate Charles's status as the new Duke of Burgundy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Karaskova |first=Olga |title=Marie de Bourgogne et le Grand Héritage : l'iconographie princière face aux défis d'un pouvoir en transition (1477–1530), Volume 1 |date=2014 |publisher=Université Lille Nord de France, Université Charles-de-Gaulle – Lille 3, École doctorale Sciences de l’Homme et de la Société, Centre des recherches IRHiS – UMR 8529, Institut de Recherches Historiques du Septentrion, Musée de l’Ermitage |pages=172–192 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9583990 |access-date=27 October 2021}}</ref>]]
[[File:Wappenpfau-Mennel-Cod.-3075-fol.-12.-13v.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration from ''Die fürstliche Chronik'', or ''Kaiser Maximilians Geburtsspiegel'' by [[:de:Jakob Mennel|Jakob Mennel]] (1518). Under the outspread wings of the triple-crowned peacock was the coats of arms of 14 European kingdoms connected to the Habsburg dynasty through marriages]]
As part of the Treaty of Arras, Maximilian betrothed his three-year-old daughter [[Archduchess Margaret of Austria|Margaret]] to the Dauphin of France (later [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]]), son of his adversary Louis XI.{{sfn|Hare|1907|pp=[https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare/page/22 22]–23}}{{sfn|Hare|1913|pp=57–58}} The betrothal was the result of clandestine negotiations between Louis XI and Ghent—as Maximilian's position was temporarily weakened by his wife's death, he had no say in the matter.{{sfn|Terjanian|2019|p=42}}

Dying shortly after signing the [[Treaty of Le Verger]], [[Francis II, Duke of Brittany]], left his realm to his daughter [[Anne of Brittany|Anne]]. In search of alliances to protect her domain from neighboring interests, she betrothed herself to Maximilian I in 1490. About a year later, they [[Proxy marriage|married by proxy]].{{sfn|Hare|1907|p=[https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare/page/43 43]}}{{sfn|Seton-Watson|1902|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximilianiholy00watgoog/page/n37 23]}}{{sfn|Hare|1913|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliandreame00hareuoft/page/69 69]}}

However, Charles VIII and his sister Anne wanted her inheritance for France. So, when the former came of age in 1491, and taking advantage of Maximilian and his father's interest in the succession of their adversary [[Mathias Corvinus]], [[King of Hungary]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tóth |first=Gábor Mihály |year=2008 |title=Trivulziana Cod. N. 1458: A New Testimony of the "Landus Report" |url=http://btk.ppke.hu/uploads/articles/8520/file/10-1-09.pdf |journal=Verbum Analecta Neolatina |volume=X |issue=1 |pages=139–158 |doi=10.1556/Verb.10.2008.1.9 |access-date=7 December 2013 |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213165937/http://btk.ppke.hu/uploads/articles/8520/file/10-1-09.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Charles repudiated his betrothal to Margaret, invaded Brittany, forced Anne of Brittany to repudiate her unconsummated marriage to Maximilian, and married her himself.{{sfn|Hare|1907|pp=[https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare/page/43 43]–44}}{{sfn|Seton-Watson|1902|pp=[https://archive.org/details/maximilianiholy00watgoog/page/n37 23]–24, 28–29}}{{sfn|Hare|1913|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliandreame00hareuoft/page/70 70]}}

Margaret then remained in France as a hostage of sorts until 1493, when she was finally returned to her father with the signing of the Treaty of Senlis.{{sfn|Hare|1907|pp=[https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare/page/45 45]–47}}{{sfn|Hare|1913|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliandreame00hareuoft/page/71 71]}}

In the same year, as the hostilities of the lengthy Italian Wars with France were in preparation,{{sfn|Hare|1907|p=[https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare/page/49 49]}} Maximilian contracted another marriage for himself, this time to Bianca Maria Sforza, daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, [[Duke of Milan]], with the intercession of his brother, [[Ludovico Sforza]],{{sfn|Hare|1907|p=[https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare/page/59 59]}}{{sfn|Cartwright|1910|pp=179–180}}{{sfn|Hare|1913|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliandreame00hareuoft/page/74 74]}}{{sfn|Seton-Watson|1902|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximilianiholy00watgoog/page/n48 34]}} then regent of the duchy after the former's death.{{sfn|Cartwright|1910|p=24}}

In the East, Maximilian faced the need to reduce the growing pressures on the Empire brought about by treaties between the rulers of France, Poland, Hungary, [[Bohemia]], and Russia, as well as to bolster his dynasty's position—temporarily threatened by the union between [[Anne of Foix-Candale]] and Vladislaus II of Hungary, in addition to resistance of the Hungarian magnates—in Bohemia and Hungary (that the Habsburgs claimed through inheritance and overlordship). Maximilian met with the [[Jagiellon dynasty|Jagiellonian]] kings [[Ladislaus II of Hungary and Bohemia]] and [[Sigismund I the Old|Sigismund I of Poland]] at the [[First Congress of Vienna]] in 1515. There they arranged for Maximilian's granddaughter [[Mary of Habsburg|Mary]] to marry [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia|Louis]], the son of Ladislaus, and for [[Anna of Bohemia and Hungary|Anne]] (the sister of Louis) to marry Maximilian's grandson [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand]] (both grandchildren being the children of Philip the Handsome, Maximilian's son, and [[Joanna of Castile]]).{{sfn|Whaley|2012|pp=18–19, 68–69}}{{sfn|Hare|1913|pp=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliandreame00hareuoft/page/194 194], 230}}{{sfn|Seton-Watson|1902|pp=[https://archive.org/details/maximilianiholy00watgoog/page/n83 69]–70}} The marriages arranged there brought Habsburg kingship over Hungary and Bohemia in 1526.{{sfn|Hare|1913|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximiliandreame00hareuoft/page/208 208]}}<ref name="fichtner1976">{{Cite journal |last=Fichtner |first=Paula Sutter |year=1976 |title=Dynastic Marriage in Sixteenth-Century Habsburg Diplomacy and Statecraft: An Interdisciplinary Approach |journal=The American Historical Review |publisher=Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Historical Association |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=243–265 |doi=10.2307/1851170 |jstor=1851170}}</ref> In 1515, Louis was adopted by Maximilian.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stone |first=Daniel Z. |title=The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 |date= 2014 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80362-3 |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AxETCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |access-date=4 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Maximilian had to serve as the proxy groom to Anna in the betrothal ceremony, because only in 1516 did Ferdinand agree to enter into the marriage, which would happen in 1521.{{sfn|Beller|2006|p=44}}

[[File:Bernhard Strigel 003b.jpg|thumb|left|Emperor Maximilian I and his family; with his son Philip the Fair, his wife Mary of Burgundy, his grandsons Ferdinand I and Charles V, and Louis II of Hungary (husband of his granddaughter Mary of Austria).]]

These political marriages were summed up in the following [[Latin]] [[elegiac couplet]], reportedly spoken by Matthias Corvinus: ''Bella gerant aliī, tū fēlix Austria nūbe/ Nam quae Mars aliīs, dat tibi regna Venus'', "Let others wage war, but thou, O happy Austria, marry; for those kingdoms which Mars gives to others, Venus gives to thee."{{sfn|Hare|1907|p=[https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare/page/48 48]}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Ingrao |first=Charles W. |title=The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815 |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-49925-5 |page=4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcqlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |access-date=10 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

Contrary to the implication of this motto though, Maximilian waged war aplenty (In four decades of ruling, he waged 27 wars in total).{{sfn|Baumann|Schmidt-von Rhein|2002|p=117}} Late in his life though, only the military situation in the East worked well—the Magyars was said to fear him more than the Turks or the Devil. In the West, he could do no more than blocking French expansion and only with Spanish aid.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=122}} His general strategy was to combine his intricate systems of alliance, military threats and offers of marriage to realize his expansionist ambitions. Using overtures to Russia, Maximilian succeeded in coercing Bohemia, Hungary and Poland into acquiesce in the Habsburgs' expansionist plans. Combining this tactic with military threats, he was able to gain the favourable marriage arrangements In Hungary and Bohemia (which were under the same dynasty).<ref name=Britannica>{{cite web |last1=Skjelver |first1=Danielle Mead |last2=Wiesflecker |first2=Hermann |title="Maximilian I" |website="Encyclopædia Britannica |date=18 March 2021 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maximilian-I-Holy-Roman-emperor |access-date=30 September 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228184400/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maximilian-I-Holy-Roman-emperor |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Bence Péterfi, many Hungarian nobles maintained dual loyalty to both the Habsburgs and the Jagiellons. After the [[Peace of Pressburg (1491)]] legalized this phenomenon, there was a change in dynamic: "While at the time of the conflicts between Frederick III and Matthias Corvinus it was primarily those who took the side of the Hungarian king who were able to pursue successful careers, after 1491, the situation reversed, and those who were
on the side of the Habsburgs seemed to have more opportunities."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Péterfi |first1=Bence |title=Multiple Loyalties in Habsburg-Hungarian Relations at the Turn of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century |journal=Hungarian Historical Review |date=2021 |issue=10, no. 4 (2021) |pages=623, 641 |url=https://real.mtak.hu/143315/1/peterfi_doi20214.pdf |access-date=3 August 2024}}</ref>

At the same time, his sprawling panoply of territories as well as potential claims constituted a threat to France, thus forcing Maximilian to continuously launch wars in defense of his possessions in Burgundy, the Low Countries and Italy against four generations of French kings (Louis XI, Charles VIII, Louis XII, Francis I). Coalitions he assembled for this purpose sometimes consisted of non-imperial actors like England. Edward J. Watts comments that the nature of these wars was dynastic, rather than imperial.<ref>{{cite book |last=Watts |first=Edward J. |title=The Eternal Decline and Fall of Rome: The History of a Dangerous Idea |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-007671-9 |page=210 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O30_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |access-date=11 October 2021 |archive-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011045806/https://books.google.com/books?id=O30_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Fortune was also a factor that helped to bring about the results of his marriage plans. The double marriage could have given the Jagiellon a claim in Austria, while a potential male child of Margaret and [[John, Prince of Asturias|John]], a prince of Spain, would have had a claim to a portion of the maternal grandfather's possessions as well. But as it turned out, Vladislaus's male line became extinct, while the frail John died without offspring, so Maximilian's male line was able to claim the thrones.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rady |first=Martyn |title=The Habsburgs: The Rise and Fall of a World Power |date=2020 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-198719-4 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pt2xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT56 |access-date=11 October 2021 |archive-date=11 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011045758/https://books.google.com/books?id=pt2xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT56 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Death and succession==
[[File:Maximilian-totenbild.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Death portrait of Maximilian]]
[[File:Innsbruck 1 287.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Maximilian's [[cenotaph]], [[Hofkirche, Innsbruck]]]]

In 1501, Maximilian fell from his horse and badly injured his leg, causing him pain for the rest of his life. Some historians have suggested that he was "morbidly" depressed: from 1514, he travelled everywhere with his coffin.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andrew |last=Pettegree |title=Europe in the Sixteenth Century |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |year=2002 |page=14 |isbn=978-0-631-20701-6}}</ref>{{sfn|Benecke|1982|p=10}}

During his last years, Maximilian began to focus on the question of imperial succession.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=126}} After the death of his son Philip in 1506, his goal was to secure the imperial throne for his grandson Charles. In 1518, at the [[Diet of Augsburg]], the ailing emperor made substantial efforts, both political and financial, in order to secure the election of Charles as [[King of the Romans]], also hoping to obtain his own imperial coronation (still being only the proclimed emperor since 1508). All of those efforts failed, because of various political and legal obsticles, including the reluctance of [[pope Leo X]] to see the young lord of southern Italian realms (since 1516, Charles was king of Sicily, Naples and Sardinia) also becoming the heir to the imeperial throne and thus achieving domination over the entire Italy.{{sfn|Laffan|1975|p=218-219}}

After the failiure at Augsburg, feeling his death near after seeing an [[eclipse]], Maximilian returned to his beloved Innsbruck, but the city's innskeepers and purveyors did not grant the emperor's entourage further credit. The resulting fit led to a stroke that left him bedridden on 15 December 1518. However, he continued to read documents and received foreign envoys right until the end. Maximilian died in [[Wels]], Upper Austria, at three o'clock in the morning on 12 January 1519.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=127}}{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=23}}{{sfn|Seton-Watson|1902|p=[https://archive.org/details/maximilianiholy00watgoog/page/n90 76]}} Different historians have listed different diseases as the main cause of death, including cancer (likely [[stomach cancer]] or [[intestinal cancer]]), [[pneumonia]], [[syphilis]], gall stones, stroke (he did have a combination of dangerous medical problems) etc.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=127}}{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=23}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Pleticha |first=Heinrich |title=Deutsche Geschichte: Das ausgehende Mittelalter, 1378–1517 |date=1981 |publisher=Lexikothek |isbn=978-3-570-07270-7 |page=267 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NY66AAAAIAAJ |access-date=10 March 2022 |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rady |first=Martyn |title=The Habsburgs: To Rule the World |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books, Hatchette Book Group |year=2020 |page=63}}</ref>

For penitential reasons, Maximilian gave very specific instructions for the treatment of his body after death. He wanted his hair to be cut off and his teeth knocked out, and the body was to be whipped and covered with lime and ash, wrapped in linen, and "publicly displayed to show the perishableness of all earthly glory".<ref>{{cite book |last=Weiss-Krejci |first=Estella |year=2008 |url=http://homepage.univie.ac.at/estella.weiss-krejci/devbur.pdf |chapter=Unusual Life, Unusual Death and the Fate of the Corpse: A Case Study from Dynastic Europe |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501002240/http://homepage.univie.ac.at/estella.weiss-krejci/devbur.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2015|title=Deviant Burial in the Archaeological Record |editor=Eileen M. Murphy |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxbow |page=186}}</ref> Gregor Reisch, the emperor's friend and confessor who closed his eyes, did not obey the instruction though. He placed a rosary in Maximilian's hand and other sacred objects near the corpse.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fudgé |first=Thomas A. |title=Medieval Religion and its Anxieties: History and Mystery in the Other Middle Ages |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-56610-2 |page=231 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KO5NDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 |access-date=27 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Cuyler|1972|p=104}} He was buried in the [[Burg Wiener Neustadt|Castle Chapel]] at Wiener Neustadt on borrowed money.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=127}} The casket was opened during renovation under [[Maria Theresa]]. After that, the body was reinterred in a Baroque sarcophagus, that later was found unscathed amidst the wreckage of the chapel (due to the [[Second World War]]) on 6 August 1946. The emperor was ceremoniously buried again in 1950.{{sfn|Terjanian|2019|p=60}}

Maximilian was succeeded as by his grandson Charles, immediately as the new ruler of Habsburg hereditary lands, and consequently also as the newly elected emperor in 1519. According to the traditional view, a credit of one million gulden was provided (to Charles, after Maximilian's death, according to Wiesflecker and Koenigsberger) by the Fuggers (the [[Cortes Generales#History of the Spanish legislature|Cortes]] had voted over 600,000 crowns for Charles's election campaign, but money from Spain could not arrive quick enough), which was used for advertising and to bribe the prince-electors, and that this was the decisive factor in Charles's successful election.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Koenigsberger |first1=H. G. |last2=Mosse |first2=George L. |last3=Bowler |first3=G. Q. |title=Europe in the Sixteenth Century |date= 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-87586-4 |page=56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lV_JAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT56 |access-date=4 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Wiesflecker|1981|pp=457–458}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Rabe |first=Horst |title=Deutsche Geschichte 1500–1600: das Jahrhundert der Glaubensspaltung |place=Munich |publisher=Beck |year=1991 |isbn=978-3-406-35501-1 |pages=221–222}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Alastair |title=France, 1500–1715 |date=2003 |publisher=Heinemann |isbn=978-0-435-32751-4 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xIX_b_93aVIC&pg=PA15 |access-date=4 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> Others point out that while the electors were paid, this was not the reason for the outcome, or at most played only a small part.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cohn |first=H.J. |title=Did Bribes Induce the German Electors to Choose Charles V as Emperor in 1519? |journal=German History |date=1 January 2001 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1191/026635501672200203 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249288919 |access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref> The important factor that swayed the final decision was that Frederick refused the offer, and made a speech in support of Charles on the ground that they needed a strong leader against the Ottomans, Charles had the resources and was a prince of German extraction.<ref>{{cite book |last=Holborn |first=Hajo |title=A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation |date=1982 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00795-3 |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=350Qosar-UcC&pg=PA47 |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Justi |first1=Ferdinand |last2=Stevenson |first2=Sara Yorke |last3=Jastrow |first3=Morris |title=A History of All Nations |date=1905 |publisher=Lea Brothers |page=56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JnckAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA56 |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Mahan |first=J. Alexander |title=Maria Theresa of Austria |date=2011 |publisher=Read Books Ltd |isbn=978-1-4465-4555-3 |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzJ8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Beard |first=Joseph |title=The Administration of Spain Under Charles V, Spain's New Charlemagne |date= 2010 |publisher=LAP Lambert Acad. Publ. |isbn=978-3-8383-3964-1 |pages=20–40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaujcQAACAAJ |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The death of Maximilian in 1519 seemed to put the succession at risk, but in a few months the election of Charles V was secured.<ref name=erbe/>

==Legacy==
{{Main|Legacy of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor}}

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor'''
|2= 2. [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|3= 3. [[Eleanor of Portugal, Holy Roman Empress|Eleanor of Portugal]]
|4= 4. [[Ernest, Duke of Austria]]<ref name="ADB-Friedrich III">{{cite ADB|7|448|452|Friedrich III.|Voigt, Georg|ADB:Friedrich III. (Kaiser)}}</ref>
|5= 5. [[Cymburgis of Masovia]]<ref name="ADB-Friedrich III"/>
|6= 6. [[Edward, King of Portugal]]<ref name="Stephens1903">{{Cite book |last=Stephens |first=Henry Morse |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jwMqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA139 |title=The Story of Portugal |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |year=1903 |page=139 |isbn=978-0-7222-2473-1 |access-date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=17 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417191754/https://books.google.com/books?id=jwMqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA139 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|7= 7. [[Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Portugal|Eleanor of Aragon]]<ref name="Stephens1903"/>
|8= 8. [[Leopold III, Duke of Austria]]<ref name="BLKO-Ernst">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Ernst der Eiserne |volume=6 |page=178}}</ref>
|9= 9. [[Viridis Visconti]]<ref name="BLKO-Ernst"/>
|10= 10. [[Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia]]<ref name="BLKO-Cimburgis">{{BLKO |wstitle=Habsburg, Cimburgis von Masovien |volume=6 |page=158}}</ref>
|11= 11. [[Alexandra of Lithuania]]<ref name="BLKO-Cimburgis"/>
|12= 12. [[John I, King of Portugal]]<ref name="Stephens1903"/>
|13= 13. [[Philippa of Lancaster]]<ref name="Stephens1903"/>
|14= 14. [[Ferdinand I, King of Aragon]]<ref name="DeSousa2">{{Cite book |last=de Sousa |first=Antonio Caetano |url=https://archive.org/stream/historiagenealog02sous#page/496/mode/2up |title=Historia genealogica da casa real portugueza |publisher=Lisboa Occidental |year=1735 |volume=2 |page=497 |language=pt |trans-title=Genealogical History of the Royal House of Portugal}}</ref>
|15= 15. [[Eleanor of Alburquerque]]<ref name="DeSousa2"/>
}}

==Official style==
<gallery class="center" widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:CoA Maximilian I of Habsburg.svg|Coat of arms of Maximilian I of Habsburg as '''Holy Roman Emperor'''
File:CoA Maximilian I of Habsburg (King of the romans).svg|Coat of arms of Maximilian I of Habsburg as '''King of the Romans'''.
</gallery>
''We, Maximilian, by the Grace of God, elected Roman Emperor, always Augmenter of the Empire, King of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, etc. Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brittany, Lorrain, Brabant, Stiria, Carinthia, Carniola, Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Guelders; Count of Flanders, Habsburg, Tyrol, Pfiert, Kybourg, Artois, and Burgundy; Count Palatine of Haynault, Holland, Zeland, Namur, and Zutphen; Marquess of the Roman Empire and of Burgau, Landgrave of Alsatia, Lord of Frisia, the Wendish Mark, Portenau, Salins, and Malines, etc. etc.''<ref>{{cite book |last=Weber |first=Friedrich Christian |title=The Present State of Russia Vol. 1 |date= 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-54990-4 |page=170 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbdLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT170 |access-date=5 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2025}}

===Chivalric orders===

{{multiple image
|image1 = Maximilian I 1505 av.jpg
|image2 = Maximilian I 1505 rv.jpg
|total_width  = 220
|align  = right
|footer_align = center
|footer = Maximilian's coin with the Burgundian [[Order of the Golden Fleece]]
|alt1   = A gold-and-silver coin featuring the bust of a crowned man in armour, holding a sceptre and a sword. The bust is surrounded with the text 'Maximilianus Dei Gra Rex & Imper Augustus'.
|alt2   = A gold-and-silver coin featuring five coats of arms, three crowned, and the chain of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The coin is surrounded by text.
}}
On 30 April 1478, Maximilian was knighted by [[Adolph of Cleves, Lord of Ravenstein|Adolph of Cleves]], a senior member of the [[Order of the Golden Fleece]] and on the same day he became the sovereign of this exalted order. As its head, he did everything in his power to restore its glory as well as associate the order with the Habsburg lineage. He expelled the members who had defected to France and rewarded those loyal to him, and also invited foreign rulers to join its ranks.{{sfn|Terjanian|2019|pp=28–29}}

Maximilian I was a member of the [[Order of the Garter]], nominated by King [[Henry VII of England]] in 1489. His [[Garter stall plate]] survives in [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maximilian I, King of the Romans, later Holy Roman Emperor |url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/knightsofthegarter/MicroObject.asp?row=4&themeid=455&item=5 |website=royalcollection.org.uk |access-date=24 November 2013 |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004653/http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/knightsofthegarter/MicroObject.asp?row=4&themeid=455&item=5 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Maximilian was patron of the [[Order of Saint George (House of Habsburg)|Order of Saint George]] founded by his father, and also the founder of its secular confraternity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Butts |first1=Barbara |last2=Hendrix |first2=Lee |title=Painting on Light: Drawings and Stained Glass in the Age of Dürer and Holbein |date= 2001 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-0-89236-579-1 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kiA2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 |access-date=4 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==Appearance and personality==
[[File:Ahnensaal, Hofburg 01.jpg|thumb|Young Maximilian, portrait at the Ancestral Hall (''Ahnensaal''), Hofburg.]]

Maximilian was strongly built, had an upright posture, was over six feet tall, had blue eyes, neck length blond or reddish hair, a large hooked nose and a jutting jaw (like his father, he always shaved his beard.<ref>{{cite book |last=Steinmetz |first=Greg |title=The Richest Man Who Ever Lived: The Life and Times of Jacob Fugger |date= 2015 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4516-8857-3 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wD4jBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 |access-date=26 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Benecke|2019|pp=22–26}} Although not conventionally handsome, he was well-proportioned and considered physically attractive, with abiding youthfulness and an affable, pleasing manner.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sedgwick |first=Henry Dwight |title=Vienna: A Biography of a Bygone City |date=2017 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |isbn=978-1-78720-423-2 |page=44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xkkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT44}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Villari |first=Pasquale |title=The life and times of Niccolo Machiavelli, Volume 1 |date=1969 |publisher=Ardent Media |page=424 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-nSBgW3CC4C&pg=PA424}}</ref> A womanizer since his teenager days, he increasingly sought distraction from the tragedy of the first marriage and the frustration of the second marriage in the company of "sleeping women" in all corners of his empire. Sigrid-Maria Grössing describes him as a charming heartbreaker for all his life.{{sfn|Grössing|2002|p=141}}{{sfn|Wiesflecker|1971|p=370}} He could manoeuvre with one hand a seven-meter lance comfortably.{{sfn|Anderson|2017|p=23}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pieper |first1=Dietmar |last2=Saltzwedel |first2=Johannes |title=Die Welt der Habsburger: Glanz und Tragik eines europäischen Herrscherhauses – Ein SPIEGEL-Buch |date= 2010 |publisher=DVA |isbn=978-3-641-04162-5 |page=55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97CtUfCerh4C&pg=PT55 |access-date=31 July 2022 |language=de}}</ref>

Maximilian was a late developer. According to his teacher Johannes Cuspinian, he did not speak until he was nine-years-old, and after that only developed slowly. Frederick III recalled that when his son was twelve, he still thought that the boy was either mute or stupid.{{sfn|Brady|2009|p=108}} In his adulthood, he spoke six languages (he learned French from his wife Mary){{sfn|Pavlac|Lott|2019|p=254}} and was a genuinely talented author.{{sfn|Whaley|2009}} Other than languages, mathematics and religion, he painted and played various instruments and was also trained in farming, carpentry and blacksmithing, although the focus of his education was naturally kingship.{{sfn|Potter|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=39hKrtqiDcIC&pg=PA314 314]}} According to Fichtner, he did not learn much from formal training though, because even as a boy, he never sat still and tutors could not do much about that.{{sfn|Fichtner|2017|p=63}} Gerhard Benecke opines that by nature he was the man of action, a "vigorously charming extrovert" who had a "conventionally superficial interest in knowledge, science and art combined with excellent health in his youth" (he remained virile into his late thirties and although later his health was damaged due to a leg accident and other ailments, the emperor displayed remarkable self-discipline and hardly ever recognized a weakness; at the 1510 Reichstag in Augsburg, Maximilian, 51, fought against [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony|Frederick of Saxony]], 47, in front of a large audience.).{{sfn|Benecke|2019|pp=3,20,26}}{{sfn|Seyboth|2022|p=409}} He was brave to the point of recklessness, and this did not only show in battles. He once entered a lion's enclosure in Munich alone to tease the lion, and at another point climbed to the top of the [[Ulm Minster|Cathedral of Ulm]], stood on one foot and turned himself round to gain a full view, at the trepidation of his attendants. In the nineteenth century, an Austrian officer lost his life trying to repeat the emperor's "feat", while another succeeded.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lehmann |first=Marcus |title=Rabbi Yoselman of Rosheim |date=2002 |publisher=Feldheim Publishers |isbn=978-1-58330-551-5 |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JjTZwOewqk0C&pg=PA59 |access-date=23 September 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Burgkmair (designer) |first1=Hans |last2=Aspland |first2=Alfred |title=Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I |date=1875 |publisher=Holbein Society |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HMwsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA27}}</ref> While he paid magnificently for a princely style, he required little for personal needs.{{sfn|Müller|2003|p=305}} In his mature years, he exerted restraint on personal habits, except during his depressive phases (when he drank night and day, sometimes incapacitating the government, to the great annoyance of Chancellor Zyprian von Sernteiner) or in the companion of his artist friends. The artists got preferential treatment in criminal matters too, such as the case of [[Veit Stoss]], whose sentence (imprisonment and having his hands chopped off for an actual crime) issued by Nuremberg got cancelled on the sole basis of genius. The emperor's reasoning was that, what came as a gift from God should not be treated according to usual norms or human proportions.{{sfn|Grössing|2002|pp=207, 233}} To the astonishment of contemporaries, he laughed at the satire directed against his person and organized celebrations after defeats.{{sfn|Hollegger|2012|p=23}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Woltmann |first=Albert |title=Holbein and his Time — Translated by F. E. Bunnett. With Sixty illustrations |date=1872 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPpSZEzg9QUC&pg=PA30 |access-date=31 July 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Historian Ernst Bock, with whom Benecke shares the same sentiment, writes the following about him:{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=25}}
<blockquote>His rosy optimism and utilitarianism, his totally naive amorality in matters political, both unscrupulous and machiavellian; his sensuous and earthy naturalness, his exceptional receptiveness towards anything beautiful especially in the visual arts, but also towards the various fashions of his time whether the nationalism in politics, the humanism in literature and philosophy or in matters of economics and capitalism; further his surprising yearning for personal fame combined with a striving for popularity, above all the clear consciousness of a developed individuality: these properties Maximilian displayed again and again.</blockquote>
[[File:Umkreis Lucas Cranach d.A. - Kaiser Maximilian I. als heiliger Georg.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Maximilian idealized as Saint George, by Lucas Cranach the Elder (c.&nbsp;1472 – 16 October 1553). c.&nbsp;1515.<ref>{{cite book |title=Trafalgar Galleries at the Royal Academy |volume=2 |date=1979 |publisher=Trafalgar Galleries |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6dHAQAAIAAJ |access-date=20 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref>]]

Historian Paula Fichtner describes Maximilian as a leader who was ambitious and imaginative to a fault, with self-publicizing tendencies as well as territorial and administrative ambitions that betrayed a nature both "soaring and recognizably modern", while dismissing Benecke's presentation of Maximilian as "an insensitive agent of exploitation" as influenced by the author's personal political leaning.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fichtner |first=Paula Sutter |title=Maximilian I, Emperor |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0143.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=25 September 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925063447/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0143.xml |url-status=live}}</ref>

Berenger and Simpson consider Maximilian a greedy Renaissance prince, and also, "a prodigious man of action whose chief fault was to have 'too many irons in the fire'".{{sfn|Berenger|Simpson|2014|pp=120–121}} On the other hand, Steven Beller criticizes him for being too much of a medieval knight who had a hectic schedule of warring, always crisscrossing the whole continent to do battles (for example, in August 1513, he commanded Henry VIII's English army in the second Guinegate, and a few weeks later joined the Spanish forces in defeating the Venetians) with little resources to support his ambitions. According to Beller, Maximilian should have spent more time at home persuading the estates to adopt a more efficient governmental and fiscal system.<ref>{{cite book |last=Beller |first=Steven |title=A Concise History of Austria |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-47886-1 |page=44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DT7eLFsw2AC&pg=PA44 |access-date=5 October 2021 |archive-date=5 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005091517/https://books.google.com/books?id=0DT7eLFsw2AC&pg=PA44 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Thomas A. Brady Jr. praises the emperor's sense of honour, but criticizes his financial immorality—according to Geoffrey Parker, both points, together with Maximilian's martial qualities and hard-working nature, would be inherited from the grandfather by Charles V:{{sfn|Brady|1998|p=326}}{{sfn|Parker|2019|p=29}}
<blockquote>[...]though punctilious to a fault about his honor, he lacked all morals about money. Every florin was spent, mortgaged, and promised ten times over before it ever came in; he set his courtiers a model for their infamous venality; he sometimes had to leave his queen behind as pledge for his debts; and he borrowed continuously from his servitors—large sums from top officials, tiny ones from servants—and never repaid them. Those who liked him tried to make excuses.</blockquote>

Certain English sources describe him as a ruler who habitually failed to keep his words.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gilliat-Smith |first=Ernest |title=The Story of Bruges |date=1901 |publisher=J.M. Dent & Company |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bhoaAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA25 |access-date=26 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref> According to Wiesflecker, people could often depend on his promises more than those of most princes of his days, although he was no stranger to the "clausola francese" and also tended to use a wide variety of statements to cover his true intentions, which unjustly earned him the reputation of being fickle.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maximilian I |website=Deutsche Biographie |url=https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/sfz59364.html#ndbcontent |access-date=26 January 2022 |language=de}}</ref> Hollegger concurs that Maximilian's court officials, except Eitelfriedrich von Zollern and Wolfgang von Fürstenberg, did expect gifts and money for tips and help, and the emperor usually defended his counselors and servants even if he acted against the more blatant displays of material greed. Maximilian though was not a man who could be controlled or influenced easily by his officials. Hollegger also opines that while many of his political and artistic schemes leaned towards megalomania, there was a sober realist who believed in progression and relied on modern modes of management underneath. Personally, "frequently described as humane, gentle, and friendly, he reacted with anger, violence, and vengefulness when he felt his rights had been injured or his honor threatened, both of which he valued greatly." The price for his warlike ruling style and his ambition for a globalized monarchy (that ultimately achieved considerable successes) was a continuous succession of war, that earned him the sobriquet "Heart of steel" (Coeur d'acier).<ref name=oeaw/>{{sfn|Hollegger|2012|pp=23–32}}

==Marriages and offspring==
[[File:Burgkirche Fenster MaximilianI.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.35|16th century stained glass window in St George's Church (''Georgskapelle''): Philip the Handsome, Maximilian I, Bianca Maria Sforza, Mary of Burgundy with Archduchess Margaret (left to right)]]
Maximilian was married three times, but only the first marriage produced offspring:
* Maximilian's first wife was [[Mary of Burgundy]]. They were married in [[Ghent]] on 19 August 1477, but she died in a riding accident in 1482. Mary was the love of his life. Even in old age, the mere mention of her name moved him to tears (although his sexual life, contrary to his chivalric ideals, was unchaste).{{sfn|Cuyler|1973|p=67}} The grand literary projects commissioned and composed in large part by Maximilian many years after her death were in part tributes to their love, especially ''Theuerdank'', in which the hero saved the damsel in distress as he had saved her inheritance in real life.{{sfn|Terjanian|2019|p=120}}{{sfn|Anderson|2020|p=204}} His heart is buried inside her sarcophagus in Bruges according to his wish.{{sfn|Pavlac|2013|p=462}} Beyond her beauty, the inheritance and the glory she brought, Mary corresponded to Maximilian's ideal of a woman: the spirited grand "Dame" who could stand next to him as sovereign. To their daughter Margaret, he described Mary: from her eyes shone the power (''Kraft'') that surpassed any other woman.{{sfn|Wiesflecker|1991|p=356}}<ref>{{cite episode |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HyW4SsyRP0A |title=Maximilian – Der letzte Ritter |series=Maximilian – Der letzte Ritter |first=Corrine |last=Manfred |network=Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF) |date=2017 |access-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101225015/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HyW4SsyRP0A |archive-date=1 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Habsburg Map 1547.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Habsburg realms (green) under [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]]]
The marriage produced three children, of whom only two survived:
# [[Philip I of Castile]] (1478–1506) who inherited his mother's domains following her death, but predeceased his father. He married [[Joanna of Castile]], becoming king-consort of Castile upon her accession in 1504, and was the father of the Holy Roman Emperors [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]].
# [[Margaret of Austria (1480–1530)]], who was first engaged at the age of two to the French dauphin (who became [[Charles VIII of France]] a year later) to confirm peace between France and Burgundy. She was sent back to her father in 1492 after Charles repudiated their betrothal to marry [[Anne of Brittany]]. She was then married to [[John, Prince of Asturias]], crown prince of Castile and Aragon, and after his death to [[Philibert II of Savoy]]. She undertook the guardianship of her deceased brother Philip's children, and governed Burgundy for the heir, Charles.
# Francis of Austria, who died shortly after his birth in 1481.
* Maximilian was also married to [[Anne of Brittany]] (1477–1514). They were married by proxy in [[Rennes]] on 18 December 1490. The contract was dissolved by [[Pope Innocent VIII]] in early 1492, after Charles VIII had repudiated his betrothal to Margaret and forced Anne to marry him instead.

The drive behind this marriage, to the great annoyance of Frederick III (who characterized it as "disgraceful"), was the desire of personal revenge against the French (Maximilian blamed France for the great tragedies of his life: Mary of Burgundy's death, political upheavals that followed, his troubled relationship with his son, and later, Philip's death{{sfn|Cauchies|2003|pp=173–176, 206–208}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=Lambo Uitgeverij |title=Intriges aan het hof. Deel VII: keizer Maximiliaan I |url=https://blog.lambo.nl/2017/11/08/intriges-aan-het-hof-deel-vii-keizer-maximiliaan-i/ |website=Lambo blogt |access-date=31 July 2022 |language=nl |date=8 November 2017}}</ref>). The young King of the Romans had in mind a  pincer grip against France, while Frederick wanted him to focus on expansion towards the east and maintenance of stability in newly reacquired Austria.<ref name="Wolf 2005"/><ref name=Heinig/> But Brittany was so weak that by itself it could not resist French attack even briefly as the [[Burgundian State]] had done, while Maximilian could not even personally come to Brittany to consummate the marriage.{{sfn|Koenigsberger|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2V1dbsvEWnkC&pg=PA67 67]}}
* Maximilian's third wife was [[Bianca Maria Sforza]] (1472–1510). They were married in 1493, the marriage bringing Maximilian a rich dowry and allowing him to assert his rights as imperial overlord of Milan. The marriage was unhappy, and they had no children. In Maximilian's view, while Bianca might surpass his first wife Mary in physical beauty, she was just a "child" with "a mediocre mind", who could neither make decisions nor be presented as a respectable lady to society. Benecke opines that this seems unfair, as while Bianca was always concerned with trivial, private matters (Recent research though indicates that Bianca was an educated woman who was politically active),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Antenhofer |first=Christina |contribution=Emotions in the Correspondence of Bianca Maria Sforza |title= Maximilian I. 1459–1519. Wahrnehmung – Übersetzungen – Gender. Innsbrucker Historische Studien |editor=Heinz Noflatscher |editor2=Michael A. Chisholm |editor3=Bertrand Schnerb |date=2011 |publisher=Studienverlag GmbH |location=Innsbruck |isbn=978-3-7065-4951-6 |pages=267–286 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281284757 |access-date=1 November 2021}}</ref> she was never given the chance to develop politically, unlike the other women in Maximilian's family, such as Margaret of Austria or [[Catherine of Saxony, Archduchess of Austria|Catherine of Saxony]]. Despite her unsuitability as an empress, Maximilian has often been criticized for treating her with coldness and neglect, which after 1500 only became worse.{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=63}} Bianca, on the other hand, loved the emperor deeply and always tried to win his heart with heartfelt letters, expensive jewels and allusions to sickness, but did not even get back a letter, developed eating disorders and mental illness, and died a childless woman.{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=65}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Weiss |first=Sabine |title=Die Österreicherin: die Rolle der Frau in 1000 Jahren Geschichte |date=1996 |publisher=Styria |isbn=978-3-222-12376-4 |pages=167–168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Boe2AAAAIAAJ |access-date=1 November 2021 |language=de |archive-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101044112/https://books.google.com/books?id=Boe2AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Court historian and physician Joseph Grünpeck,  criticized the emperor, who in his opinion was responsible for Bianca's death through neglect.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brendel |first=Walter |title=Maximilian von Österreich |date= 2022 |publisher=BROKATBOOK |isbn=978-3-96651-250-3 |page=68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSh6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT68 |access-date=28 July 2022 |language=de}}</ref>

In addition, he had several illegitimate children, but the number and identities of those are a matter of great debate. [[Johann Jakob Fugger]] writes in ''Ehrenspiegel'' (''Mirror of Honour'') that the emperor began fathering illegitimate children after becoming a widower, and that there were eight children in total, four boys and four girls.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eder |first=Karl |title=Der steirische Landeshauptmann Siegmund von Dietrichstein, 1480–1533: Beiträge zur seiner Biographie |date=1963 |publisher=Verlag der Historischen Landeskommission |pages=79–80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_boZAAAAIAAJ}}</ref>

These were:
* By a widow in Den Bosch, whom Maximilian met in a campaign:
# Barbara Disquis (1482–1568): Her birth and Mary of Burgundy's death seemed to connect to Maximilian's near fatal illness in 1482 and later pilgrimage to Amsterdam in 1484. In her teenage years, she rebelled against her father and entered St Gertrude's convent. Philip the Fair was introduced to her in 1504 when he and Maximilian went to Den Bosch to prepare for the war against Guelders. On their father's behalf, Philip urged her to leave the convent and get married, but she refused. The place she was buried is now a square named after her. In 2021, a recently built city walk close to Maximilian's statue was named "''Mijn lieven dochter''" ("My dear daughter").<ref>{{cite news |last=Korsten |first=Chris |title=Mijn Lieven Dochter, audiowandeling over buitenechtelijke vrouw uit Den Bosch met blauw bloed |url=https://www.ad.nl/den-bosch/mijn-lieven-dochter-audiowandeling-over-buitenechtelijke-vrouw-uit-den-bosch-met-blauw-bloed-br~a2f46430/ |access-date=26 January 2022 |website=ad.nl |date=3 August 2021}}</ref><ref name=amsterdam>{{cite news |title=Middeleeuwse citymarketing: het wonder van Amsterdam |url=https://www.amsterdam.nl/nieuws/achtergrond/middeleeuwse-citymarketing-wonder/ |access-date=26 January 2022 |work=Amsterdam.nl |date=2019 |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bossche Encyclopedie {{!}} Maximiliaan (1923) |url=https://www.bossche-encyclopedie.nl/overig/beelden/maximiliaan.htm |website=bossche-encyclopedie.nl |access-date=26 January 2022}}</ref>
* By an unknown mistress:
# [[Margarethe von Helfenstein]] or Martha, Margaretha, Mathilde, Margareta, née von Edelsheim (?–1537), wife of Johann von Hille (died 1515), remarried [[:de:Ludwig V. von Helfenstein-Wiesensteig|Count Ludwig Helferich von Helfenstein]] (1493–1525, married in 1517 or 1520); Ludwig was killed by peasants on 16 April 1525 in the Massacre of Weinsberg during the [[German Peasants' War]]. They had a surviving son named Maximilian (1523–1555)<ref>{{cite book |last=Naubert |first=Christiane Benedikte |title=Der Bund des armen Konrads: Getreue Schilderung einiger merkwürdigen Auftritte aus den Zeiten der Bauernkriege des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts. (Transkription von Evelyn Hess) Neu herausgegeben, mit Fußnoten und einem Nachwort versehen von Sylvia Kolbe |date=2016 |publisher=Engelsdorfer Verlag |isbn=978-3-96008-342-9 |pages=325, 340 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLHxCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT325 |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=24 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924043841/https://books.google.com/books?id=jLHxCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT325 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=6}} Some sources reported that she was born in 1480 or her mother was Margareta von Edelsheim, née Rappach.{{sfn|Naubert|2016|p=340}}
* By Margareta von Edelsheim, née Rappach (?–1522) Dingel reports that she was born around 1470<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dingel |first1=Irene |last2=Hund |first2=Johannes |last3=Schneider |first3=Hans-Otto |last4=Lies |first4=Jan Martin |title=Reaktionen auf das Augsburger Interim: Der Interimistische Streit (1548–1549) |date=2010 |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=978-3-525-56008-2 |page=675,1002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nxJoBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1002 |access-date=24 September 2021}}</ref> while others report that in 1494 she was still a minor when she married von Rottal:<ref>{{cite book |last=Hüffer |first=Georg |title=Historisches Jahrbuch |date=1998 |publisher=Görres-Gesellschaft |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l7wLAQAAMAAJ&q=1494 |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=10 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010063535/https://books.google.com/books?id=l7wLAQAAMAAJ&q=1494 |url-status=live }}</ref>
# Barbara von Rottal (1500–1550), wife of [[:de:Siegmund von Dietrichstein|Siegmund von Dietrichstein]], member of the [[Dietrichstein family|House of Dietrichstein]]. Some report that she was the daughter of Margareta von Edelsheim, née Rappach,<ref>{{cite book |last=Hirschbiegel |first=Jan |title=Nahbeziehungen bei Hof – Manifestationen des Vertrauens: Karrieren in reichsfürstlichen Diensten am Ende des Mittelalters |date=2015 |publisher=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar |isbn=978-3-412-22441-7 |page=150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fyRsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |access-date=24 September 2021 |archive-date=10 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010064130/https://books.google.com/books?id=fyRsDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 |url-status=live }}</ref> while Benecke lists the mother as unidentified.{{sfn|Benecke|2019|p=6}}
# [[George of Austria]] (1505–1557), [[Prince-Bishop of Liège]].
* By Anna von [[House of Helfenstein|Helfenstein]]:
# Cornelius (1507–{{circa|1527}}).{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
# Maximilian Friedrich von Amberg (1511–1553), Lord of Feldkirch.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
# Anna Maria (1512–1562) wife of Bartold Dienger {{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
# [[Leopoldo de Austria|Leopold]] ({{circa|1515–1557}}), [[bishop of Córdoba, Spain]] (1541–1557), with illegitimate succession.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
# Dorothea (1516–1572), heiress of Falkenburg, Durbuy and Halem, lady in waiting to Queen [[Mary of Hungary (governor of the Netherlands)|Maria of Hungary]]; wife of [[Johan I of East Frisia]].
# [[Anne Margerite of Austria|Anna Margareta]] (1517–1545), lady in waiting to Queen Maria of Hungary; wife of [[François de Melun]] (?–1547), 2nd count of [[Epinoy]]. {{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
# Anne (1519–?). She married [[Louis d'Hirlemont]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
# Elisabeth (d. 1581–1584), wife of Ludwig III [[House of La Marck|von der Marck]], Count of Rochefort.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-26 |title=Elisabeth von Österreich |url=https://www.geni.com/people/Elisabeth-von-%C3%96sterreich/6000000002188378632 |access-date=2024-10-03 |website=geni_family_tree |language=en-US}}</ref>
# Barbara, wife of Wolfgang Plaiss.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Familienblatt von Wolfgang Plaiss / Barbara v. (F42782) : Forschungsergebnisse des Roland zu Dortmund e.V. |url=https://tng.rolandgen.de/familygroup.php?familyID=F42782&tree=Hedwig |access-date=2024-10-03 |website=tng.rolandgen.de}}</ref>
# Christoph Ferdinand ({{abbr|d.|died}}&nbsp;{{circa|1522}}).{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
* By unknown mistress (parentage uncertain):
# Guielma, wife of Rudiger (Rieger) von Westernach.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}

==Triumphal woodcuts==
A set of woodcuts called the Triumph of Emperor Maximilian I.

[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 004.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 005.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 006.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 007.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 008.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 009.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 012.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Hans burgkmair il vecchio, spadaccini con alabarde, dalla serie della processione trionfale di massimiliano I, 1526 (ristampa del 1796).jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 013.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 014.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 015.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 016.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumphzug Kaiser Maximilians 1.jpg|250px| ]]
[[File:Triumphzug Kaiser Maximilians 2.jpg|250px| ]]
[[File:Wartime Triumphs, from The Triumphal Procession of Emperor Maximilian (Triumph Des Kaisers Maximilian I) MET DP834162.jpg|180px|Wartime Triumphs]]
[[File:Hans burgkmair musikantenda.jpg|200px|Musikantendarstellungen]]
[[File:Cart with Horn Musicians, The Triumphal Procession of Emperor Maximilian I MET DP834076.jpg|200px|Cart with Horn Musicians]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 001.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Hungarian combatants, escort of Emperor Maximilian I.jpg|190px|Hungarian combatants, escort of Emperor Maximilian I]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 002.jpg|150px| ]]
[[File:Triumph of the Emperor Maximilian I - 003.jpg|150px| ]]

==In arts and popular culture==
{{See also|Cultural depictions of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor}}

==Male-line family tree==
{{Habsburg family tree}}

==Works==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kaiser Maximilian I. |last2=Bernd Schuchter |title=Das geheime Jagdbuch |date=2019 |location=Innsbruck |publisher=Limbus Verlag |language=de |isbn=978-3-99039-162-4 |edition=1st}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kaiser Maximilian I. |last2=Heiliges Römisches Reich |title=Die ruhmreichen Taten des Ritters Theuerdank ein illustriertes Meisterwerk der frühen Buchdruckerkunst. [Kommentarband] |date=2015 |location=Darmstadt |publisher=Lambert Schneider |language=de |isbn=978-3-650-40034-5 |edition=Einmalige, nummeriert und limitiert}}
{{refend}}

==See also==
* [[Family tree of German monarchs]]. He was related to every other king of Germany

==Notes==
{{notelist|30em}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* {{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Natalie Margaret |title=The Tournament and its Role in the Court Culture of Emperor Maximilian I (1451519) |date=March 2017 |publisher=The University of Leeds, Institute for Medieval Studies |page=31 |url=https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/18205/1/Anderson_NM_History_PhD_2017.pdf |access-date=20 September 2021 |archive-date=14 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614024453/https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/18205/1/Anderson_NM_History_PhD_2017.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Anderson |first=Natalie |contribution=Power and pageantry: the tournament at the court of Maximilian I |title=The Medieval Tournament as Spectacle: Tourneys, Jousts and Pas D'armes, 1100–1600 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer|year=2020|isbn=978-1-78327-542-7}}
* {{Cite book|last=Armstrong|first=Charles A. J.|author-link=C. A. J. Armstrong|chapter=The Burgundian Netherlands, 1477-1521|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|volume=1|year=1975|orig-year=1957|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=224-258|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_M3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA224}}
* {{cite book |last=Axelrod |first=Alan |title=Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies |date=2013 |publisher=CQ Press |isbn=978-1-4833-6467-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lX9ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 |access-date=20 September 2021 }}
<!-- B -->
* {{cite book |last1=Baumann |first1=Anette |last2=Schmidt-von Rhein |first2=Georg |title=Kaiser Maximilian I.: Bewahrer und Reformer |date=2002 |publisher=Paqué |isbn=978-3-935279-33-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWIiAQAAIAAJ |access-date=11 October 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last=Benecke |first=Gerhard |title=Maximilian I (1459–1519): An Analytical Biography |date=1982 |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |location=London |isbn=978-0-7100-9023-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Benecke |first=Gerhard |title=Maximilian I (1459–1519): An Analytical Biography |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-00840-1 |pages=22–26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyfDwAAQBAJ |access-date=21 September 2021 |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921045525/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEyfDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berenger |first1=Jean |last2=Simpson |first2=C.A. |title=A History of the Habsburg Empire 1273–1700 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89570-1 |pages=120–121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rWQSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 |access-date=5 October 2021 |archive-date=5 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005091522/https://books.google.com/books?id=rWQSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Blockmans |first1=Wim |last2=Prevenier |first2=Walter |title=The Promised Lands: The Low Countries Under Burgundian Rule, 1369–1530 |date=1999 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-1382-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uj9nGDCiW64C |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Brady |first=Thomas A. Jr. |title=Communities, Politics, and Reformation in Early Modern Europe |date=1998 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11001-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZeRDHywLjLwC }}
* {{cite book |last=Brady |first=Thomas A. Jr. |title=German Histories in the Age of Reformations, 1400–1650 |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-88909-4 |location=Cambridge; New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Buisseret |first=David |title=The Mapmakers' Quest: Depicting New Worlds in Renaissance Europe |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-150090-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zYSSDdDRr-cC |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=en }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Cartwright |first=Julia Mary |title=Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Milan, 1475–1497 |publisher=J. M. Dent & Sons |year=1910 |edition=6th |location=London |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25622/25622-h/25622-h.htm |access-date=7 December 2013 |url-status=live |archive-date=3 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403081409/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25622/25622-h/25622-h.htm }}
* {{cite book |last=Cauchies |first=Jean-Marie |title=Philippe le Beau: le dernier duc de Bourgogne |date=2003 |publisher=Brepols |isbn=978-2-503-51226-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JENpAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 March 2022 |language=fr }}
* {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Benjamin |title=The Habsburgs: The History of a Dynasty |date=2013 |pages=46–52 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4411-0053-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I37jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |access-date=21 September 2021 |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921005754/https://books.google.com/books?id=I37jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Cuyler |first=Louise E. |chapter=The Imperial Motet: Barometer of Relations between State and Church |title=The Pursuit of Holiness |year=1972 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-03791-5 |editor1=Charles Trinkaus |editor2=Heiko Oberman |editor2-link=Heiko Oberman |series=Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought |volume=10 |location=Leiden}}
* {{cite book |last=Cuyler |first=Louise |title=The Emperor Maximilian I and Music |date=1973 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-315223-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=no84AAAAMAAJ |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=en }}
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* {{cite book|last=Emmerson|first=Richard K.|title=Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-77518-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LSCPAQAAQBAJ}}
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* {{cite book|last=Fichtner|first=Paula Sutter|date=2014|title=The Habsburgs: Dynasty, Culture and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERItBAAAQBAJ|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-78023-314-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Fichtner |first=Paula Sutter |title=The Habsburg Monarchy, 1490–1848: Attributes of Empire |date=2017 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |isbn=978-1-137-10642-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F1JdDwAAQBAJ |access-date=29 September 2021 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
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* {{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Penny Schine |last2=Sax |first2=Benjamin C. |title=Cultural Visions: Essays in the History of Culture |date=2000 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-90-420-0490-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4m_adklj-4C |access-date=8 November 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Golubeva |first=Maria |title=Models of Political Competence: The Evolution of Political Norms in the Works of Burgundian and Habsburg Court Historians, c.&nbsp;1470–1700 |date=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-25074-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRaKo8HQBvsC&pg=PA52 |access-date=13 November 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Grössing |first=Sigrid-Maria |title=Maximilian I.: Kaiser, Künstler, Kämpfer |date=2002 |publisher=Amalthea |isbn=978-3-85002-485-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AjVoAAAAMAAJ |access-date=30 December 2021 |language=de }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gunn |first1=Steven |last2=Grummitt |first2=David |last3=Cools |first3=Hans |title=War, State, and Society in England and the Netherlands 1477–1559 |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-920750-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDpnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=26 October 2021 |language=en |url-status=live |archive-date=26 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026123814/https://books.google.com/books?id=QDpnAAAAMAAJ }}
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* {{cite book |last=Haemers |first=Jelle |title=For the Common Good: State Power and Urban Revolts in the Reign of Mary of Burgundy, (1477–1482) |date=2009 |publisher=Isd |isbn=978-2-503-52986-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-IvrAAAAMAAJ |access-date=9 November 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Haemers |first=Jelle |title=De strijd om het regentschap over Filips de Schone : opstand, facties en geweld in Brugge, Gent en Ieper (1482–1488) |date=2014 |publisher=Academia Press |location=Gent |isbn=978-90-382-2400-8 |pages=50–64 |url=https://libstore.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/181/896/RUG01-002181896_2017_0001_AC.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://libstore.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/181/896/RUG01-002181896_2017_0001_AC.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=30 November 2021 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Hare |first=Christopher |url=https://archive.org/details/highpuissantprin00hare |title=The high and puissant princess Marguerite of Austria, princess dowager of Spain, duchess dowager of Savoy, regent of the Netherlands |publisher=Harper & Brothers |year=1907 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hare |first=Christopher |title=Maximilian the Dreamer: Holy Roman Emperor, 1459–1519 |date=1913 |publisher=Stanley Paul & Co. |location=Strand, W.C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bs1KAAAAMAAJ |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Hayton |first=Darin |title=The Crown and the Cosmos: Astrology and the Politics of Maximilian I |date=2015 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-8113-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4VnkCgAAQBAJ |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=en }}
{{cite book |last1=Hodnet |first1=Andrew Arthur |title=The Othering of the Landsknechte |date=2018 |publisher=North Carolina State University }}
* {{cite book |last=Holland |first=Clive |title=Tyrol and Its People |date=1909 |publisher=Methuen and Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UpTVAAAAMAAJ |access-date=28 February 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Hollegger |first=Manfred |editor-last=Michel |editor-first=Eva |editor-last2=Sternath |editor-first2=Maria Luise |contribution=Personality and reign The biography of Emperor Maximilian I |title=Emperor Maximilian I and the Age of Durer |date=2012 |publisher=Prestel; Albertina |isbn=978-3-7913-5172-8 |url=https://bilder.buecher.de/zusatz/35/35713/35713397_lese_1.pdf |access-date=2 December 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021164754/https://bilder.buecher.de/zusatz/35/35713/35713397_lese_1.pdf |url-status=live }}
<!-- I -->
<!-- J -->
* {{cite book |last1=Jecmen |first1=Gregory |last2=Spira |first2=Freyda |title=Imperial Augsburg: Renaissance Prints and Drawings, 1475–1540 |date=2012 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-84822-122-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fWguwdNh6AkC |access-date=24 November 2021 |language=en }}
<!-- K -->
* {{cite thesis |last=Kahl |first=Christian |title=Lehrjahre eines Kaisers – Stationen der Persönlichkeitsentwicklung Karls V. (1500–1558): eine Betrachtung habsburgischer Fürstenerziehung/-bildung zum Ende des Mittelalters |date=2018 |pages=65–66 |publisher=Universität Trier |doi=10.25353/ubtr-xxxx-e013-d28d |url=https://ubt.opus.hbz-nrw.de/opus45-ubtr/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/322/file/DISSERTATION_Karl_V._Erziehung.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ubt.opus.hbz-nrw.de/opus45-ubtr/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/322/file/DISSERTATION_Karl_V._Erziehung.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=3 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last=Kelber |first=Moritz |title=Die Musik bei den Augsburger Reichstagen im 16. Jahrhundert |date=2018 |publisher=Allitera Verlag |isbn=978-3-96233-095-8 |url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/59987/1/Kelber_Musik_Augsburger_Reichstage.pdf |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213342/https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/59987/1/Kelber_Musik_Augsburger_Reichstage.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Kleinschmidt |first=Harald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWEiAQAAIAAJ |title=Ruling the Waves: Emperor Maximilian I, the Search for Islands and the Transformation of the European World Picture {{circa|1500}} |date=2008 |publisher=Antiquariaat Forum |isbn=978-90-6194-020-3 |page=162 |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=12 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512105619/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWEiAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Koenigsberger |first=H. G. |title=Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments: The Netherlands in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80330-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2V1dbsvEWnkC |access-date=26 October 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Kurzmann |first=Gerhard |title=Kaiser Maximilian I. und das Kriegswesen der österreichischen Länder und des Reiches |date=1985 |publisher=Österreichischer Bundesverlag |isbn=978-3-215-06067-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lldNAQAAIAAJ |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=de }}
<!-- L -->
* {{Cite book|last=Laffan|first=Robert George D.|chapter=The Empire under Maximilian I|title=The New Cambridge Modern History|volume=1|year=1975|orig-year=1957|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=194-223|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_M3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA194}}
<!-- M -->
*{{cite book |last1=Metzig |first1=Gregor |title=Kommunikation und Konfrontation: Diplomatie und Gesandtschaftswesen Kaiser Maximilians I. (1486–1519) |date=21 November 2016 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-045457-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBWyDQAAQBAJ |access-date=3 June 2022 |language=de}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Michel |editor-first=Eva |editor-last2=Sternath |editor-first2=Maria Luise |title=Emperor Maximilian I and the age of Dürer |date=2012 |publisher=Prestel |location=München |isbn=978-3-7913-5172-8 |url=https://bilder.buecher.de/zusatz/35/35713/35713397_lese_1.pdf |access-date=20 September 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021164754/https://bilder.buecher.de/zusatz/35/35713/35713397_lese_1.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Müller|first=Jan-Dirk |editor-last1=Gosman |editor-first1=Martin |editor-last2=Alasdair |editor-first2=A. |editor-last3=MacDonald |editor-first3=A. |editor-last4=Macdonald |editor-first4=Alasdair James |editor-last5=Vanderjagt |editor-first5=Arie Johan |title=Princes and Princely Culture: 1450-1650 |date=2003 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004135727 |page=298 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6cqMgy6ZxlMC&pg=PA298 |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=24 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024064350/https://books.google.com/books?id=6cqMgy6ZxlMC&pg=PA298 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Müller |first1=Jan-Dirk |last2=Ziegeler |first2=Hans-Joachim |title=Maximilians Ruhmeswerk: Künste und Wissenschaften im Umkreis Kaiser Maximilians I. |date=2015 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-038754-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJEFCgAAQBAJ |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=de }}
<!-- N -->
* {{cite book |last=Noflatscher |first=Heinz |title=Maximilian I. (1459–1519): Wahrnehmung – Übersetzungen – Gender |date=2011 |publisher=StudienVerlag |isbn=978-3-7065-4951-6 |page=245 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqT5V2mq4SIC |access-date=7 November 2021 |language=de }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Noflatscher |first=Heinz |editor-last=Paravicini |editor-first=Werner |editor-last2=Hiltmann |editor-first2=Torsten |editor-last3=Viltart |editor-first3=Frank |year=2013 |contribution=Von Maximilian zu Karl V. Der Fall »Burgund-Österreich« |trans-contribution=From Maximilian to Charles V. The case of »Burgundy-Austria« |title=La cour de Bourgogne et l'Europe. Le rayonnement et les limites d'un mode'le culturel; Actes du colloque international tenu à Paris les 9, 10 et 11 octobre 2007 |publisher=Deutschen Historischen Institut Paris |pages=721–743 |trans-title=The Court of Burgundy and Europe. The influence and limits of a cultural model; Proceedings of the international symposium held in Paris on October 9, 10 and 11, 2007 |language=de |url=https://perspectivia.net/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/ploneimport_derivate_00009588/noflatscher_maximilian.pdf |access-date=3 December 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=9 October 2022 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://perspectivia.net/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/ploneimport_derivate_00009588/noflatscher_maximilian.pdf }}
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<!-- P -->
* {{cite book |last1=Parker |first1=Geoffrey |title=Emperor: A New Life of Charles V |date=25 June 2019 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24102-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IKVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |access-date=9 February 2022 |language=en}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Pavlac |first=Brian A. |contribution=Maximilian I |title=Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-77519-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Pavlac |first1=Brian A. |last2=Lott |first2=Elizabeth S. |title=The Holy Roman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |date=2019 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-4856-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arSYDwAAQBAJ |access-date=21 September 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=Philip J. |title=Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens |date=2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-9103-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hKrtqiDcIC |access-date=21 September 2021 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Puype |first=Jan Piet |title=Wilfried Tittmann, Die Nürnberger Handfeuerwaffen vom Spätmittelalter bis zum Frühbarock: Der Beitrag Nürnbergs zur Militärischen Revolution der frühen Neuzeit |trans-title=The Portable Firearms of Nuremberg from the Late Middle Ages to the Early Modern Age |department=Book Review |journal=Arms & Armour |date=2020 |publisher=Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt |location=Graz |pages=213–218 |doi=10.1080/17416124.2020.1791406 |s2cid=227060405}}
<!-- Q -->
<!-- R -->
* {{cite journal |last=Rothenberg |first=David J. |title=The Most Prudent Virgin and the Wise King:Isaac's Virgo prudentissima Compositions in the Imperial Ideology of Maximilian I |journal=Journal of Musicology |date=January 2011 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=34–80 |doi=10.1525/jm.2011.28.1.34}}
<!-- S -->
* {{Cite book |last=Seton-Watson |first=Robert William |title=Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor : Stanhope historical essay 1901 |publisher=Archibald Constable & Co |year=1902 |location=Westminster |url=https://archive.org/details/maximilianiholy00watgoog |access-date=8 December 2013 }}
* {{cite book |last=Silver |first=Larry |title=Marketing Maximilian: The Visual Ideology of a Holy Roman Emperor |date=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-13019-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4o3rAAAAMAAJ |access-date=21 September 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Silver |first1=Larry |last2=Smith |first2=Jeffrey Chipps |title=The Essential Durer |date=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-0601-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQZ83r_u9LQC |access-date=13 February 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Spufford |first=Peter |title=Monetary Problems and policies in the Burgundian Netherlands, 1433–1496 |date=1970 |publisher=Brill Archive |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ms0UAAAAIAAJ |access-date=11 November 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Štih |first=Peter |title=A Slovene history : society – politics – culture |date=2008 |publisher=Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino |location=Ljubljana |isbn=978-961-6386-20-3 |url=https://www.sistory.si/cdn/publikacije/2001-3000/2250/Slovenska-zgodovina-ENG.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sistory.si/cdn/publikacije/2001-3000/2250/Slovenska-zgodovina-ENG.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |access-date=10 January 2022 }}
* {{cite book |last=Stollberg-Rilinger |first=Barbara |title=The Holy Roman Empire: A Short History |date=2020 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-78785-390-4 |edition=Enhanced Credo |oclc=1137790657}}
* {{cite book |last=Stollberg-Rilinger |first=Barbara |title=The Holy Roman Empire: A Short History |date=2021 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-21731-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5IIEAAAQBAJ |access-date=20 February 2022 |language=en }}
<!-- T -->
* {{cite book |editor-last=Terjanian |editor-first=Pierre |title=The Last Knight: The Art, Armor, and Ambition of Maximilian I |date=2019 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-1-58839-674-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X-anDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA321 |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Trevor-Roper |first=Hugh |title=Maximilian I |date=2017 |publisher=New Word City |isbn=978-1-64019-024-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TNUrDgAAQBAJ |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=en }}
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* {{cite journal |last=Van der Heide |first=Klaas |title=Many Paths Must a Choirbook Tread Before it Reaches the Pope? |date=2019 |journal=Medieval & Early Modern Music from the Low Countries |volume=11 |issue=1–2 |pages=47–70 |doi=10.1484/J.JAF.5.118980 |s2cid=213740615 |url=https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/pdf/10.1484/J.JAF.5.118980 |access-date=22 October 2021 |url-access=subscription }}
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* {{cite book |last=Waas |first=Glenn Elwood |title=The Legendary Character of Kaiser Maximilian |date=1966 |orig-year=Originally published: New York, Columbia University Press, 1941 |place=New York |publisher=AMS Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-tdAAAAIAAJ |access-date=25 December 2021 |language=en |oclc=1077977730 }}
* {{cite book |last=Weaver |first=Andrew H. |title=A Companion to Music at the Habsburg Courts in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-43503-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_P_DwAAQBAJ |access-date=23 September 2021 }}
* {{cite web |last=Whaley |first=Joachim |date=March 2009 |title=Larry Silver. ''Marketing Maximilian: the Visual Ideology of a Holy Roman Emperor''. Princeton University Press, 2008. xii + 303 pp. $49.95, cloth, ISBN 978-0-691-13019-4 |url=https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=23757 |website=H-Net Reviews |access-date=21 September 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921192146/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=23757 }}
* {{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Joachim |title=Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume II: The Peace of Westphalia to the Dissolution of the Reich, 1648–1806 |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-162822-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ax6DCgAAQBAJ |access-date=5 February 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Joachim |title=Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648 |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-873101-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UiFWYsG-t7UC |access-date=25 December 2021 }}
* {{cite book |last=Whaley |first=Joachim |title=The Holy Roman Empire: A Very Short Introduction |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-106563-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZFlDwAAQBAJ |access-date=23 March 2022 |language=en }}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesflecker |first=Hermann |title=Kaiser Maximilian I |location=Munich |date=1971–1986 |ref=none}} In 5 volumes.
** {{cite book |last=Wiesflecker |first=H. |author-mask=1 |title=Kaiser Maximilian I |volume=IV |location=Munich |year=1981}}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesflecker |first=Hermann |title=Kaiser Maximilian I.: Jugend, burgundisches Erbe und Römisches Königtum bis zur Alleinherrschaft, 1459–1493 |date=1971 |publisher=R. Oldenbourg |isbn=978-3-486-47391-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=167kAAAAMAAJ |access-date=26 January 2022 |language=de }}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesflecker |first=Hermann |title=Kaiser Maximilian I.: Auf der Höhe des Lebens, 1500–1508 |date=1971b |publisher=R. Oldenbourg |isbn=978-3-7028-0098-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kA8QAQAAMAAJ |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=de }}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesflecker |first=Hermann |title=Maximilian I.: die Fundamente des habsburgischen Weltreiches |date=1991 |publisher=Verlag für Geschichte und Politik |isbn=978-3-486-55875-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RAVoAAAAMAAJ |access-date=1 November 2021 |language=de }}
* {{cite book |last=Wiesflecker |first=Hermann |title=Österreich im Zeitalter Maximilians I.: die Vereinigung der Länder zum frühmodernen Staat : der Aufstieg zur Weltmacht |date=1999 |publisher=Verlag für Geschichte und Politik |isbn=978-3-7028-0363-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZa0AAAAIAAJ |access-date=17 December 2021 |language=de }}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Peter H.|title=Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire |year=2016 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-674-05809-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Christopher S. |title=Forgery, Replica, Fiction: Temporalities of German Renaissance Art |date= 2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-90597-6 }}
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* {{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last=Ylä-Anttila |first=T |title=Habsburg Female Regents in the Early 16th Century |date=December 2019 |publisher=University of Helsinki |pages=1–25, 71 |isbn=978-951-51-5701-0 |url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/307398/HABSBURG.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date=27 October 2021 |archive-date=25 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211025190621/https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/307398/HABSBURG.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}
<!-- Z -->
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{EB1911 poster|Maximilian I. (emperor)|Maximilian I.}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120330232459/http://www.homar.org/genealog/iv_europa_i/ost06.asp Austria Family Tree]}}
* [http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeiou.encyclop.m/m365605.htm AEIOU Encyclopedia | Maximilian I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310231438/http://aeiou.iicm.tugraz.at/aeiou.encyclop.m/m365605.htm |date=10 March 2009 }}
* {{Cite web |title=Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/370486/Maximilian-I |last=Wiesflecker |first=H. |author-link=:de:Hermann Wiesflecker |date=20 July 1998 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] }}

{{s-start}}
{{S-hou | [[Habsburg|House of Habsburg]] | 22 March | 1459 | 12 January | 1519 }}
{{S-reg|}}
{{S-bef | before = [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] | rows = 3 }}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[Holy Roman Emperor]]
 | years  = 4 February 1508 – 12 January 1519 }}
{{S-aft | after  = [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] | rows = 3 }}
{{S-break}}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[King of the Romans]]
 | years  = 16 February 1486 – 12 January 1519 }}
{{S-break}}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[List of rulers of Austria|Archduke of Austria]]
 | years  = 19 August 1493 – 12 January 1519 }}
{{S-bef | before = [[Sigismund of Austria|Sigismund]] }}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[List of rulers of Austria|Archduke of Further Austria]]
 | years  = 19 March 1490 – 19 August 1493 }}
{{S-non | reason  = Reunited rule }}
{{S-break}}
{{S-bef| before  = [[Mary of Burgundy|Mary the Rich]] | as = sole ruler | rows = 1 }}
{{S-ttl| title   = [[Dukes of Brabant|Duke of Brabant]], [[Dukes of Limburg|Limburg]],<br/>[[Dukes of Lothier|Lothier]], [[Counts, Dukes and Grand Dukes of Luxembourg|Luxemburg]] and [[Dukes of Guelders|Guelders]];<br/>[[Marquis of Namur|Margrave of Namur]]; <br/> [[Count of Zutphen]], [[Counts of Artois|Artois]],<br/> [[Counts of Flanders|Flanders]], [[Charolais (county)|Charolais]], <br/> [[Counts of Hainaut|Hainaut]], [[Count of Holland|Holland]] and [[Count of Zeeland|Zeeland]]; <br/> [[List of counts of Burgundy|Count Palatine of Burgundy]]
 | regent1 = [[Mary of Burgundy|Mary the Rich]]
 | years   = 19 August 1477 – 27 March 1482 }}
{{S-aft| after   = [[Philip I of Castile|Philip the Fair]] | rows = 1 }}
{{s-end}}

{{Holy Roman Emperors}}
{{German monarchs}}
{{Monarchs of Luxembourg}}
{{Rulers of Austria}}
{{Austrian archdukes}}
{{Authority control}}

<!--as Count of Flanders-->

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maximilian 01, Holy Roman Emperor}}
[[Category:Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor| ]]
[[Category:1459 births]]
[[Category:1519 deaths]]
[[Category:15th-century Holy Roman Emperors]]
[[Category:16th-century Holy Roman Emperors]]
[[Category:15th-century archdukes of Austria]]
[[Category:16th-century archdukes of Austria]]
[[Category:15th-century dukes of Brabant]]
[[Category:15th-century dukes of Limburg]]
[[Category:15th-century monarchs of Luxembourg]]
[[Category:15th-century counts of Flanders]]
[[Category:15th-century counts of Hainaut]]
[[Category:15th-century margraves of Namur]]
[[Category:House of Valois]]
[[Category:Dukes of Styria]]
[[Category:Dukes of Carinthia]]
[[Category:Counts of Tyrol]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Pretenders to the Hungarian throne]]
[[Category:People from Wiener Neustadt]]
[[Category:Grand masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Jure uxoris dukes]]
[[Category:Burials in Wiener Neustadt, Austria]]
[[Category:15th-century peers of France]]
[[Category:Sons of kings]]
[[Category:Annulment]]