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{{Short description|European history from the 5th to 15th centuries}}
{{About|medieval Europe|a global history of the period between the 5th and 15th centuries|Post-classical history|other uses|Middle Ages (disambiguation)}}
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{{Infobox historical era
| name   = Middle Ages
| life_span = {{circa|AD&nbsp;500|1500}}
| start   = {{circa|AD 500}}
| end    = 1500
| image   = [[File:Canterbury Cathedral, window nXV detail (46220634195).jpg|290px|alt=See caption]]
| caption  = A [[medieval stained glass]] panel from [[Canterbury Cathedral]], {{circa|1175|1180}}, depicting the [[Parable of the Sower]], a [[biblical]] narrative
| before  = {{unbulleted list||[[Ancient history|Antiquity]]|[[Late antiquity]]}}
| after   = {{unbulleted list|[[Early modern period]]|[[Renaissance]]|[[Age of Discovery]]}}
| including = {{hlist|[[Early Middle Ages]]|[[High Middle Ages]]|[[Late Middle Ages]]}}
| key_events = {{hlist|[[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]]|[[Spread of Islam]]|[[Treaty of Verdun]]|[[East–West Schism]]|[[Crusades]]|[[Magna Carta]]|[[Hundred Years' War]]|[[Black Death]]|[[Fall of Constantinople]]|[[Exploration of North America]]}}
}}

In the [[history of Europe]], the '''Middle Ages''' or '''medieval period''' lasted approximately from the 5th to the <!--Do not change the date without finding a consensus on the talk page-->late 15th centuries, similarly to the [[post-classical]] period of [[World history (field)|global history]]. It began with the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] and transitioned into the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Age of Discovery]]. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: [[classical antiquity]], the medieval period, and the [[modern period]]. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the [[Early Middle Ages|Early]], [[High Middle Ages|High]], and [[Late Middle Ages]].

[[Population decline]], [[counterurbanisation]], the collapse of centralised authority, invasions, and mass migrations of [[tribe]]s, which had begun in [[late antiquity]], continued into the Early Middle Ages. The large-scale movements of the [[Migration Period]], including various [[Germanic peoples]], formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the 7th century, [[North Africa]] and the Middle East—once part of the [[Byzantine Empire]]—came under the rule of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], an Islamic empire, after conquest by [[succession to Muhammad|Muhammad's successors]]. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with [[classical antiquity]] was incomplete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire, Rome's direct continuation, survived in the Eastern Mediterranean and remained a major power. The empire's law code, the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' or "Code of Justinian", was rediscovered in [[Northern Italy]] in the 11th century. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions. Monasteries were founded as campaigns to [[Christianise]] the [[paganism#Ethnic religions of pre-Christian Europe|remaining pagans across Europe]] continued. The [[Franks]], under the [[Carolingian dynasty]], briefly established the [[Carolingian Empire]] during the later 8th and early 9th centuries. It covered much of Western Europe but later succumbed to the pressures of internal civil wars combined with external invasions: [[Vikings]] from the north, [[Hungarian invasions of Europe|Magyars]] from the east, and [[Saracen]]s from the south.

During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased significantly as technological and [[Agriculture in the Middle Ages#Technological innovation|agricultural innovations]] allowed trade to flourish and the [[Medieval Warm Period]] climate change allowed crop yields to increase. [[Manorialism]], the organisation of [[peasant]]s into villages that owed rent and labour services to the [[nobles]], and [[feudalism]], the political structure whereby [[knight]]s and lower-status nobles owed military service to their [[overlord]]s in return for the right to rent from lands and [[Manorialism|manors]], were two of the ways society was organised in the High Middle Ages. This period also saw the collapse of the unified Christian church with the [[East–West Schism]] of 1054. The [[Crusades]], first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the [[Holy Land]] from [[Muslim]]s. Kings became the heads of centralised [[nation-states]], reducing crime and violence but making the ideal of a unified [[Christendom]] more distant. Intellectual life was marked by [[scholasticism]], a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of [[universities]]. The theology of [[Thomas Aquinas]], the paintings of [[Giotto]], the poetry of [[Dante]] and [[Chaucer]], the travels of [[Marco Polo]], and the [[Gothic architecture]] of cathedrals such as [[Chartres Cathedral|Chartres]] are among the outstanding achievements toward the end of this period and into the Late Middle Ages.

The Late Middle Ages was marked by difficulties and calamities, including famine, plague, and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe; between 1347 and 1350, the [[Black Death]] killed about a third of Europeans. Controversy, [[heresy]], and the [[Western Schism]] within the [[Catholic Church]] paralleled the interstate conflict, civil strife, and [[Popular revolts in late-medieval Europe|peasant revolts]] that occurred in the kingdoms. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages and beginning the [[early modern period]].

== Terminology and periodisation ==
The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing [[European history]]: [[classical civilisation]] or [[Ancient history|antiquity]], the Middle Ages and the [[Modern Period|modern period]].<ref name=Power304>Power ''Central Middle Ages'' p. 3</ref> The "Middle Ages" first appears in Latin in 1469 as ''media tempestas'' or "middle season".<ref name=Miglio112>Miglio "Curial Humanism" ''Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism'' p. 112</ref> In early usage, there were many variants, including ''medium aevum'', or "middle age", first recorded in 1604,<ref name=Albrow205>Albrow ''Global Age'' p. 205</ref> and ''media saecula'', or "middle centuries", first recorded in 1625.<ref name=Murray4 /> The adjective "medieval" (or sometimes "mediaeval"<ref name=Random1194 /> or "mediæval"),<ref name=OED290>"Mediaeval" ''Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary''</ref> meaning pertaining to the Middle Ages, derives from {{lang|la|medium aevum}}.<ref name=Random1194>Flexner (ed.) ''Random House Dictionary'' p. 1194</ref>

Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the "[[Six Ages]]" or the "[[Four Empires]]" and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world.<ref name=mommsen236>Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" ''Speculum'' pp. 236–237</ref> When referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being "modern".<ref name=Dailyx>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. x</ref> In the 1330s, the Italian humanist and poet [[Petrarch]] referred to pre-Christian times as {{lang|la|antiqua}} ('ancient') and to the Christian period as {{lang|la|nova}} ('new').<ref name=idea>Knox "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml History of the Idea of the Renaissance]"</ref> Petrarch regarded the post-Roman centuries as "[[Dark Ages (historiography)|dark]]" compared to the "light" of [[classical antiquity]].<ref name=Mommsen227>Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" ''Speculum'' pp. 227–228</ref> [[Leonardo Bruni]] was the first historian to use [[Late Middle Ages#Historiography and periodization|tripartite periodisation]] in his ''History of the Florentine People'' (1442), with a middle period "between the fall of the Roman Empire and the revival of city life sometime in late eleventh and twelfth centuries".<ref name=Brunixvii>Bruni ''History of the Florentine people'' pp. xvii–xviii</ref> Tripartite [[periodisation]] became standard after the 17th-century German historian [[Christoph Cellarius]] divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval, and modern.<ref name=Murray4>Murray "Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished?" ''Essays in Medieval Studies'' p. 4</ref>

The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is around 500,<ref>"[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Middle%20Ages Middle Ages]" Dictionary.com</ref> with the date of 476 first used by Bruni.<ref name="Brunixvii" />{{efn-ua|This is the year the last Western Roman Emperors were driven from Italy.<ref name=Wickham86 />}} Later starting dates are sometimes used in the outer parts of Europe.<ref>For example, Scandinavia in Helle, Kouri, and Olesen (ed.) ''Cambridge History of Scandinavia Part 1'' where the start date is 1000 (on page 6) or Russia in Martin ''Medieval Russia 980–1584''</ref> For Europe as a whole, 1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages,<ref>See the titles of Watts ''Making of Polities Europe 1300–1500'' or Epstein ''Economic History of Later Medieval Europe 1000–1500'' or the end date used in Holmes (ed.) ''Oxford History of Medieval Europe''</ref> but there is no universally agreed upon end date. Depending on the context, events such as the [[conquest of Constantinople]] by the Turks in 1453, [[Christopher Columbus]]'s first voyage to the [[Americas]] in 1492, or the [[Reformation]] in 1517 are sometimes used.<ref name=Davies291 /> English historians often use the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in 1485 to mark the end of the period.<ref>See the title of Saul ''Companion to Medieval England 1066–1485''</ref> For Spain, dates commonly used are the death of King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] in 1516, the death of Queen [[Isabella I of Castile]] in 1504, or the [[conquest of Granada]] in 1492.<ref>Kamen ''Spain 1469–1714'' p. 29</ref>

Historians from [[Romance-speaking]] countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "High" and later "Low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the Middle Ages into three intervals: "Early", "High", and "Late".<ref name=Power304 /> In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the "[[Dark Ages (Europe)|Dark Ages]]",<ref name=mommsen226>Mommsen "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'" ''Speculum'' p. 226</ref> but with the adoption of these subdivisions, use of this term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages, at least among historians.<ref name=mommsen236 />

== Later Roman Empire ==
{{Main|Later Roman Empire}}

[[File:Venice city scenes - in St. Mark's square - St Mark's Basilica (11002237996).jpg|thumb|A late Roman sculpture [[Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs|depicting the four Tetrarchs]], now in [[Venice]], Italy<ref name=Tansey242>Tansey, et al. ''Gardner's Art Through the Ages'' p. 242</ref>]]

The [[Roman Empire]] reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories.<ref name=Cunliffe391>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 391–393</ref> Economic issues, including inflation, and external pressure on the frontiers combined to create the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], with emperors coming to the throne only to be rapidly replaced by new usurpers.<ref name=Collins3>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 3–5</ref> Military expenses increased steadily during the 3rd century, mainly in response to the [[Roman–Persian Wars#Roman–Sassanid War|war]] with the [[Sasanian Empire]], which revived in the middle of the 3rd century.<ref name=Heather111 /> The army doubled in size, and cavalry and smaller units replaced the [[Roman legion]] as the main tactical unit.<ref name=Brown24-25>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 24–25</ref> The need for revenue led to increased taxes and a decline in numbers of the [[curiales|curial]], or landowning, class, and decreasing numbers of them willing to shoulder the burdens of holding office in their native towns.<ref name=Heather111>Heather ''Fall of the Roman Empire'' p. 111</ref> More bureaucrats were needed in the central administration to deal with the needs of the army, which led to complaints from civilians that there were more tax-collectors in the empire than tax-payers.<ref name=Brown24-25 />

The Emperor [[Diocletian]] (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered [[Byzantine Empire|eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire|western]] halves in 286; the empire was not considered divided by its inhabitants or rulers, as legal and administrative [[promulgation]]s in one division were considered valid in the other.<ref name=Collins9>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 9</ref>{{efn-ua|This system, which eventually encompassed two senior co-emperors and two junior co-emperors, is known as the [[Tetrarchy]].<ref name=Collins9 />}} In 330, after a period of civil war, [[Constantine the Great]] (r. 306–337) refounded the city of [[Byzantium]] as the newly renamed eastern capital, [[Constantinople]].<ref name=Collins24>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 24</ref> Diocletian's reforms strengthened the governmental bureaucracy, reformed taxation, and strengthened the army, which bought the empire time but did not resolve the problems it was facing: excessive taxation, a declining birthrate, and pressures on its frontiers, among others.<ref name=Cunliffe405>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 405–406</ref> Civil war between rival emperors became common in the middle of the 4th century, diverting soldiers from the empire's frontier forces and allowing [[Barbarian#Modern academia|invaders]] to encroach.<ref name=Collins31>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 31–33</ref> For much of the 4th century, Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier [[Culture of ancient Rome|classical period]], with a widening gulf between the rich and poor, and a decline in the vitality of the smaller towns.<ref name=Brown34>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' p. 34</ref> Another change was the [[Christianisation]], or conversion of the empire to [[Christianity]], a gradual process that lasted from the 2nd to the 5th centuries.<ref name=Brown65>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 65–68</ref><ref name=Brown82>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 82–94</ref>

[[File:Europe map 450.PNG|thumb|upright=1.6|left|Map of the approximate political boundaries in Europe around 450 AD]]

In 376, the [[Goths]], fleeing from the [[Huns]], received permission from Emperor [[Valens]] (r. 364–378) to settle in the Roman province of [[Thracia]] in the [[Balkans]]. The settlement did not go smoothly, and the Goths began to raid and plunder when Roman officials mishandled the situation.{{efn-ua|The commanders of the Roman military in the area appear to have taken food and other supplies intended to be given to the Goths and instead sold them to the Goths. The revolt was triggered when one of the Roman military commanders attempted to take the Gothic leaders hostage but failed to secure all of them.<ref name=Collins51>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 51</ref>}} Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the [[Battle of Adrianople]] on 9 August 378.<ref name=Bauer47>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 47–49</ref> In addition to the threat from such tribal confederacies in the north, internal divisions within the empire, especially within the Christian Church, caused problems.<ref name=Bauer56>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 56–59</ref> In 400, the [[Visigoths]] invaded the Western Roman Empire and, although briefly forced back from Italy, in 410 [[Sack of Rome (410)|sacked the city of Rome]].<ref name=Bauer80>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 80–83</ref> In 406 the [[Alans]], [[Vandals]], and [[Suevi]] crossed into [[Gaul]]; over the next three years they spread across Gaul and in 409 crossed the [[Pyrenees Mountains]] into modern-day Spain.<ref name=Collins59>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 59–60</ref> The [[Migration Period]] began, when various peoples, initially largely [[Germanic peoples]], moved across Europe. The [[Franks]], [[Alemanni]], and the [[Burgundians]] all ended up in northern Gaul while the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]] [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|settled in Britain]],<ref name=Cunliffe417 /> and the Vandals went on to cross the strait of Gibraltar after which they conquered the province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]].<ref name=Collins80>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 80</ref> In the 430s the Huns began invading the empire; their king [[Attila]] (r. 434–453) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452.<ref name=James67>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 67–68</ref> The Hunnic threat remained until Attila's death in 453, when the [[Huns#Unified Empire under Attila|Hunnic confederation]] he led fell apart.<ref name=Bauer117>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 117–118</ref> These invasions by the tribes completely changed the political and demographic nature of what had been the Western Roman Empire.<ref name=Cunliffe417>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' p. 417</ref>

By the end of the 5th century, the western section of the empire was divided into smaller political units ruled by the tribes that had invaded in the early part of the century.<ref name=Wickham79>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 79</ref> The deposition of the last emperor of the west, [[Romulus Augustulus]], in 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.<ref name=Wickham86>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 86</ref>{{efn-ua|An alternative date of 480 is sometimes given, as that was the year Romulus Augustulus' predecessor [[Julius Nepos]] died; Nepos had continued to assert that he was the Western emperor while holding onto [[Dalmatia]].<ref name=Wickham86 />}} By 493 the Italian peninsula was conquered by the [[Ostrogoths]].<ref name=Collins107>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 107–109</ref> The Eastern Roman Empire, often referred to as the Byzantine Empire after the fall of its western counterpart, had little ability to assert control over the lost western territories. The [[Byzantine emperors]] maintained a claim over the territory, but while none of the new kings in the west dared to elevate himself to the position of emperor of the west, Byzantine control of most of the Western Empire could not be sustained; the reconquest of the Mediterranean periphery and the [[Italian Peninsula]] ([[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic War]]) in the reign of [[Justinian]] (r. 527–565) was the sole, and temporary, exception.<ref name=Collins116>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 116–134</ref>

== Early Middle Ages ==
{{Main|Early Middle Ages}}

=== New societies ===
{{Main|Migration Period|fall of the Western Roman Empire}}

[[File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Barbarian kingdoms]] and tribes after the end of the Western Roman Empire]]

The political structure of Western Europe changed with the end of the united Roman Empire. Although the movements of peoples during this period are usually described as "invasions", they were not just military expeditions but migrations of entire peoples into the empire. Such movements were aided by the refusal of the Western Roman elites to support the army or pay the taxes that would have allowed the military to suppress the migration.<ref name=Brown122>Brown, ''World of Late Antiquity'', pp. 122–124</ref> The emperors of the 5th century were often controlled by military strongmen such as [[Stilicho]] (d. 408), [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] (d. 454), [[Aspar]] (d. 471), [[Ricimer]] (d. 472), or [[Gundobad]] (d. 516), who were partly or fully of non-Roman background. When the line of Western emperors ceased, many of the kings who replaced them were from the same background. Intermarriage between the new kings and the Roman elites was common.<ref name=Wickham95>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 95–98</ref> This led to a fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes, including the popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than was common in the Roman state.<ref name=Wickham100>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 100–101</ref> Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.<ref name=Collins100>Collins, ''Early Medieval Europe'', p. 100</ref> Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions.<ref name=Collins96>Collins, ''Early Medieval Europe'', pp. 96–97</ref> An important difference was the new polities' gradual loss of tax revenue. Many new political entities no longer supported their armies through taxes; instead, they relied on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues, so the [[Roman Empire#Taxation|taxation systems]] decayed.<ref name=Wickham102>Wickham, ''Inheritance of Rome'', pp. 102–103</ref> Warfare was common between and within the kingdoms. Slavery declined as the supply weakened, and society became more rural.<ref name=Backman86>Backman, ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'', pp. 86–91</ref>{{efn-ua|The English word "slave" derives from the Latin term for Slavs, ''slavicus''.<ref name=Dict261>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms'' p. 261</ref>}}

[[File:Theoderic Quarter Siliqua 80000847.jpg|thumb|left|A coin of the [[Ostrogoths|Ostrogothic]] leader [[Theoderic the Great]], struck in Milan, Italy, {{circa|AD 491–501}}]]

Between the 5th and 8th centuries, new peoples and individuals filled the political void left by the centralised Roman government.<ref name=Collins96 /> The [[Ostrogoths]], a Gothic tribe, settled in [[Roman Italy]] in the late fifth century under [[Theoderic the Great]] (d. 526) and set up a [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|kingdom]] marked by its co-operation between the Italians and the Ostrogoths, at least until the last years of Theodoric's reign.<ref name=James82>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 82–88</ref> The Burgundians settled in Gaul, and after an earlier realm was destroyed by the Huns in 436, formed a new kingdom in the 440s. Between today's [[Geneva]] and [[Lyon]], it grew to become the realm of [[Kingdom of Burgundy#First Kingdom of Burgundy (4th century – 534 AD)|Burgundy]] in the late 5th and early 6th centuries.<ref name=James77>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 77–78</ref> Elsewhere in Gaul, the Franks and [[Celtic Britons]] set up small polities. [[Francia]] was centred in northern Gaul, and the first king of whom much is known is [[Childeric I]] (d. 481). His grave was discovered in 1653 and is remarkable for its [[grave goods]], which included weapons and a large quantity of gold.<ref name=James79>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 79–80</ref>

Under Childeric's son [[Clovis I]] (r. 509–511), the founder of the [[Merovingian dynasty]], the Frankish kingdom expanded and converted to Christianity. The Britons, related to the natives of [[Britannia]]&nbsp;– modern-day Great Britain&nbsp;– settled in what is now [[Brittany]].<ref name=James78>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 78–81</ref>{{efn-ua|Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.<ref name=James78 />}} Other monarchies were established by the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] in the [[Iberian Peninsula]], the [[Suebi]] in northwestern Iberia, and the [[Vandal Kingdom]] in [[North Africa]].<ref name=James77 /> In the sixth century, the [[Lombards]] settled in [[Northern Italy]], replacing the Ostrogothic kingdom with a grouping of [[duchies]] that occasionally selected a king to rule over them all. By the late sixth century, this arrangement had been replaced by a permanent monarchy, the [[Kingdom of the Lombards]].<ref name=Collins196>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 196–208</ref>

The invasions brought new ethnic groups to Europe, although some regions received a larger influx of new peoples than others. In Gaul, for instance, the invaders settled much more extensively in the north-east than in the south-west. [[Slavs]] settled in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] and the Balkan Peninsula. Changes in languages accompanied the settlement of peoples. [[Latin]], the literary language of the Western Roman Empire, was gradually replaced by [[vernacular languages]], which evolved from Latin but were distinct from it, collectively known as [[Romance languages]]. These changes from Latin to the new languages took many centuries. Greek remained the language of the Byzantine Empire, but the migrations of the Slavs added [[Slavic languages]] to Eastern Europe.<ref name=Davies235>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 235–238</ref>

=== Byzantine survival ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty}}

[[File:Sanvitale03.jpg|A [[mosaic]] showing [[Justinian]] with [[Maximianus of Ravenna|the bishop]] of [[Ravenna]] (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers.<ref name=Adams158>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 158–159</ref>|thumb|right]]

As Western Europe witnessed the formation of new kingdoms, the Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. There were fewer invasions of the eastern section of the empire; most occurred in the Balkans. Peace with the [[Sasanian Empire]], Rome's traditional enemy, lasted most of the 5th century. The Eastern Empire was marked by closer relations between the political state and the Christian Church, with doctrinal matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe. Legal developments included the codification of [[Roman law]]; the first effort—the ''[[Codex Theodosianus]]''—was completed in 438.<ref name=Wickham81>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 81–83</ref> Under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–565), another compilation took place—the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''.<ref name=Bauer200>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 200–202</ref> Justinian also oversaw the construction of the [[Hagia Sophia]] in Constantinople and the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals and Italy from the Ostrogoths,<ref name=Bauer206 /> under [[Belisarius]] (d. 565).<ref name=Collins126>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 126, 130</ref> The conquest of Italy was not complete, as a deadly outbreak of [[Plague of Justinian|plague in 542]] led to the rest of Justinian's reign concentrating on defensive measures rather than further conquests.<ref name=Bauer206>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 206–213</ref>

At the Emperor's death, the Byzantines had control of [[Exarchate of Ravenna|most of Italy]], North Africa, and a small foothold in southern Spain. Historians have criticised Justinian's reconquests for overextending his realm and setting the stage for the [[early Muslim conquests]], but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were due not just to over-taxation to pay for his wars but to the essentially civilian nature of the empire, which made raising troops difficult.<ref name=Brown8>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 8–9</ref>

In the Eastern Empire, the Slavs' slow infiltration of the Balkans added further difficulty for Justinian's successors. It began gradually, but by the late 540s, Slavic tribes were in [[Thrace]] and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyrium]] and had defeated an imperial army near [[Edirne|Adrianople]] in 551. In the 560s, the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] began to expand from their base on the north bank of the [[Danube]]; by the end of the 6th century, they were the dominant power in Central Europe and routinely able to force the Eastern emperors to pay tribute. They remained a strong power until 796.<ref name=James95>James ''Europe's Barbarians'' pp. 95–99</ref>

An additional problem to face the empire came as a result of the involvement of Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (r. 582–602) in Persian politics when he intervened in a [[Khosrow II#Accession to the throne|succession dispute]]. This led to a period of peace, but when Maurice was overthrown, [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|the Persians invaded]] and during the reign of Emperor [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641) controlled large chunks of the empire, including Egypt, Syria, and [[Anatolia]] until Heraclius' successful counterattack. In 628, the empire secured a peace treaty and recovered its lost territories.<ref name=Collins140>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 140–143</ref>

=== Western society ===
{{See also|Early medieval European dress|medieval cuisine}}

In Western Europe, some older Roman elite families died out while others became more involved with ecclesiastical than secular affairs. Values attached to [[Latin literature|Latin scholarship]] and [[Education in Ancient Rome|education]] mostly disappeared, and while literacy remained important, it became a practical skill rather than a sign of elite status. In the 4th century, [[Jerome]] (d. 420) dreamed that God rebuked him for spending more time reading [[Cicero]] than the [[Bible]]. By the 6th century, [[Gregory of Tours]] (d. 594) had a similar dream, but instead of being chastised for reading Cicero, he was chastised for learning [[shorthand]].<ref name=Brown174>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' pp. 174–175</ref> By the late 6th century, the principal means of religious instruction in the Church had become music and art rather than the book.<ref name=Brown181>Brown ''World of Late Antiquity'' p. 181</ref> Most intellectual efforts went towards imitating classical scholarship, but some [[Early medieval literature|original works]] were created, along with now-lost oral compositions. The writings of [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] (d. 489), [[Cassiodorus]] (d. {{circa|585}}), and [[Boethius]] (d. c. 525) were typical of the age.<ref name=Brown45>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 45–49</ref>

Changes also occurred among laypeople, as aristocratic culture focused on great feasts held in halls rather than on literary pursuits. Clothing for the elites was richly embellished with jewels and gold. Lords and kings supported the entourages of fighters who formed the backbone of the military forces.{{efn-ua|Such entourages are named ''[[Comitatus (classical meaning)|comitatus]]'' by historians, although it is not a contemporary term. It was adapted in the 19th century from a word used by the 2nd-century historian [[Tacitus]] to describe the close companions of a lord or king.<ref name=Dict80>Coredon ''Dictionary of Medieval Terms'' p. 80</ref> The ''comitatus'' comprised young men who were supposed to be utterly devoted to their lord. If their sworn lord died, they were also expected to fight to the death.<ref name=Geary56>Geary ''Before France and Germany'' pp. 56–57</ref>}} Family ties within the elites were important, as were the virtues of loyalty, courage, and honour. These ties led to the prevalence of feuds in aristocratic society, including those related by Gregory of Tours in [[Merovingian]] Gaul. Most feuds seem to have ended quickly with the payment of some [[weregild|compensation]].<ref name=Wickham189>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 189–193</ref> Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers of men, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Merovingian Gaul. In [[Anglo-Saxon]] society, the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by [[abbess]]es of monasteries. Only in Italy does it appear that women were always considered under the protection and control of a male relative.<ref name=Wickham195>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 195–199</ref>

[[File:Frühmittelalterliches Dorf.jpg|Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in Bavaria, Germany|thumb|left]]

Peasant society is much less documented than the nobility. Most of the surviving information available to historians comes from [[archaeology]]; few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century. Most of the descriptions of the lower classes come from either [[Code (law)|law codes]] or writers from the upper classes.<ref name=Wickham204>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 204</ref> [[Landholding]] patterns in the West were not uniform; some areas had greatly fragmented landholding patterns, but in other areas, large contiguous blocks of land were the norm. These differences allowed for a wide variety of peasant societies, some dominated by aristocratic landholders and others having great autonomy.<ref name=Wickham205>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 205–210</ref> Land settlement also varied greatly. Some peasants lived in large settlements that numbered as many as 700 inhabitants. Others lived in small groups of a few families and lived on isolated farms spread over the countryside. There were also areas where the pattern was a mix of two or more systems.<ref name=Wickham211>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 211–212</ref> Unlike in the late Roman period, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and a free peasant's family could rise into the aristocracy over several generations through military service to a powerful lord.<ref name=Wickham215>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 215</ref>

Roman city life and culture changed greatly in the early Middle Ages. Although Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size. For instance, Rome shrank from hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century. [[Roman temple]]s were converted into [[Christianised sites|Christian churches]] and city walls remained in use.<ref name=Brown24-26>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 24–26</ref> In Northern Europe, cities also shrank, while civic monuments and other public buildings were raided for building materials. The establishment of new kingdoms often meant some growth for the towns chosen as capitals.<ref name=City3>Gies and Gies ''Life in a Medieval City'' pp. 3–4</ref> Although there had been [[Jews in the Roman Empire|Jewish communities in many Roman cities]], the [[Jews]] suffered periods of persecution after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. Officially, they were tolerated, if subject to conversion efforts, and were sometimes encouraged to settle in new areas.<ref name=Jews191>Loyn "Jews" ''Middle Ages'' p. 191</ref>

=== Rise of Islam ===
{{Main|Spread of Islam|Early Muslim conquests}}

[[File:Map of expansion of Caliphate.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|The [[early Muslim conquests]]
{{legend|#a1584e|Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632}}
{{legend|#ef9070|Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661}}
{{legend|#fad07d|Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750}}]]

Religious beliefs in the Eastern Roman Empire and Iran were in flux during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. [[Judaism]] was an active proselytising faith, and at least one [[Arab]] political leader converted to it.{{efn-ua|[[Dhu Nuwas]], ruler of what is today [[Yemen]], converted in 525, and his subsequent persecution of Christians led to the invasion and conquest of his kingdom by the [[Axumite]]s of [[Ethiopia]].<ref name=Collins138>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 138–139</ref>}} In addition Jewish theologians wrote polemics defending their religion against Christian and Islamic influences.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199730049.001.0001 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion |date=2011-01-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973004-9 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Adele |editor-last2=Grossman |editor-first2=Maxine}}</ref>

Christianity had active missions competing with the Persians' [[Zoroastrianism]] in seeking converts, especially among residents of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. All these strands came together with the emergence of [[Islam]] in Arabia during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]] (d. 632).<ref name=Collins143>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 143–145</ref> After his death, Islamic forces conquered much of the Eastern Roman Empire and Persia, starting with [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Syria]] in 634–635, continuing with [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Persia]] between 637 and 642, reaching [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Egypt]] in 640–641, [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|North Africa]] in the later seventh century, and the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Iberian Peninsula]] in 711.<ref name=Collins149>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 149–151</ref> By 714, Islamic forces controlled much of the peninsula in a region they called [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=Reilly52>Reilly ''Medieval Spains'' pp. 52–53</ref>

The Islamic conquests reached their peak in the mid-eighth century. The defeat of Muslim forces at the [[Battle of Tours]] in 732 led to the reconquest of southern France by the Franks, but the main reason for the halt of Islamic growth in Europe was the overthrow of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] and its replacement by the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]. The Abbasids moved their capital to [[Baghdad]] and were more concerned with the Middle East than Europe, losing control of sections of the Muslim lands. Umayyad descendants took over the Iberian Peninsula, the [[Aghlabids]] controlled North Africa, and the [[Tulunids]] became rulers of Egypt.<ref name=Brown15>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 15</ref> By the middle of the 8th century, new trading patterns were emerging in the Mediterranean; trade between the Franks and the Arabs replaced the old [[Roman economy]]. Franks traded timber, furs, swords, and enslaved people in return for silks and other fabrics, spices, and precious metals from the Arabs.<ref name=Cunliffe427>Cunliffe ''Europe Between the Oceans'' pp. 427–428</ref>

=== Trade and economy ===
{{Main|Medieval economic history}}
The migrations and invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries disrupted trade networks around the Mediterranean. African goods stopped being imported into Europe, first disappearing from the interior and, by the 7th century, found only in a few cities such as Rome or [[Naples]]. By the end of the 7th century, under the impact of the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], African products were no longer found in Western Europe. Replacing goods from long-range trade with local products was a trend throughout the old Roman lands in the Early Middle Ages. This was especially marked in the lands that did not lie on the Mediterranean, such as northern Gaul or Britain. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods. In northern Europe, not only were the trade networks local, but the goods carried were simple, with little pottery or other complex products. Around the Mediterranean, pottery remained prevalent and appears to have been traded over medium-range networks, not just produced locally.<ref name=Wickham218>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp.&nbsp;218–219</ref>

The various Germanic states in the west all had [[coin]]ages that imitated existing Roman and Byzantine forms. Gold continued to be minted until the end of the 7th century in 693–694, when it was replaced by silver in the Merovingian kingdom. The basic Frankish silver coin was the [[denarius]] or [[French denier|denier]], while the Anglo-Saxon version was called a [[penny]]. From these areas, the denier or penny spread throughout Europe from 700 to 1000. Copper or bronze coins were not struck, nor were gold, except in Southern Europe. No silver coins denominated in multiple units were minted.<ref name=Coin>Grierson "Coinage and currency" ''Middle Ages''</ref>

=== Church and monasticism ===
{{Main|Christianity in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|An 11th-century illustration of [[Gregory the Great]] dictating to a secretary]]

Christianity was a major unifying factor between Eastern and Western Europe before the Arab conquests, but the conquest of North Africa sundered maritime connections between those areas. Increasingly, the Byzantine Church differed in language, practices, and [[liturgy]] from the Western Church. The Eastern Church used Greek instead of Western Latin. Theological and political differences emerged, and by the early and middle 8th century, issues such as [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]], [[clerical marriage]], and [[Caesaropapism|state control of the Church]] had widened to the extent that the cultural and religious differences were more significant than the similarities.<ref name=Collins218>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 218–233</ref> A formal break known as the [[East–West Schism]] came in 1054, when the [[papacy]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|patriarchy of Constantinople]] clashed over [[papal supremacy]] and [[excommunicated]] each other, which led to the division of Christianity into two Churches—the Western branch became the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the Eastern branch the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref name=Davies328>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 328–332</ref>

The [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|ecclesiastical structure]] of the Roman Empire survived the movements and invasions in the West mostly intact. Still, the papacy was little regarded, and few of the Western [[bishop]]s looked to the bishop of Rome for religious or political leadership. [[Byzantine Papacy|Many of the popes]] before 750 were more concerned with Byzantine affairs and Eastern theological controversies. The register, or archived copies of the letters, of Pope [[Gregory the Great]] (pope 590–604) survived. Of those 850 letters, most were concerned with affairs in Italy or Constantinople. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory had sent the [[Gregorian mission]] in 597 to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.<ref name=WIckham170>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 170–172</ref> [[Irish missionaries]] were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries, going first to England and Scotland and then on to the continent. Under such [[monk]]s as [[Columba]] (d. 597) and [[Columbanus]] (d. 615), they founded monasteries, taught in Latin and Greek, and authored secular and religious works.<ref name=Colish62>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 62–63</ref>

The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]] in the West. The shape of European monasticism was determined by traditions and ideas that originated with the [[Desert Fathers]] of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]]. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on the community experience of the spiritual life, called [[cenobitism]], which was pioneered by [[Pachomius]] (d. 348) in the 4th century. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt to Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries through [[Hagiography|hagiographical literature]] such as the ''[[Life of Anthony]]''.<ref name=Lawrence10>Lawrence ''Medieval Monasticism'' pp. 10–13</ref> [[Benedict of Nursia]] (d. 547) wrote the [[Benedictine Rule]] for Western monasticism during the 6th century, detailing the administrative and spiritual responsibilities of a community of monks led by an [[abbot]].<ref name=Lawrence18>Lawrence ''Medieval Monasticism'' pp. 18–24</ref> Monks and monasteries had a profound effect on the religious and political life of the Early Middle Ages, in various cases acting as [[land trust]]s for powerful families, centres of propaganda and royal support in newly conquered regions, and bases for missions and proselytisation.<ref name=Wickham185>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 185–187</ref> They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin [[Classics#Classical Rome|classics]] were copied in monasteries in the Early Middle Ages.<ref name=Hamilton43>Hamilton ''Religion in the Medieval West'' pp. 43–44</ref> Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as [[Bede]] (d. 735), a native of northern England who wrote in the late 7th and early 8th centuries.<ref name=Colish64>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 64–65</ref>

=== Carolingian Europe ===
{{Main|Francia|Carolingian Empire}}

[[File:Frankish Empire 481 to 814-en.svg|thumb|upright= 1.5|Map showing growth of Frankish power from 481 to 814|left]]

The Frankish kingdom in northern Gaul split into kingdoms called [[Austrasia]], [[Neustria]], and [[Kingdom of Burgundy|Burgundy]] during the 6th and 7th centuries, all of them ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, who were descended from Clovis. The 7th century was a tumultuous period of wars between Austrasia and Neustria.<ref name=Bauer246>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 246–253</ref> Such warfare was exploited by [[Pippin of Landen|Pippin I]] (d. 640), the [[Mayor of the Palace]] for Austrasia who became the power behind the Austrasian throne. Later, his family inherited the office and acted as advisers and regents. One of his descendants, [[Charles Martel]] (d. 741), won the [[Battle of Poitiers (732)|Battle of Poitiers]] in 732, halting the advance of Muslim armies across the Pyrenees.<ref name=Bauer347>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 347–349</ref>{{efn-ua|Muslim armies had earlier [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquered the Visigothic kingdom]] of Spain, after defeating the last Visigothic King [[Ruderic]] (d. 711 or 712) at the [[Battle of Guadalete]] in 711, finishing the conquest by 719.<ref name=Bauer344>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' p. 344</ref>}} Great Britain was divided into small states dominated by the kingdoms of [[Northumbria]], [[Mercia]], [[Wessex]], and [[East Anglia]] which descended from the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and [[Picts]].<ref name=Wickham158>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 158–159</ref> Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, usually known as tribal kingdoms, under the control of kings. There were perhaps as many as [[List of Irish kingdoms|150 local kings]] in Ireland of varying importance.<ref name=Wickham164>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 164–165</ref>

The [[Carolingian dynasty]], as the successors to Charles Martel are known, officially took control of the kingdoms of Austrasia and Neustria in a coup of 753 led by {{nowrap|[[Pippin III]]}} (r. 752–768). A contemporary chronicle claims that Pippin sought and gained authority for this coup from Pope {{nowrap|[[Pope Stephen II|Stephen II]]}} (pope 752–757). Pippin's takeover was reinforced with propaganda that portrayed the Merovingians as inept or cruel rulers, exalted the accomplishments of Charles Martel, and circulated stories of the family's great piety. At the time of his death in 768, Pippin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles (r. 768–814) and [[Carloman I|Carloman]] (r. 768–771). When Carloman died of natural causes, Charles blocked the succession of Carloman's young son and installed himself as the king of the united Austrasia and Neustria. Charles, more often known as Charles the Great or [[Charlemagne]], embarked upon a programme of systematic expansion in 774 that unified a large portion of Europe, eventually controlling modern-day France, northern Italy, and [[Saxon Wars|Saxony]]. In the wars that lasted beyond 800, he rewarded allies with war booty and command over parcels of land.<ref name=Bauer371>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 371–378</ref> In 774, Charlemagne conquered the Lombards, which freed the papacy from the fear of Lombard conquest and marked the beginnings of the [[Papal States]].<ref name=Brown20>Brown "Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 20</ref>{{efn-ua|The Papal States endured until 1870, when the [[Kingdom of Italy]] seized most of them.<ref name=Davies824>Davies ''Europe'' p. 824</ref>}}

[[File:Aachener Dom Pfalzkapelle vom Münsterplatz 2014.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Palatine Chapel, Aachen|Charlemagne's palace chapel]] at [[Aachen]], completed in 805<ref name=Stalley73>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' p. 73</ref>]]

The coronation of Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day 800 is regarded as a turning point in medieval history, marking a return of the Western Roman Empire since the new emperor ruled over much of the area previously controlled by the Western emperors.<ref name=Backman109>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 109</ref> It also marks a change in Charlemagne's relationship with the Byzantine Empire, as the assumption of the imperial title by the Carolingians asserted their equivalence to the Byzantine state.<ref name=Backman117>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 117–120</ref> There were several differences between the newly established Carolingian Empire and both the older Western Roman Empire and the concurrent Byzantine Empire. The Frankish lands were rural, with only a few small cities. Most of the people were peasants who settled on small farms. Little trade existed, and much of that was with the British Isles and Scandinavia, in contrast to the older Roman Empire with its trading networks centred on the Mediterranean.<ref name=Backman109 /> The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called [[count]]s, who administered the [[counties]] the empire had been divided into. Clergy and local bishops served as officials, as well as the imperial officials, called ''[[missi dominici]]'', who served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters.<ref name=Davies302>Davies ''Europe'' p. 302</ref>

=== Carolingian Renaissance ===
{{Main|Carolingian Renaissance}}

[[File:Kloster Lorsch 07.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Lorsch Abbey]] gatehouse, {{circa|800|lk=no}}, an example of [[Carolingian architecture]]—a first, albeit isolated [[classical architecture]] movement]]

Charlemagne's court in [[Aachen]] was the centre of the cultural revival, sometimes referred to as the "[[Carolingian Renaissance]]". Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, and liturgical and scriptural studies. The English monk [[Alcuin]] (d. 804) was invited to Aachen and brought the [[Northumbria's Golden Age|education]] available in the monasteries of Northumbria. Charlemagne's [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]]—or writing office—made use of a new [[Writing system|script]] today known as [[Carolingian minuscule]],{{efn-ua|The [[Carolingian minuscule]] was developed from the [[uncial script]] of Late Antiquity, which was a smaller, rounder form of writing the [[Latin alphabet]] than the classical forms.<ref name=Davies241>Davies ''Europe'' p. 241</ref>}} allowing a standard writing style that advanced communication across much of Europe. Charlemagne sponsored changes in [[Christian liturgy|church liturgy]], imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the [[Gregorian chant]] in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was copying, correcting, and disseminating basic works on religious and secular topics to encourage learning. New works on religious topics and schoolbooks were also produced.<ref name=Colish66>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 66–70</ref> Grammarians of the period modified the Latin language, changing it from the [[Classical Latin]] of the Roman Empire into a more flexible form to fit the needs of the Church and government. By the reign of Charlemagne, the language had so diverged from the classical Latin that it was later called [[Medieval Latin]].<ref name=Lang>Loyn "Language and dialect" ''Middle Ages'' p. 204</ref>

=== Breakup of the Carolingian Empire ===
{{Main|Holy Roman Empire|Viking Age}}
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Charlemagne planned to continue the Frankish tradition of dividing his kingdom between all his heirs but was unable to do so as only one son, [[Louis the Pious]] (r. 814–840), was still alive by 813. Just before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned Louis as his successor. Numerous divisions of the empire marked Louis's reign of 26 years among his sons and, after 829, civil wars between various alliances of father and sons over the control of various parts of the empire. Eventually, Louis recognised his eldest son {{nowrap|[[Lothair I]]}} (d. 855) as emperor and gave him Italy.{{efn-ua|Italy at the time did not include the entire peninsula but only part of the north.<ref name=Davies285>Davies ''Europe'' p. 285</ref>}} Louis divided the rest of the empire between Lothair and [[Charles the Bald]] (d. 877), his youngest son. Lothair took [[East Francia]], comprising both banks of the Rhine and eastwards, leaving Charles [[West Francia]] with the empire to the west of the Rhineland and the Alps. [[Louis the German]] (d. 876), the middle child, who had been rebellious to the last, was allowed to keep Bavaria under the [[wikt:suzerainty|suzerainty]] of his elder brother. The division was disputed. [[Pepin II of Aquitaine|{{nowrap|Pepin II}} of Aquitaine]] (d. after 864), the emperor's grandson, rebelled in a contest for [[Aquitaine]], while Louis the German tried to annexe all of East Francia. Louis the Pious died in 840, with the empire still in chaos.<ref name=Bauer427>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 427–431</ref>

A three-year civil war followed his death. By the [[Treaty of Verdun]] (843), a kingdom between the [[Rhine]] and [[Rhone]] rivers was created for Lothair to go with his lands in Italy, and his imperial title was recognised. Louis the German controlled Bavaria and the eastern lands in modern-day Germany. Charles the Bald received the western Frankish lands, comprising most of modern-day France.<ref name=Bauer427 /> Charlemagne's grandsons and great-grandsons divided their kingdoms between their descendants, eventually causing all internal cohesion to be lost.<ref name=Backman139>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 139</ref>{{efn-ua|There was a brief re-uniting of the Empire by [[Charles the Fat|Charles III]], known as "the Fat", in 884. However, the actual units of the empire did not merge, and they retained their separate administrations. Charles was deposed in 887 and died in January 888.<ref name=Collins356>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp.&nbsp;356–358</ref>}} In 987, the Carolingian dynasty was replaced in the western lands, with the crowning of [[Hugh Capet]] (r. 987–996) as king.{{efn-ua|The Carolingian dynasty had earlier been displaced by King [[Odo of France|Odo]] (r. 888–898), previously [[Count of Paris]], who took the throne in 888.<ref name=Collins358>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 358–359</ref> Although members of the Carolingian dynasty became kings in the western lands after Odo's death, Odo's family also supplied kings—his brother [[Robert I of France|Robert I]] became king for 922–923, and then Robert's son-in-law [[Rudolph of France|Raoul]] was king from 929 to 936—before the Carolingians reclaimed the throne once more.<ref name=Collins360 />}}{{efn-ua|Hugh Capet was a grandson of Robert I, an earlier king.<ref name=Collins360 />}} In the eastern lands, the dynasty had died out earlier, in 911, with the death of [[Louis the Child]],<ref name=Collins360>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 360–361</ref> and the selection of the unrelated [[Conrad I of Germany|Conrad I]] (r. 911–918) as king.<ref name=Collins397>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 397</ref>

Invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes accompanied the break-up of the Carolingian Empire. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the [[Vikings]], who also raided the British Isles and settled there and in Iceland. In 911, the Viking chieftain [[Rollo]] (d. c. 931) received permission from the Frankish King [[Charles the Simple]] (r. 898–922) to settle in what became [[Normandy]].<ref name=Backman141>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 141–144</ref>{{efn-ua|This settlement eventually expanded and sent out conquering expeditions to England, Sicily, and southern Italy.<ref name=Davies336>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 336–339</ref>}} The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual [[Hungarian people|Magyar]] assault until the invader's defeat at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] in 955.<ref name=Backman144>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 144–145</ref> The break-up of the Abbasid dynasty meant that the Islamic world fragmented into smaller political states, some of which began expanding into Italy and Sicily, as well as over the Pyrenees into the southern parts of the Frankish kingdoms.<ref name=Bauer147>Bauer ''History of the Medieval World'' pp. 147–149</ref>

=== New kingdoms and Byzantine revival ===
{{Main|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty|Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty|First Bulgarian Empire|Christianisation of Bulgaria|Kingdom of Germany|Christianisation of Scandinavia|Christianisation of Kievan Rus'}}
{{See also|Byzantine–Arab wars (780–1180)|Byzantine–Bulgarian wars}}
[[File:Europe in 900 AD.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Europe in 900]]

Efforts by local kings to fight the invaders led to the formation of new political entities. In [[Anglo-Saxon England]], King [[Alfred the Great]] (r. 871–899) came to an agreement with the Viking invaders in the late 9th century, resulting in [[Danelaw|Danish settlements]] in Northumbria, Mercia, and parts of East Anglia.<ref name=Collins378>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 378–385</ref> By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had conquered Northumbria and restored English control over most of the southern part of Great Britain.<ref name=Collins387>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' p. 387</ref> In northern Britain, [[Kenneth MacAlpin]] (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the [[Scottish people|Scots]] into the [[Kingdom of Alba]].<ref name=Davies309>Davies ''Europe'' p. 309</ref> In the early 10th century, the [[Ottonian dynasty]] had established itself in [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]], and was engaged in driving back the Magyars. Its efforts culminated in the coronation in 962 of {{nowrap|[[Otto I]]}} (r. 936–973) as [[Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref name=Collins394>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 394–404</ref> In 972, he secured recognition of his title by the Byzantine Empire, which he sealed with the marriage of his son [[Otto II]] (r. 967–983) to [[Theophanu]] (d. 991), daughter of an earlier Byzantine Emperor [[Romanos II]] (r. 959–963).<ref name=Davies317>Davies ''Europe'' p. 317</ref> By the late 10th century [[Kingdom of Italy (medieval)|Italy]] had been drawn into the Ottonian sphere after a period of instability;<ref name=Wickham435>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 435–439</ref> [[Otto III]] (r. 996–1002) spent much of his later reign in the kingdom.<ref name=Whitton152>Whitton "Society of Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 152</ref> The western Frankish kingdom was more fragmented, and although kings remained nominally in charge, much of the political power devolved to the local lords.<ref name=Wickham439>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 439–444</ref>

[[File:Christ Magdeburg Cathedral Met 41.100.157.jpg|10th-century [[Ottonian art|Ottonian]] ivory plaque depicting Christ receiving a church from {{nowrap|[[Otto I]]}}|thumb|left|upright=0.7]]

[[Christianization of Scandinavia|Missionary efforts to Scandinavia]] during the 9th and 10th centuries helped strengthen the growth of kingdoms such as [[History of Sweden (800–1521)|Sweden]], [[History of Denmark|Denmark]], and [[History of Norway|Norway]], which gained power and territory. Some kings converted to Christianity, although not all by 1000. Scandinavians also expanded and colonised throughout Europe. Besides the settlements in Ireland, England, and Normandy, further settlement took place in what became [[Kyivan Rus'|Russia]] and [[Settlement of Iceland|Iceland]]. Swedish traders and raiders ranged down the rivers of the Russian steppe and even attempted to seize Constantinople in [[Rus'–Byzantine War (860)|860]] and [[Rus'–Byzantine War (907)|907]].<ref name=Collins385>Collins ''Early Medieval Europe'' pp. 385–389</ref> Christian Spain, initially driven into a small section of the peninsula in the north, expanded slowly south during the 9th and 10th centuries, establishing the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturias]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]].<ref name=Wickham500>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' pp. 500–505</ref>

In Eastern Europe, Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor [[Basil I]] (r. 867–886) and his successors [[Leo VI the Wise|Leo VI]] (r. 886–912) and [[Constantine VII]] (r. 913–959), members of the [[Macedonian dynasty]]. Commerce revived, and the emperors oversaw the extension of a uniform administration to all the provinces. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors [[John I Tzimiskes|John I]] (r. 969–976) and [[Basil II]] (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire on all fronts. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the [[Macedonian Renaissance]]. Writers such as [[John Geometres]] ([[fl.]] early 10th century) composed new hymns, poems, and other works.<ref name=Davies318>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 318–320</ref> Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the [[Moravians]], [[Bulgars]], [[Bohemian (demonym)|Bohemians]], [[Poles (people)|Poles]], Magyars, and Slavic inhabitants of the [[Kievan Rus']]. These conversions contributed to the founding of political states in the lands of those peoples—the states of [[Great Moravia|Moravia]], [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], [[Bohemia]], [[Poland in the Early Middle Ages|Poland]], Hungary, and the Kievan Rus'.<ref name=Davies321>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 321–326</ref> Bulgaria, which was founded around 680, at its height reached from Budapest to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River in modern Ukraine to the Adriatic Sea.<ref name=Crampton12>Crampton ''Concise History of Bulgaria'' p. 12</ref> By 1018, the last Bulgarian nobles had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire.<ref name=Curta246>Curta ''Southeastern Europe'' pp.&nbsp;246–247</ref>

=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Medieval art|Medieval architecture}}
{{See also|Migration Period art|Pre-Romanesque art and architecture|Carolingian art}}

[[File:KellsFol032vChristEnthroned.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A page from the [[Book of Kells]], an [[illuminated manuscript]] created in the British Isles in the late 8th or early 9th century<ref name=Nees145>Nees ''Early Medieval Art'' p. 145</ref>]]

Few large stone buildings were constructed between the Constantinian [[basilica]]s of the 4th and 8th centuries, although many smaller ones were built during the 6th and 7th centuries. By the beginning of the 8th century, the Carolingian Empire revived the basilica form of architecture.<ref name=Stalley29>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 29–35</ref> One feature of the basilica is the use of a [[transept]],<ref name=Stalley43>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 43–44</ref> or the "arms" of a cross-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long [[nave]].<ref name=Cosman247>Cosman ''Medieval Wordbook'' p. 247</ref> Other new features of religious architecture include the [[crossing tower]] and a monumental [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches#Façade|entrance to the church]], usually at the west end of the building.<ref name=Stalley49>Stalley ''Early Medieval Architecture'' pp. 45, 49</ref>

[[Carolingian art]] was produced for a small group of figures around the court and the monasteries and churches they supported. It was dominated by efforts to regain the dignity and classicism of imperial Roman and [[Byzantine art]] but was also influenced by the [[Insular art]] of the British Isles. Insular art integrated the energy of [[Celtic art|Irish Celtic]] and [[Anglo-Saxon art|Anglo-Saxon Germanic]] styles of ornament with Mediterranean forms such as the book, and established many characteristics of art for the rest of the medieval period. Surviving religious works from the Early Middle Ages are mostly [[illuminated manuscript]]s and carved [[Ivory carving#Antiquity and the Early Medieval period|ivories]], originally made for metalwork that has since been melted down.<ref name=Kitzinger36>Kitzinger ''Early Medieval Art'' pp. 36–53, 61–64</ref><ref name=Henderson18>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 18–21, 63–71</ref> Objects in precious metals were the most prestigious form of art, but almost all are lost except for a few crosses such as the [[Cross of Lothair]], several [[reliquaries]], and finds such as the Anglo-Saxon burial at [[Sutton Hoo]] and the [[hoard]]s of [[Treasure of Gourdon|Gourdon]] from Merovingian France, [[Guarrazar]] from Visigothic Spain and [[Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós|Nagyszentmiklós]] near Byzantine territory. There are survivals from the large [[brooch]]es in [[Fibula (brooch)|fibula]] or [[Celtic brooch|penannular]] form that were key pieces of personal adornment for elites, including the Irish [[Tara Brooch]].<ref name=Henderson36>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 36–42, 49–55, 103, 143, 204–208</ref> Highly decorated books were mostly [[Gospel Book]]s and these have survived in [[List of illuminated manuscripts|larger numbers]], including the Insular [[Book of Kells]], the [[Book of Lindisfarne]], and the imperial [[Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram]], which is one of the few to retain its "[[treasure binding]]" of gold encrusted with jewels.<ref name=Benton41>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 41–49</ref> Charlemagne's court seems to have been responsible for the acceptance of figurative [[monumental sculpture]] in [[Christian art]],<ref name=Lasko16>Lasko ''Ars Sacra'' pp. 16–18</ref> and by the end of the period near life-sized figures such as the [[Gero Cross]] were common in important churches.<ref name=Henderson233>Henderson ''Early Medieval'' pp. 233–238</ref>

=== Military and technological developments ===
During the later Roman Empire, the principal military developments were attempts to create an effective cavalry force and the continued development of highly specialised types of troops. The creation of heavily armoured [[cataphract]]-type soldiers as cavalry was an important feature of the 5th-century Roman military. The various invading tribes had differing emphases on types of soldiers—ranging from the primarily infantry Anglo-Saxon invaders of Britain to the Vandals and Visigoths, who had a high proportion of cavalry in their armies.<ref name=NicolleWestern28>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 28–29</ref> During the early invasion period, the [[stirrup]] had not been introduced into warfare, which limited the usefulness of cavalry as [[shock troops]] because it was not possible to put the full force of the horse and rider behind blows struck by the rider.<ref name=NicolleWestern30>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 30</ref> The greatest change in military affairs during the invasion period was the adoption of the Hunnic [[composite bow]] in place of the earlier, and weaker, [[Scythia]]n composite bow.<ref name=NicolleWestern31>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 30–31</ref> Another development was the increasing use of [[longsword]]s<ref name=NicolleWestern34>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 34</ref> and the progressive replacement of [[scale armour]] by [[mail armour]] and [[lamellar armour]].<ref name=NicolleWestern39>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 39</ref>

The importance of infantry and light cavalry declined during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry. The use of [[Conscription|militia-type levies]] of the free population declined over the Carolingian period.<ref name=NicolleWestern58>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 58–59</ref> Although much of the Carolingian armies were mounted, a large proportion during the early period appear to have been [[mounted infantry]], rather than true cavalry.<ref name=NicolleWestern76>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 76</ref> One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the ''[[fyrd]]'', which were led by the local elites.<ref name=NicolleWestern67>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 67</ref> In military technology, one of the main changes was the return of the [[crossbow]], which had been known in Roman times and reappeared as a military weapon during the last part of the Early Middle Ages.<ref name=NicolleWestern80>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 80</ref> Another change was the introduction of the stirrup, which increased the effectiveness of cavalry as shock troops. A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the [[horseshoe]], which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.<ref name=NicolleWestern88>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 88–91</ref>

== High Middle Ages ==
{{Main|High Middle Ages}}

=== Society and economic life ===
{{see|Agriculture in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Cleric-Knight-Workman.jpg|Medieval French [[Illuminated manuscript|manuscript illustration]] of the three [[Social class|classes]] of medieval society: those who prayed (the [[clergy]]) those who fought (the [[knight]]s), and those who worked (the [[peasant]]ry).<ref name=Whitton134>Whitton "Society of Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 134</ref> The relationship between these classes was governed by [[feudalism]] and [[manorialism]].<ref name=Gainty352>Gainty and Ward ''Sources of World Societies'' p. 352</ref> (''Li Livres dou Sante'', 13th century)|thumb|left]]

The High Middle Ages was a period of tremendous [[Medieval demography| population expansion]]. The estimated population of Europe grew from 35 to 80&nbsp;million between 1000 and 1347, although the exact causes remain unclear: improved agricultural techniques, the decline of slaveholding, a [[Medieval Warm Period|more clement climate]] and the lack of invasion have all been suggested.<ref name=Jordan5>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 5–12</ref><ref name=Backman156>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 156</ref> As much as 90&nbsp;per cent of the European population remained rural peasants. Many were no longer settled in isolated farms but had gathered into small communities, usually known as [[Manorialism|manors]] or villages.<ref name=Backman156 /> These peasants were often subject to noble overlords and owed them rents and other services in a system known as [[manorialism]]. There remained a few free peasants throughout this period and beyond,<ref name=Backman164>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 164–165</ref> with more of them in the regions of Southern Europe than in the north. The practice of [[assarting]], or bringing new lands into production by offering incentives to the peasants who settled them, also contributed to population expansion.<ref name=Epstein52>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 52–53</ref>

The [[open-field system]] of agriculture was commonly practised in most of Europe, especially in "northwestern and central Europe".<ref name=Pounds166>Pounds ''Historical Geography of Europe'' p. 166</ref> Such agricultural communities had three essential characteristics: individual peasant holdings in the form of strips of land were scattered among the different fields belonging to the manor; crops were rotated from year to year to preserve soil fertility; and common land was used for grazing livestock and other purposes. Some regions used a three-field system of crop rotation; others retained the older two-field system.<ref name=Agri>Dawtry "Agriculture" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 15–16</ref>

Other sections of society included the nobility, clergy, and townspeople. Nobles, both the titled [[nobility]] and simple [[knight]]s, exploited the manors and the peasants. However, they did not own lands outright but were granted rights to the income from a manor or other lands by an overlord through the system of [[feudalism]]. During the 11th and 12th centuries, these lands, or [[fief]]s, came to be considered hereditary. In most areas, they were no longer divisible between all the heirs, as had been the case in the early medieval period. Instead, most fiefs and lands went to the eldest son.<ref name=Barber37>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 37–41</ref>{{efn-ua|This inheritance pattern is known as [[primogeniture]].<ref name=Wordbook193>Cosman ''Medieval Wordbook'' p. 193</ref>}} The dominance of the nobility was built upon its control of the land, its military service as [[heavy cavalry]], control of [[castle]]s, and various immunities from taxes or other impositions.{{efn-ua|Heavy cavalry had been introduced into Europe from the Persian [[cataphract]] of the 5th and 6th centuries, but the addition of the [[stirrup]] in the 7th allowed the full force of horse and rider to be used in combat.<ref name=Davies311 />}} Castles, initially in wood but later in stone, began to be constructed in the 9th and 10th centuries in response to the disorder of the time, and protected from invaders and allowing lords defence from rivals. Control of castles allowed the nobles to defy kings or other overlords.<ref name=Davies311>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 311–315</ref> Nobles were stratified; kings and the highest-ranking nobility controlled large numbers of commoners and large tracts of land, as well as other nobles. Beneath them, lesser nobles had authority over smaller land areas and fewer people. Knights were the lowest level of nobility; they controlled but did not own land and had to serve other nobles.<ref name=Daily3>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 3</ref>{{efn-ua|In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the ''[[ministerialis]]'', who were in effect, unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had served as warriors or government officials, whose increased status allowed their descendants to hold fiefs and become knights while still technically serfs.<ref name=Singman8>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 8</ref>}}

The clergy was divided into two types: the [[secular clergy]], who lived out in the world, and the [[regular clergy]], who lived isolated under a religious rule and usually consisted of monks.<ref name=Hamilton33>Hamilton ''Religion on the Medieval West'' p. 33</ref> Throughout the period, monks remained a tiny proportion of the population, usually less than one percent.<ref name=Daily143>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 143</ref> Most of the regular clergy were drawn from the nobility, the same social class that served as the recruiting ground for the upper levels of the secular clergy. The local [[parish]] priests were often drawn from the peasant class.<ref name=Barber33>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 33–34</ref> Townspeople were somewhat unusual, as they did not fit into the traditional three-fold division of society into nobles, clergy, and peasants. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the ranks of the townspeople expanded greatly as existing towns grew and new population centres were founded.<ref name=Barber48>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 48–49</ref> But throughout the Middle Ages, the population of the towns probably never exceeded 10 percent of the total population.<ref name=Daily171>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 171</ref>

[[File:Petrus alphonsi dialogues.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|13th-century illustration of a Jew (in pointed [[Jewish hat]]) and the Christian [[Petrus Alphonsi]] debating]]

Jews also [[Jews in the Middle Ages|spread across Europe]] during the period. Communities were established in [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]] and [[History of the Jews in England (1066–1290)|England]] in the 11th and 12th centuries, but [[History of the Jews in Spain#Toleration and Jewish immigration (1085–1212)|Spanish Jews]], long settled in Spain under the Muslims, came under Christian rule and increasing pressure to convert to Christianity.<ref name=Jews191 /> Most Jews were confined to the cities, as they were not allowed to own land or be peasants.<ref name=Epstein54>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 54</ref>{{efn-ua|A few Jewish peasants remained on the land under Byzantine rule in the East as well as some on Crete under Venetian rule, but they were the exception in Europe.<ref name=Epstein54 />}} Besides the Jews, there were other non-Christians on the edges of Europe—pagan Slavs in Eastern Europe and Muslims in Southern Europe.<ref name=Daily13>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 13</ref>

[[Women in the Middle Ages]] were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Widows were often allowed much control over their lives, but they were still restricted legally. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks. Peasant women were usually responsible for caring for the household, child care, gardening, and animal husbandry near the house. They could supplement their household income by spinning or brewing at home. At harvest time, they were also expected to help with fieldwork.<ref name=Daily14>Singman ''Daily Life'' pp. 14–15</ref> Townswomen, like peasant women, were responsible for the household and could also engage in trade. The trades that were open to women varied by country and period.<ref name=Daily177>Singman ''Daily Life'' pp. 177–178</ref> Noblewomen were responsible for running a household and could occasionally be expected to handle estates in the absence of male relatives, but they were usually restricted from participation in military or government affairs. The only role open to women in the Church was that of [[nun]]s, as they could not become priests.<ref name=Daily14 />

In [[Central Italy|central]] and [[northern Italy]] and in [[Flanders]], the rise of towns that were, to a degree, self-governing stimulated economic growth and created an environment for new types of trade associations. Commercial cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the [[Hanseatic League]]. The Italian [[Maritime republics]] such as [[Venice]], [[Genoa]], and [[Pisa]] expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean.{{efn-ua|These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated in the Hanseatic League, contrasting with the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife.<ref name=Epstein81>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 81</ref>}} Great [[Fair|trading fairs]] were established and flourished in [[Champagne fairs|northern France]] during the period, allowing Italian and German merchants to trade with each other as well as local merchants.<ref name=Epstein82>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 82–83</ref> In the late 13th century new land and sea routes to the Far East were pioneered, famously described in ''[[The Travels of Marco Polo]]'' written by one of the traders, [[Marco Polo]] (d. 1324).<ref name=Barber60>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 60–67</ref> Besides new trading opportunities, agricultural and technological improvements increased crop yields, which allowed the trade networks to expand.<ref name=Backman160>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 160</ref> Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Italy and later in France and other countries. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, sharing risk among merchants. Accounting methods improved, partly through the use of [[double-entry bookkeeping]]; [[letters of credit]] also appeared, allowing easy transmission of money.<ref name=Barber74>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 74–76</ref>

=== Rise of state power ===
{{Main|England in the Middle Ages|France in the Middle Ages|Germany in the Middle Ages|Italy in the Middle Ages|Scotland in the Middle Ages|Spain in the Middle Ages|Poland in the Middle Ages}}

[[File:Europe mediterranean 1190.jpg|Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190|thumb|upright=1.3]]

The High Middle Ages was the formative period in the history of the modern Western state. Kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power and established lasting governing institutions.<ref name=Backman283>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 283–284</ref> New kingdoms such as [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]], after their conversion to Christianity, became Central European powers.<ref name=Barber365>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 365–380</ref> The Magyars settled Hungary around 900 under King [[Árpád]] (d. c. 907) after a series of invasions in the 9th century.<ref name=Davies296>Davies ''Europe'' p. 296</ref> The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular kings, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world; the [[Temporal power (papal)|Papal Monarchy]] reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of {{nowrap|[[Innocent III]]}} (pope 1198–1216).<ref name=Backman262>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 262–279</ref> [[Northern Crusades]] and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously [[pagan]] regions in the Baltic and [[Finland|Finnic]] north-east brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples into European culture.<ref name=Barber371>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 371–372</ref>

During the early High Middle Ages, Germany was ruled by the [[Ottonian dynasty]], which struggled to control the powerful dukes ruling over [[stem duchy|territorial duchies]], tracing back to the Migration period. In 1024, they were replaced by the [[Salian dynasty]], who famously clashed with the papacy under Emperor {{nowrap|[[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]]}} (r. 1084–1105) over Church appointments as part of the [[Investiture Controversy]].<ref name=Backman181>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 181–186</ref> His successors continued to struggle against the papacy as well as the German nobility. A period of instability followed the death of Emperor {{nowrap|[[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]]}} (r. 1111–1125), who died without heirs, until [[Frederick I Barbarossa|{{nowrap|Frederick I}} Barbarossa]] (r. 1155–1190) took the imperial throne.<ref name=Jordan143>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 143–147</ref> Although he ruled effectively, the basic problems remained, and his successors struggled into the 13th century.<ref name=Jordan250>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 250–252</ref> Barbarossa's grandson [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] (r. 1220–1250), who was also heir to the throne of Sicily through his mother, clashed repeatedly with the papacy. His court was famous for its scholars, and he was often accused of [[Heresy in Christianity|heresy]].<ref name=Denley235>Denley "Mediterranean" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 235–238</ref> He and his successors faced many difficulties, including the invasion of the [[Mongols]] into Europe in the mid-13th century. Mongols first shattered the Kyivan Rus' principalities and then [[Mongol invasion of Europe|invaded Eastern Europe]] in 1241, 1259, and 1287.<ref name=Davies364>Davies ''Europe'' p. 364</ref>

[[File:Bayeux Tapestry scene44 William Odo Robert.jpg|The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] (detail) showing [[William the Conqueror]] (centre), his half-brothers [[Robert, Count of Mortain]] (right) and [[Odo, Earl of Kent|Odo]], Bishop of [[Bayeux]] in the [[Duchy of Normandy]] (left)|thumb|left]]

Under the [[Capetian dynasty]] the French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility, growing out of the [[Île-de-France]] to exert control over more of the country in the 11th and 12th centuries.<ref name=Backman187>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 187–189</ref> They faced a powerful rival in the [[Dukes of Normandy]], who in 1066 under [[William the Conqueror]] (duke 1035–1087), conquered England (r. 1066–1087) and created a cross-channel empire that lasted, in various forms, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages.<ref name=Jordan59>Jordan ''Europe in the High Middle Ages'' pp. 59–61</ref><ref name=Backman189>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 189–196</ref> Normans also settled in Sicily and southern Italy, when [[Robert Guiscard]] (d. 1085) landed there in 1059 and established a duchy that later became the [[Kingdom of Sicily]].<ref name=Davies294>Davies ''Europe'' p. 294</ref> Under the [[Angevin kings of England|Angevin dynasty]] of {{nowrap|[[Henry II of England|Henry II]]}} (r. 1154–1189) and his son [[Richard I]] (r. 1189–1199), the kings of England ruled over England and large areas of France,<ref name=Backman263>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 263</ref>{{efn-ua|This grouping of lands is often called the [[Angevin Empire]].<ref name=Feudal285>Barlow ''Feudal Kingdom'' pp. 285–286</ref>}} brought to the family by Henry II's marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] (d. 1204), heiress to much of southern France.<ref name=Eleanor>Loyn "Eleanor of Aquitaine" ''Middle Ages'' p. 122</ref>{{efn-ua|Eleanor had previously been married to [[Louis VII of France]] (r. 1137–1180), but their marriage was annulled in 1152.<ref name=Eleanor />}} Richard's younger brother [[John, King of England|John]] (r. 1199–1216) lost Normandy and the rest of the northern French possessions in 1204 to the French King [[Philip II Augustus]] (r. 1180–1223). This led to dissension among the English nobility. John's financial exactions to pay for his unsuccessful attempts to regain Normandy led in 1215 to ''[[Magna Carta]]'', a charter that confirmed the rights and privileges of free men in England. Under {{nowrap|[[Henry III of England|Henry III]]}} (r. 1216–1272), John's son, further concessions were made to the nobility, and royal power was diminished.<ref name=Backman286>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 286–289</ref> The French monarchy continued to make gains against the nobility during the late 12th and 13th centuries, bringing more territories within the kingdom under the king's personal rule and centralising the royal administration.<ref name=Backman289>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 289–293</ref> Under [[Louis IX]] (r. 1226–1270), royal prestige rose to new heights as Louis served as a mediator for most of Europe.<ref name=Davies355>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 355–357</ref>{{efn-ua|Louis was [[canonised]] in 1297 by Pope [[Boniface VIII]].<ref name=Hallam401>Hallam and Everard ''Capetian France'' p. 401</ref>}}

In Iberia, the Christian states, which had been confined to the north-western part of the peninsula, began to push back against the Islamic states in the south, a period known as the ''[[Reconquista]]''.<ref name=Davies345>Davies ''Europe'' p. 345</ref> By about 1150, the Christian north had coalesced into the five major kingdoms of [[Kingdom of León|León]], [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]].<ref name=Barber341>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 341</ref> Southern Iberia remained under control of Islamic states, initially under the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]], which broke up in 1031 into a shifting number of petty states known as ''[[taifa]]s'',<ref name=Davies345 /> who fought with the Christians until the [[Almohad Caliphate]] re-established centralised rule over Southern Iberia in the 1170s.<ref name=Barber350>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 350–351</ref> Christian forces advanced again in the early 13th century, culminating in the capture of [[Seville]] in 1248.<ref name=Barber353>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 353–355</ref>

=== Crusades ===
{{Main|Crusades|Reconquista|Northern Crusades}}
{{See also|Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty| Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty}}

[[File:Crac des chevaliers syria.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Krak des Chevaliers]] was built during the Crusades for the [[Knights Hospitaller]]s.<ref name=Fortress268>Kaufmann and Kaufmann ''Medieval Fortress'' pp. 268–269</ref>]]

In the 11th century, the [[Seljuk Turks]] took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] and captured the Byzantine Emperor [[Romanus IV]] (r. 1068–1071). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the [[Fatimids]] of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars.<ref name=Davies332>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 332–333</ref> The Byzantines also faced a revived [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]], which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.<ref name=Davies386>Davies ''Europe'' pp.&nbsp;386–387</ref>

The Crusades were intended to seize [[Jerusalem]] from Muslim control. The [[First Crusade]] was proclaimed by Pope [[Urban II]] (pope 1088–1099) at the [[Council of Clermont]] in 1095 in response to a request from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] (r. 1081–1118) for aid against further Muslim advances. Urban promised [[indulgence]] to anyone who took part. Tens of thousands of people from all levels of society mobilised across Europe and captured Jerusalem in 1099.<ref name=MACrusades /> One feature of the crusades was the [[pogrom]]s against local Jews that often took place as the crusaders left their countries for the East. These were especially brutal during the First Crusade,<ref name=Jews191 /> when the Jewish communities in [[Cologne]], [[Mainz]], and [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] were destroyed, as well as other communities in cities between the rivers [[Seine]] and the Rhine.<ref name=Comp397>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 397–399</ref> Another outgrowth of the crusades was the foundation of a new type of monastic order, the [[Military order (society)|military orders]] of the [[Templars]] and [[Hospitallers]], which fused monastic life with military service.<ref name=Barber145 />

The Crusaders consolidated their conquests into [[Crusader states]]. During the 12th and 13th centuries, there were a series of conflicts between them and the surrounding Islamic states. Appeals from the crusader states to the papacy led to further crusades,<ref name=MACrusades>Riley-Smith "Crusades" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 106–107</ref> such as the [[Third Crusade]], called to try to regain Jerusalem, which had been captured by [[Saladin]] (d. 1193) in 1187.<ref name=Payne204>Payne ''Dream and the Tomb'' pp. 204–205</ref>{{efn-ua| Military religious orders such as the [[Knights Templar]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] were formed and went on to play an integral role in the crusader states.<ref name=Lock353>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 353–356</ref>}} In 1203, the [[Fourth Crusade]] was diverted from the Holy Land to Constantinople, and captured the city in 1204, setting up a [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]]<ref name=Lock156>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 156–161</ref> and greatly weakening the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines recaptured the city in 1261 but never regained their former strength.<ref name=Backman299>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 299–300</ref> By 1291, all the crusader states had been captured or forced from the mainland. However, a titular [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] survived on the island of [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]] for several years afterwards.<ref name=Lock122>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' p. 122</ref>

Popes called for crusades elsewhere besides the Holy Land: in Spain, southern France, and along the Baltic.<ref name=MACrusades /> The Spanish crusades became fused with the ''Reconquista'' of Spain from the Muslims. Although the Templars and Hospitallers took part in the Spanish crusades, similar Spanish military religious orders were founded, most of which had become part of the two main orders of [[Order of Calatrava|Calatrava]] and [[Order of Santiago|Santiago]] by the beginning of the 12th century.<ref name=Lock205>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 205–213</ref> Northern Europe also remained outside Christian influence until the 11th century or later and became a crusading venue as part of the Northern Crusades of the 12th to 14th centuries. These crusades also spawned a military order, the [[Order of the Sword Brothers]]. Another order, the [[Teutonic Knights]], although founded in the crusader states, focused much of its activity in the Baltic after 1225 and, in 1309, moved its headquarters to [[Malbork Castle|Marienburg]] in [[Prussia]].<ref name=Lock213>Lock ''Routledge Companion to the Crusades'' pp. 213–224</ref>

=== Intellectual life ===
{{Main|Renaissance of the 12th century|Medieval philosophy| Medieval literature|Medieval poetry|Medieval medicine of Western Europe}}

During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was a debate between the [[Philosophical realism|realists]] and the [[nominalists]] over the concept of "[[universals]]". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of [[Aristotle]] and his emphasis on [[empiricism]] and [[rationalism]]. Scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] (d. 1142) and [[Peter Lombard]] (d. 1164) introduced [[Aristotelian logic]] into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries [[cathedral school]]s spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns.<ref name=Backman232>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 232–237</ref> Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the [[medieval university|universities]] established in major European cities.<ref name=Backman247>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 247–252</ref> Philosophy and theology fused in [[scholasticism]], an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason<ref name=MASchol>Loyn "Scholasticism" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 293–294</ref> and culminated in the thought of [[Thomas Aquinas]] (d. 1274), who wrote the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', or ''Summary of Theology''.<ref name=Colish295>Colish ''Medieval Foundations'' pp. 295–301</ref>

[[File:Richard of Wallingford.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|A medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration]]

[[Chivalry]] and the ethos of [[courtly love]] developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the [[vernacular languages]] rather than Latin and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by [[troubadour]]s or [[Minnesänger]]s, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the ''[[chansons de geste]]'', or "songs of great deeds", such as ''[[The Song of Roland]]'' or ''[[Hildebrand|The Song of Hildebrand]]''.<ref name=Backman252>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 252–260</ref> Secular and religious histories were also produced.<ref name=Davies349>Davies ''Europe'' p. 349</ref> [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] (d. c. 1155) composed his ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', a collection of stories and legends about [[King Arthur|Arthur]].<ref name=SaulGeoffrey>Saul ''Companion to Medieval England'' pp. 113–114</ref> Other works were more clearly history, such as [[Otto von Freising]]'s (d. 1158) ''Gesta Friderici Imperatoris'' detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or [[William of Malmesbury]]'s (d. c. 1143) ''Gesta Regum'' on the kings of England.<ref name=Davies349 />

Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and [[canon law]], or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was significantly advanced by the discovery of the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' in the 11th century, and by 1100, Roman law was being taught at [[University of Bologna|Bologna]]. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140, a monk named [[Decretum Gratiani|Gratian]] (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the ''[[Decretum Gratiani|Decretum]]''.<ref name=Backman237>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–241</ref>

Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of [[Roman numerals]] with the [[decimal]] [[positional number system]] and the invention of [[algebra]], which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the [[Schola Medica Salernitana|school at Salerno]].<ref name=Backman241>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 241–246</ref>

=== Technology and military ===
{{Main|Medieval technology|Medieval warfare|History of science#Science in the Middle Ages}}
{{further|List of medieval European scientists}}
[[File:Tommaso da modena, ritratti di domenicani (Ugo di Provenza) 1352 150cm, treviso, ex convento di san niccolò, sala del capitolo.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Cardinal [[Hugh of Saint-Cher]] by [[Tommaso da Modena]], 1352, the first known depiction of [[spectacles]]<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp.&nbsp;18–19</ref>]]

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe experienced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Significant technological advances included the invention of the [[windmill]], the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of [[distilled spirits]], and the use of the [[astrolabe]].<ref name=Backman246>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 246</ref> Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.<ref>Ilardi, ''Renaissance Vision'', pp.&nbsp;4–5, 49</ref>

The development of a three-field [[Crop rotation|rotation system]] for planting crops<ref name=Backman156 />{{efn-ua|It had spread to Northern Europe by 1000 and had reached Poland by the 12th century.<ref name=Epstein45>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 45</ref>}} increased the usage of land from one-half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production.<ref name=Epstein45 /> The development of the [[Plough|heavy plough]] allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the [[horse collar]], which led to the use of [[Working animal|draught horses]] in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.<ref name=Backman156-59>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 156–159</ref> Legumes – such as peas, beans, or lentils – were grown more widely as crops, in addition to the usual cereal crops of wheat, oats, barley, and rye.<ref name=Barber80>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 80</ref>

The construction of [[cathedral]]s and castles advanced building technology, developing large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and [[tithe barn]]s.<ref name=Barber68>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 68</ref> Shipbuilding improved with the use of the [[Boat building|rib and plank]] method rather than the old Roman system of [[mortise and tenon]]. Other improvements to ships included the use of [[lateen]] sails and the [[rudder#Medieval Europe|stern-post rudder]], both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.<ref name=Barber73>Barber ''Two Cities'' p. 73</ref>

In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry [[crossbowmen]], as well as [[sapper]]s and engineers.<ref name=NicolleWestern125>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 125</ref> Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in [[siege]] warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.<ref name="NicolleWestern80" />{{efn-ua|Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges, slowness is not as big a disadvantage as the crossbowman, who can hide behind fortifications while reloading.<ref name=Daily124>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 124</ref>}} The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face [[Combat helmet|helmets]], heavy body armour, as well as [[horse armour]].<ref name=NicolleWestern130>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 130</ref> [[Gunpowder]] was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304. However, it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. [[Cannon]] were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.<ref name=Nicolle296 />

=== Architecture, art, and music ===
{{further|Medieval architecture|Medieval art|Medieval music}}
[[File:Maria Lach 02.jpg|thumb|The [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] Church of [[Maria Laach Abbey|Maria Laach, Germany]]]]

In the 10th century, the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" was derived. Where available, Roman [[brick]] and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the [[First Romanesque]], the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000, a great wave of stone churches were being built all over Europe.<ref name=Benton55>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 55</ref> [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults.<ref name=Adams181>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 181–189</ref> The large [[Portal (architecture)|portal]] with coloured sculpture in [[Relief|high relief]] became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]] of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals.<ref name=Benton58to75>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 58–60, 65–66, 73–75</ref> According to art historian [[C. R. Dodwell]], "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive.<ref name=Dodwell37>Dodwell ''Pictorial Arts of the West'' p. 37</ref> Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed and became crucial to politics and warfare.<ref name=Benton295>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 295–299</ref>

Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in [[Mosan art]], in which distinct artistic personalities, including [[Nicholas of Verdun]] (d. 1205), become apparent. An almost [[Ancient Greek art|classical style]] is seen in works such as a [[Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège|font at Liège]],<ref name=Lasko240>Lasko ''Ars Sacra'' pp. 240–250</ref> contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary [[Gloucester Candlestick]]. Large illuminated bibles and [[psalter]]s were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a ''[[Last Judgement]]'' on the west wall, a [[Christ in Majesty]] at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at [[Abbey Church of Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe|Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe]], on the [[barrel-vault]]ed roof.<ref name=Benton91>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 91–92</ref>

[[File:Nef cathédrale Laon.jpg|The [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] interior of [[Laon Cathedral]], France|thumb|left]]

From the early 12th century, French builders developed the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style, marked by the use of [[rib vault]]s, [[Ogive|pointed arches]], [[flying buttress]]es, and large [[stained glass]] windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals and continued until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include [[Chartres Cathedral]] and [[Reims Cathedral]] in France, as well as [[Salisbury Cathedral]] in England.<ref name=Adams195>Adams ''History of Western Art'' pp. 195–216</ref> Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.<ref name=Benton185to271>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 185–190; 269–271</ref>

During this period, the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to [[Janetta Benton]] "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops",<ref name=Benton250>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' p. 250</ref> and the [[book of hours]] developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork remained the most prestigious art form, with [[Limoges enamel]] a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses.<ref name=Benton245>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 135–139, 245–247</ref> In Italy the innovations of [[Cimabue]] and [[Duccio]], followed by the [[Trecento]] master [[Giotto]] (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of [[panel painting]] and [[fresco]].<ref name=Benton264>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 264–278</ref> Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many [[carved ivory]] objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.<ref name=Benton248>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 248–250</ref>

=== Church life ===
{{Main|Gregorian Reform|Church and state in medieval Europe}}

[[File:Bonaventura Berlinghieri Francesco.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Francis of Assisi]], depicted by [[Bonaventura Berlinghieri]] in 1235, founded the [[Franciscan]] Order.<ref name=Hamilton47>Hamilton ''Religion in the Medieval West'' p. 47</ref>]]

Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. [[Cluny Abbey]], founded in the [[Mâcon]] region of France in 909, was established as part of the [[Cluniac Reforms]], a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear.<ref name=Rhino>Rosenwein ''Rhinoceros Bound'' pp. 40–41</ref> Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.<ref name=Barber143>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 143–144</ref>

Monastic reform inspired change in the secular Church. The ideals upon which it was based were brought to the papacy by Pope [[Leo IX]] (pope 1049–1054) and provided the ideology of clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]] (pope 1073–1085) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of [[investiture]], clerical marriage, and [[simony]]. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities and wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands. Still, the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122, known as the [[Concordat of Worms]]. The dispute represents a significant stage in creating a papal monarchy separate from and equal to [[laity|lay]] authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.<ref name=Rhino />

[[File:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg|[[Sénanque Abbey]], [[Gordes]], France|thumb|left]]

The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the [[Carthusian]]s and the [[Cistercians]]. The latter, in particular, expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who, along with those wishing to enter the religious life, wanted a return to the simpler [[hermit|hermetical]] monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostolic life]].<ref name=Barber145>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 145–149</ref> [[Christian pilgrimage|Religious pilgrimages]] were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and [[Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela|Compostela]] received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as [[Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo|Monte Gargano]] and [[Basilica di San Nicola|Bari]] rose to prominence.<ref name=Morris199>Morris "Northern Europe" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' p. 199</ref>

In the 13th century [[mendicant orders]]—the [[Franciscan]]s and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy.<ref name=Barber155>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 155–167</ref> Religious groups such as the [[Waldensians]] and the [[Humiliati]] also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. Others joined the [[Cathars]], another movement condemned as heretical by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the [[Albigensian Crusade]], which, in combination with the [[medieval Inquisition]], eliminated them.<ref name=Barber185>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp. 185–192</ref>

== Late Middle Ages ==
{{Main|Late Middle Ages}}

=== War, famine, and plague ===
{{Main|Crisis of the Late Middle Ages}}

The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the [[Great Famine of 1315–1317]].<ref name=MAFamine>Loyn "Famine" ''Middle Ages'' p. 128</ref> The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the [[Medieval Warm Period]] to the [[Little Ice Age]], which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures.<ref name=Backman373>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 373–374</ref> The years 1313–1314 and 1317–1321 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures.<ref name=Epstein41>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 41</ref> The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.<ref name=Backman370>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' p. 370</ref>

[[File:Jacquerie Navarre.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.8|Execution of some of the ringleaders of the ''[[jacquerie]]'', from a 14th-century manuscript of the ''Chroniques de France ou de St Denis'']]

These troubles were followed in 1347 by the [[Black Death]], a [[pandemic]] that spread throughout Europe during the following three years.<ref name=MAPlague>Schove "Plague" ''Middle Ages'' p. 269</ref>{{efn-ua|The historical consensus for the last 100 years has been that the Black Death was a form of [[bubonic plague]], but some historians have [[Theories of the Black Death|begun to challenge this view]] in recent years.<ref name=Epstein171>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 171–172</ref>}} The death toll was probably about 35&nbsp;million people in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.{{efn-ua|One town, [[Lübeck]] in Germany, lost 90&nbsp;percent of its population to the Black Death.<ref name=Daily189>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 189</ref>}} Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice fewer available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt they had a right to greater earnings, and [[Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe|popular uprisings]] broke out across Europe.<ref name=Backman374>Backman ''Worlds of Medieval Europe'' pp. 374–380</ref> Among the uprisings were the ''[[jacquerie]]'' in France, the [[Peasants' Revolt]] in England, and revolts in the cities of [[Florence]] in Italy and [[Ghent]] and [[Bruges]] in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self-mortification of the [[flagellant]]s, and the [[Black Death Jewish persecutions|scapegoating of Jews]].<ref name=Davies412>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 412–413</ref> Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.<ref name=MAPlague />

=== Society and economy ===
Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned as the survivors could acquire more fertile areas.<ref name=Epstein184>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 184–185</ref> Although [[serfdom]] declined in Western Europe, it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free.<ref name=Epstein246>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 246–247</ref> Most peasants in Western Europe changed the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents.<ref name=Keen234 /> The percentage of serfs among the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 percent by the end of the period.<ref name=Singman8 /> Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders and joined to extort their governments' privileges. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death.<ref name=Keen234>Keen ''Pelican History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 234–237</ref> Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility's interest in chivalry.<ref name=Vale346>Vale "Civilization of Courts and Cities" ''Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 346–349</ref>

Jewish communities were [[Edict of Expulsion|expelled from England]] in 1290 and from [[History of the Jews in France#The Great Exile of 1306|France in 1306]]. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not. Many Jews emigrated eastwards, [[History of the Jews in Poland#Early history: 966–1385|settling in Poland]] and Hungary.<ref name=Jews192>Loyn "Jews" ''Middle Ages'' p. 192</ref> The Jews were expelled from [[Alhambra Decree|Spain in 1492]], and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland.<ref name=Jews191 /> The [[History of banking#Medieval Europe|rise of banking]] in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many banking firms loaned money to royalty at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.<ref name=Keen237>Keen ''Pelican History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 237–239</ref>{{efn-ua|As happened with the [[Bardi family|Bardi]] and [[Peruzzi]] firms in the 1340s when King [[Edward III of England]] repudiated their loans to him.<ref name=Keen237 />}}

=== State resurgence ===
[[File:Europe 1360.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Europe in 1360|left]]

Strong, royalty-based [[nation state]]s rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in [[Kingdom of England|England]], [[Kingdom of France|France]], and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Crown of Castile|Castile]], and [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]]. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled.<ref name=Watts201>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 201–219</ref> Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased.<ref name=Watts224>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 224–233</ref> The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the [[English Parliament]] and the [[French Estates General]] to gain power and authority.<ref name=Watts233>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 233–238</ref>

[[File:Joan of Arc miniature graded.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Joan of Arc]] in a 15th-century depiction]]

Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility.<ref name=Watts166>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 166</ref> They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the [[Hundred Years' War]],<ref name=Watts169>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 169</ref> waged from 1337 to 1453.<ref name=MA100>Loyn "Hundred Years' War" ''Middle Ages'' p. 176</ref> Early in the war the English under [[Edward III]] (r. 1327–1377) and his son [[Edward, the Black Prince]] (d. 1376),{{efn-ua|Edward's nickname probably came from his black armour, and was first used by [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] in the 1530s or 1540s.<ref name=BP242>Barber ''Edward'' pp. 242–243</ref>}} won the battles of [[Crécy]] and [[Battle of Poitiers|Poitiers]], captured the city of [[Calais]], and won control of much of France.{{efn-ua|Calais remained in English hands until 1558.<ref name=Davies545>Davies ''Europe'' p. 545</ref>}} The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war.<ref name=Watts180>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 180–181</ref> In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s, the military successes of [[Joan of Arc]] (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453.<ref name=Watts317>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 317–322</ref> The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars positively affected [[English national identity]], doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence.<ref name=Davies423>Davies ''Europe'' p. 423</ref> The dominance of the English [[longbow]] began during early stages of the Hundred Years' War,<ref name=Nicholle186>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 186</ref> and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.<ref name=Nicolle296>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' pp. 296–298</ref>

In modern-day Germany, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] continued to rule, but the elective nature of the imperial crown meant there was no enduring dynasty around which a strong state could form.<ref name=Watts170>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 170–171</ref> Further east, the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Poland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and [[Kingdom of Bohemia|Bohemia]] grew powerful.<ref name=Watts173-75>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 173–175</ref> In Iberia, the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula;<ref name=Watts173>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 173</ref> Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century, while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns.<ref name=Watts327>Watts ''Making of Polities'' pp. 327–332</ref><ref name=Watts340>Watts ''Making of Polities'' p. 340</ref> After losing the Hundred Years' War, England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the [[Wars of the Roses]], which lasted into the 1490s<ref name=Watts340 /> and only ended when [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]] (r. 1485–1509 as Henry VII) became king and consolidated power with his victory over [[Richard III]] (r. 1483–1485) at [[Battle of Bosworth Field|Bosworth]] in 1485.<ref name=Davies426>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 425–426</ref> In Scandinavia, [[Margaret I of Denmark]] (r. in Denmark 1387–1412) consolidated Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the [[Union of Kalmar]], which continued until 1523. The major power around the Baltic Sea was the Hanseatic League, a commercial confederation of city-states that traded from Western Europe to Russia.<ref name=Davies431>Davies ''Europe'' p. 431</ref> Scotland emerged from English domination under [[Robert the Bruce]] (r. 1306–1329), who secured papal recognition of his kingship in 1328.<ref name=Davies408>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 408–409</ref>

=== Collapse of Byzantium ===
{{Main|Decline of the Byzantine Empire| Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty| Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty| Byzantine–Ottoman Wars|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}}
Although the [[Palaeologi]] emperors recaptured Constantinople from the Western Europeans in 1261, they could never regain control of much of the former imperial lands. They usually controlled only a small section of the Balkan Peninsula near Constantinople, the city itself, and some coastal lands on the [[Black Sea]] and around the [[Aegean Sea]]. The former Byzantine lands in the Balkans were divided between the new [[Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)|Kingdom of Serbia]], the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]], and the city-state of [[Republic of Venice|Venice]]. A new Turkish tribe threatened the power of the Byzantine emperors, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], who established themselves in Anatolia in the 13th century and [[Byzantine–Ottoman Wars|steadily expanded]] throughout the 14th century. The Ottomans expanded into Europe, reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396; a great army was sent to the Balkans, where it was defeated at the [[Battle of Nicopolis]].<ref name=Davies385>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 385–389</ref> Constantinople was finally [[Fall of Constantinople|captured]] by the Ottomans in 1453.<ref name=Davies446>Davies ''Europe'' p. 446</ref>

=== Controversy within the Church ===
{{Main|Western Schism|Bohemian Reformation|Hussites}}
[[File:07 Grégoire XI (couronné par Guy de Boulogne).jpg|thumb|left|[[Guy of Boulogne]] crowning Pope Gregory XI in a 15th-century miniature from [[Froissart's Chronicles]]]]

During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the [[Avignon Papacy]] of 1309–1376,<ref name=Thomson170>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 170–171</ref> also called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy" (a reference to the [[Babylonian captivity]] of the Jews),<ref name=MAAvignon>Loyn "Avignon" ''Middle Ages'' p. 45</ref> and then to the [[Western Schism|Great Schism]], lasting from 1378 to 1418, when there were two and later three rival popes, each supported by several states.<ref name= MAGreat>Loyn "Great Schism" ''Middle Ages'' p. 153</ref> Ecclesiastical officials convened at the [[Council of Constance]] in 1414, and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes leaving only two claimants. Further depositions followed, and in November 1417, the council elected [[Martin V]] (pope 1417–1431) as pope.<ref name=Thomson184>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 184–187</ref>

Besides the schism, the Western Church was riven by theological controversies, some of which became heresies. [[John Wycliffe]] (d. 1384), an English theologian, was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the [[Eucharist]] that were contrary to Church doctrine.<ref name=Thomson197>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 197–199</ref> Wycliffe's teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages: [[Lollardy]] in England and [[Hussitism]] in Bohemia.<ref name=Thomson218>Thomson ''Western Church'' p. 218</ref> The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of [[Jan Hus]], who was burned at the stake in 1415 after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance. The Hussite Church, although the target of a crusade, survived beyond the Middle Ages.<ref name=Thomson213>Thomson ''Western Church'' pp. 213–217</ref> Other heresies were manufactured, such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312, and the division of their great wealth between the French King [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] (r. 1285–1314) and the Hospitallers.<ref name=Templars>Loyn "Knights of the Temple (Templars)" ''Middle Ages'' pp. 201–202</ref>

The papacy further refined the practice in the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in the Late Middle Ages, holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist. This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy. The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages, veneration of relics, and belief in the power of the Devil. Mystics such as [[Meister Eckhart]] (d. 1327) and [[Thomas à Kempis]] (d. 1471) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life, which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Besides mysticism, belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread. By the late 15th century, the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484 and the publication in 1486 of the ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'', the most popular handbook for witch-hunters.<ref name=Davies436>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 436–437</ref>

=== Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration ===
{{See also|Europeans in Medieval China}}
During the Later Middle Ages, theologians such as [[John Duns Scotus]] (d. 1308) and [[William of Ockham]] (d. c. 1348)<ref name=MASchol /> led a reaction against intellectualist scholasticism, objecting to the application of reason to faith. Their efforts undermined the prevailing [[Platonic idealism|Platonic]] idea of universals. Ockham's insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy.<ref name=Davies433>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 433–434</ref> Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by [[customary law]]. England was the lone exception to this trend, where the [[common law]] remained pre-eminent. Other countries codified their laws; legal codes were promulgated in Castile, Poland, and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]].<ref name=Davies438>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 438–439</ref>

[[File:Studying astronomy and geometry.jpg|thumb|Clerics studying [[astronomy]] and [[geometry]], French, early 15th century]]

Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the [[trivium]]—grammar, rhetoric, logic—were studied in cathedral schools or schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of 10 percent of males and 1 percent of females in 1500.<ref name=Singman224>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 224</ref>

[[File:Press -Bettman.jpg|thumb|[[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg]] initiated the [[Global spread of the printing press|spread of printing]] from [[Mainz]], Germany]]

The publication of vernacular literature increased, with [[Dante]] (d. 1321), [[Petrarch]] (d. 1374) and [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] (d. 1375) in 14th-century Italy, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (d. 1400) and [[William Langland]] (d. c. 1386) in England, and [[François Villon]] (d. 1464) and [[Christine de Pizan]] (d. c. 1430) in France. Much literature remained religious, and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin, a new demand developed for saints' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages.<ref name=Davies438 /> This was fed by the growth of the ''[[Devotio Moderna]]'' movement, most prominently in the formation of the [[Brethren of the Common Life]], but also in the works of [[German mystic]]s such as Meister Eckhart and [[Johannes Tauler]] (d. 1361).<ref name=Keen282>Keen ''Pelican History of Medieval Europe'' pp. 282–283</ref> Theatre also developed in the guise of [[miracle plays]] put on by the Church.<ref name=Davies438 /> At the end of the period, the development of the [[printing press]] by [[Johannes Gutenberg]] in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500.<ref name=Davies445>Davies ''Europe'' p. 445</ref>

In the early 15th century, the countries of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe. Prince [[Henry the Navigator]] of Portugal (d. 1460) sent expeditions that discovered the [[Canary Islands]], the [[Azores]], and [[Cape Verde]] during his lifetime. After his death, exploration continued; [[Bartolomeu Dias]] (d. 1500) went around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1486, and [[Vasco da Gama]] (d. 1524) sailed around Africa to India in 1498.<ref name=Davies451>Davies ''Europe'' p. 451</ref> The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by [[Christopher Columbus]] (d. 1506) in 1492 that [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|discovered the Americas]].<ref name=Davies454>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 454–455</ref> The English crown under [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] sponsored the voyage of [[John Cabot]] (d. 1498) in 1497, which landed on [[Cape Breton Island]].<ref name=Davies511>Davies ''Europe'' p. 511</ref>

{{anchor|Agriculture}}

=== Technological and military developments ===
[[File:Crescenzi calendar.jpg|thumb|Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of [[Pietro de Crescenzi]]]]

One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry.<ref name=NicolleWestern180>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 180</ref> The English also employed longbowmen, but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success.<ref name=NicolleWestern183>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 183</ref> Armour continued to advance, spurred by the increasing power of crossbows, and [[plate armour]] was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand-held guns that were developed.<ref name=NicolleWestern188>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 188</ref> [[Pole arms]] reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears.<ref name=Nicolle185>Nicolle ''Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare in Western Christendom'' p. 185</ref>

In agriculture, the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun. In addition, the [[spinning wheel]] replaced the traditional [[distaff]] for spinning wool, tripling production.<ref name=Epstein193>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 193–194</ref>{{efn-ua|This wheel was still simple, as it did not yet incorporate a treadle-wheel to twist and pull the fibres. That refinement was not invented until the 15th century.<ref name=Daily36>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 36</ref>}} A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments, which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer.<ref name=Daily38>Singman ''Daily Life'' p. 38</ref> Windmills were refined with the creation of the [[tower mill]], allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing.<ref name=Epstein200>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 200–201</ref> The [[blast furnace]] appeared around 1350 in Sweden, increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality.<ref name=Epstein203>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' pp. 203–204</ref> The first [[patent law]] in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions.<ref name=Epstein213>Epstein ''Economic and Social History'' p. 213</ref>

=== Late medieval art and architecture ===
[[File:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry février.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|February scene from the 15th-century illuminated manuscript [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]]]]

The Late Middle Ages in Europe correspond to Italy's Trecento and [[Renaissance|Early Renaissance]] cultural periods. Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles, which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century until almost the end. [[International Gothic]] was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing masterpieces such as the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]].<ref name=Benton253>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 253–256</ref> All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality. In the 15th century, the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, [[Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264)|ivory caskets]], [[cassone]] chests, and [[maiolica]] pottery. These objects also included the [[Hispano-Moresque ware]] produced by mostly [[Mudéjar]] potters in Spain. Although royalty owned huge plate collections, little survives except for the [[Royal Gold Cup]].<ref>Lightbown ''Secular Goldsmiths' Work'' p. 78</ref> Italian silk manufacture developed so that Western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world. In France and Flanders, [[tapestry]] weaving of sets like ''[[The Lady and the Unicorn]]'' became a major luxury industry.<ref name=Benton257>Benton ''Art of the Middle Ages'' pp. 257–262</ref>

The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the [[Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia (Giovanni Pisano)|Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea]]. Painted or carved wooden relief [[altarpiece]]s became common, especially as churches created many [[Chapel|side-chapels]]. [[Early Netherlandish painting]] by artists such as [[Jan van Eyck]] (d. 1441) and [[Rogier van der Weyden]] (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450, printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of [[incunabula]], or works printed before 1500,<ref name=BL>British Library Staff "[http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html Incunabula Short Title Catalogue]" ''British Library''</ref> by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small [[woodcut]]s, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive [[engraving]]s supplied a wealthier market with various images.<ref name=Griffiths17>Griffiths ''Prints and Printmaking'' pp. 17–18; 39–46</ref>

== Modern perceptions ==
{{See also|Dark Ages (historiography)|Medieval studies|Middle Ages in popular culture}}

[[File:Gossuin de Metz - L'image du monde - BNF Fr. 574 fo42.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Medieval illustration of the [[spherical Earth]] in a 14th-century copy of ''[[Gautier de Metz|L'Image du monde]]'']]

The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of ignorance and superstition" that placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity."<ref>Lindberg "Medieval Church Encounters" ''When Science & Christianity Meet'' p. 8</ref> This is a legacy from both the [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.<ref name=Davies291>Davies ''Europe'' pp. 291–293</ref>

Others argue that reason was held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian [[Edward Grant]] writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century]<!--original quotation says: "expressed in the Age of Reason"-->, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".<ref name=Grant9>Grant ''God and Reason'' p. 9</ref> Also, contrary to common belief, [[David C. Lindberg|David Lindberg]] writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".<ref name=QPeters>Quoted in Peters "Science and Religion" ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' p. 8182</ref>

The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century<ref name=flat>Russell ''Inventing the Flat Earth'' pp. 49–58</ref> and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the [[Myth of the flat Earth|Earth was flat]].<ref name=flat /> This is untrue, as lecturers in medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere.<ref>Grant ''Planets, Stars, & Orbs'' pp. 626–630</ref> Lindberg and [[Ronald Numbers]], another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference".<ref>Lindberg and Numbers "Beyond War and Peace" ''Church History'' p. 342</ref> Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", or "the medieval Christian Church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by historical research.<ref name=Numberslect>Numbers "[https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022345/https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective]" ''Lecture archive'' Archived 11 October 2017</ref>

== Notes ==
{{notelist-ua|60em}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Geary |first=Patrick J. |author-link=Patrick J. Geary |title=Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-19-504458-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/beforefrancegerm0000gear}}
* {{cite book |last=Gies |first=Joseph |last2=Gies |first2=Frances |title=Life in a Medieval City |publisher=Thomas Y. Crowell |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=0-8152-0345-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Grant |title=God and Reason in the Middle Ages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-80279-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Grant |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Grant |title=Planets, Stars, & Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200–1687 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-43344-0}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Grierson |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Grierson |title=Coinage and currency |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=97–98}}
* {{cite book |last=Griffiths |first=Antony |title=Prints and Printmaking |year=1996 |publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=0-7141-2608-X |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/printsprintmakin00grif}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallam |first=Elizabeth M. |last2=Everard |first2=Judith |title=Capetian France 987–1328 |edition=Second |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-582-40428-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Bernard |title=Religion in the Medieval West |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=0-340-80839-X |edition=Second}}
* {{cite book |last=Heather |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Heather |title=The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-532541-6}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Helle |editor-first=Knut |editor-last2=Kouri |editor-first2=E. I. |editor-last3=Olesen |editor-first3=Jens E. |title=Cambridge History of Scandinavia Part 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-47299-7 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Henderson |first=George |title=Early Medieval |year=1977 |edition=Revised |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |oclc=641757789}}
* {{cite book |last=Holmes |first=George |editor-link=George Holmes (historian) |title=The Oxford History of Medieval Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-19-285272-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Ilardi |first=Vincent |title=Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes |publisher=American Philosophical Society |location=Philadelphia |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-87169-259-7}}
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* {{cite book |last=Jordan |first=William C. |title=Europe in the High Middle Ages |publisher=Viking |year=2003 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-670-03202-0 |series=Penguin History of Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/europeinhighmidd00jord}}
* {{cite book |last=Kamen |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Kamen |title=Spain 1469–1714 |year=2005 |edition=Third |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=New York |isbn=0-582-78464-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=J. E. |last2=Kaufmann |first2=H. W. |title=The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages |publisher=Da Capo |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=0-306-81358-0 |year=2001 |edition=2004}}
* {{cite book |last=Keen |first=Maurice |title=The Pelican History of Medieval Europe |publisher=Penguin |location=London |orig-year=1968 |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-021085-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/pelicanhistoryof00keen}}
* {{cite book |last=Kitzinger |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Kitzinger |title=Early Medieval Art at the British Museum |year=1955 |edition=Second |publisher=British Museum |location=London |oclc=510455}}
* {{cite web |last=Knox |first=E. L. |url=http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |title=History of the Idea of the Renaissance |work=Europe in the Late Middle Ages |access-date=25 December 2012 |publisher=Boise State University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |archive-date=3 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last=Lasko |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Lasko |title=Ars Sacra, 800–1200 |series=Penguin History of Art (now Yale) |year=1972 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |isbn=0-14-056036-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Lawrence |first=C. H. |title=Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages |publisher=Longman |edition=Third |location=Harlow, UK |isbn=0-582-40427-4 |year=2001}}
* {{cite book |last=Lightbown |first=Ronald W. |title=Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History |series=Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-99027-1 |year=1978}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |author-link1=David C. Lindberg |last2=Numbers |first2=Ronald L. |author-link2=Ronald Numbers |title=Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science |journal=Church History |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=338–354 |year=1986 |jstor=3166822}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |author-link=David C. Lindberg |title=The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor |editor-last1=Lindberg |editor-first1=David C. |editor-last2=Numbers |editor-first2=Ronald L. |encyclopedia=When Science & Christianity Meet |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-226-48214-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Lock |first=Peter |title=Routledge Companion to the Crusades |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=0-415-39312-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Avignon |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=45}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=122}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Famine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=127–128}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Great Schism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=153}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Hundred Years' War |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=176}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Jews |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=190–192}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Knights of the Temple (Templars) |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=201–202}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Language and dialect |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=204}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Loyn |first=H. R. |author-link=H. R. Loyn |title=Scholasticism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=293–294}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Janet |title=Medieval Russia 980–1584 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |isbn=0-521-36832-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Mediaeval |encyclopedia=The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary: Complete Text Arranged Micrographically: Volume I A–0 |page=M290 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Glasgow |year=1971 |lccn=72177361 |oclc=490339790}}
* {{cite dictionary |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Middle%20Ages |title=Middle Ages |dictionary=Dictionary.com |year=2004 |access-date=7 April 2012}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Miglio |first=Massimo |title=Curial Humanism seen through the Prism of the Papal Library |editor-last=Mazzocco |editor-first=Angelo |encyclopedia=Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |pages=97–112 |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-15244-1 |series=Brill's Studies in Intellectual History}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mommsen |first=Theodore E. |author-link=Theodor Ernst Mommsen |title=Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages' |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=226–242 |date=April 1942 |jstor=2856364}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Morris |first=Rosemary |title=Northern Europe invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor-last=Holmes |editor-first=George |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=175–234}}
* {{cite journal |last=Murray |first=Alexander |title=Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished? |journal=Essays in Medieval Studies |volume=21 |year=2004 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1353/ems.2005.0010}}
* {{cite book |last=Nees |first=Lawrence |title=Early Medieval Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford History of Art |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-284243-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |author-link=David Nicolle |title=Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare In Western Christendom |publisher=Brockhampton |location=London |year=1999 |isbn=1-86019-889-9}}
* {{cite web |last=Numbers |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Numbers |url=https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf |title=Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective |work=Lecture archive |date=11 May 2006 |publisher=The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion |access-date=25 January 2013}}
* {{cite book |last=Payne |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Payne (author) |title=The Dream and the Tomb: A History of the Crusades |publisher=Cooper Square |location=New York |edition=First paperback |year=2000 |isbn=0-8154-1086-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Peters |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Peters (theologian) |title=Science and Religion |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |edition=Second |volume=12 |publisher=MacMillan Reference |location=Detroit, MI |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865980-0 |page=8182}}
* {{cite book |last=Pounds |first=N. J. G. |authorlink=Norman Pounds |year=1990 |title=An Historical Geography of Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-32217-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Power |first=Daniel |year=2006 |title=The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320 |series=The Short Oxford History of Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-925312-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Reilly |first=Bernard F. |title=The Medieval Spains |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-521-39741-3 |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Riley-Smith |first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=Crusades |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=106–107}}
* {{cite book |last=Rosenwein |first=Barbara H. |title=Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=0-8122-7830-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Russell |first=Jeffey Burton |title=Inventing the Flat Earth-Columbus and Modern Historians |publisher=Praeger |location=Westport, CT |year=1991 |isbn=0-275-95904-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Saul |first=Nigel |author-link=Nigel Saul |title=A Companion to Medieval England 1066–1485 |year=2000 |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |isbn=0-7524-2969-8}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Schove |first=D. Justin |title=Plague |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames & Hudson |editor-last=Loyn |editor-first=H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=267–269}}
* {{cite book |last=Singman |first=Jeffrey L. |title=Daily Life in Medieval Europe |publisher=Greenwood |location=Westport, CT |series=Daily Life Through History |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30273-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Stalley |first=Roger |title=Early Medieval Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford History of Art |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-284223-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Tansey |first=Richard G. |last2=Gardner |first2=Helen Louise |last3=De la Croix |first3=Horst |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |location=San Diego, CA |year=1986 |isbn=0-15-503763-3 |edition=Eighth |url=https://archive.org/details/gardnersartthrou02gard}}
* {{cite book |last=Thomson |first=John A. F. |title=The Western Church in the Middle Ages |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=1998 |isbn=0-340-60118-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/westernchurchinm0000thom}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Vale |first=Malcolm |title=The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor-last=Holmes |editor-first=George |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=297–351}}
* {{cite book |last=Watts |first=John |title=The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-79664-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Whitton |first=David |title=The Society of Northern Europe in the High Middle Ages, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor-last=Holmes |editor-first=George |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=115–174}}
* {{cite book |last=Wickham |first=Chris |author-link=Christopher Wickham |title=The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-14-311742-1}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Cantor |first=Norman F. |author-link=Norman Cantor |title=Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century |year=1991 |publisher=W. Morrow |location=New York |isbn=978-0-688-09406-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Gurevich |first=Aron |author-link=Aron Gurevich |title=Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-226-31083-1 |translator-last=Howlett |translator-first=Janet}}
* {{citation |last1=Holmes |first1=Catherine |last2=Standen |first2=Naomi |author-link2=Naomi Standen |title=Introduction: Towards a Global Middle Ages |journal=Past & Present |volume=238 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gty030 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Julia |title=Europe After Rome: A New Cultural History, 500–1000 |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-924427-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Stuard |first=Susan Mosher |title=Women in Medieval History and Historiography |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1987 |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8122-1290-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/womeninmedievalh0000unse_n1j5}}
* {{cite book |last=Wickham |first=Chris |title=Medieval Europe |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2016 |location=New Haven and London |isbn=978-0-300-22221-0}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.netserf.org/ NetSERF] - The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History]
* [http://www.medievalmap.org/ Medievalmap.org] - Interactive maps of the medieval era (Flash plug-in required).
* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/medieval/medievalrealms.html Medieval Realms] - Learning resources from the British Library, including studies of beautiful medieval manuscripts.
* [http://www.medievalists.net/ Medievalists.net] - News and articles about the period
* [http://medieval-history.org/ Medieval History Database (MHDB)]
* [[Medieval Worlds]], [https://medieval.vlg.oeaw.ac.at/ Official Website] - articles about the period
* [http://www.the-orb.net/ ORB The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies] - Academic peer-reviewed articles and encyclopedia
* [https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/ The Labyrinth] - Resources for Medieval Studies

{{Middle Ages}}
{{Middle Ages by region}}
{{History of Europe}}
{{Western culture}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Subject bar |portal1=Middle Ages |portal2=History |portal3=Europe |commons=y |q=y |s=y }}

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