View source for Northumbria

{{Short description|Medieval kingdom of the Angles}}
{{Hatnote group|   
{{Distinguish|Northumberland|Northumbria (modern)}}   
{{Other uses}}   
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{{Use British English|date=June 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox former country
| native_name            = {{native name|ang|Norþanhymbra rīċe}}<br>{{native name|la|Regnum Northanhymbrorum}}
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Northumbria
| common_name            = Northumbria
| status                 = State
| status_text            = '''Unified:'''<br>                                                                                                     Anglian kingdom (until 867; 872–876; 877–883; {{circa}} 910–{{circa}} 918)<br>[[Earl of Northumbria|Earldom]] of England (954–1066)<br>'''North:'''<br>[[Puppet state]] of the [[Danes (tribe)|Danes]] (867–872)<ref>{{Cite book |author-link=Symeon of Durham |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalworks00simegoog?view=theater#page/n82/mode/2up |title=The historical works of Simeon of Durham, tr., with preface and notes, by J. Stevenson |date=22 March 2025 |publisher=[[Oxford University]] |location=Oxford |publication-date=1855 |pages=489}}</ref><br>Independent Anglian kingdom (883–910)<ref name="Downham">Downham, Clare (2007), Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014, Edinburgh: Dunedin</ref><br>[[Autonomous territory]] of England (927–954)<ref>Williams, "Ealdred"; Woolf, ''From Pictland to Alba'', p. 158</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=esmeraldamac |date=2012-02-16 |title=The Treaty of Eamont Bridge in 927CE |url=https://esmeraldamac.wordpress.com/2012/02/16/the-treaty-of-eamont-bridge-in-927ce-or-the-first-british-union/ |access-date=2024-02-27 |website=Esmeralda's Cumbrian History & Folklore |language=en}}</ref><br/>'''South ([[Scandinavian York]]):'''<br>Danish kingdom (867–872; 876–877; 883–{{circa}} 910; 918–927; 939–944; 947–954)<br>Autonomous territory of England (927–939; 944–947)
<br/>'''Centre:'''<br>Danish kingdom (867–872; 876–877; [[County Palatine of Durham|Ecclesiastical liberty]]: 883–1066)

| life_span              = 
| image_coat             = 
| image_map              = Map of the Kingdom of Northumbria around 700 AD.svg
| image_map_size         = 250
| image_map_caption      = Northumbria at its greatest extent around 700
| image_map2             = 
| image_map2_size        = 
| image_map2_caption     = 
| government_type        = Monarchy
| year_start             = 654
| year_end               = 1066
| event_end              = [[Norman Conquest]]
| event_start            = Union of the crowns of Bernicia and Deira
| event1                 = Deira is conquered by Vikings{{sfn|Holdsworth|2014|p=341}}
| date_event1            = 867
| event2                 = Bernicia accepts the rule of King [[Æthelstan]]{{sfn|Holdsworth|2014|p=341}}
| date_event2            = 927
| event3                 = Last Viking king expelled by King [[Eadred]]{{sfn|Holdsworth|2014|p=341}}
| date_event3            = 954
| event4                 = 
| date_event4            = 
| p1                     = Bernicia
| border_p1              = no
| p2                     = Deira
| s1                     = Kingdom of England
| s2                     = Kingdom of Scotland
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = 
| common_languages       = [[Northumbrian Old English]]<br>[[Old Norse]]<br>[[Cumbric]]
| religion               = [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|Paganism]]{{nowrap| (before 7th century)}}<br />[[Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England|Christianity]]{{nowrap| (after 7th century)}}
| currency               = [[Sceat]], [[History of the English penny (c. 600 – 1066)|penny]]
| title_leader           = [[King of Northumbria]]
| year_leader1           = 
| leader1                = [[List of monarchs of Northumbria|Various]]
| today                  = {{tree list}}
* [[United Kingdom]]
** [[England]]
** [[Scotland]]
{{tree list/end}}
| demonym                = Northumbrian
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
}}
'''Northumbria''' ({{IPAc-en|n|ɔr|ˈ|θ|ʌ|m|b|r|i|ə}}<ref>{{langx|ang|Norþanhymbra rīċe}} {{IPA|ang|ˈnorˠðɑnˌhymbrɑ ˈriːt͡ʃe|}}; {{langx|la|Regnum Northanhymbrorum}}; {{harvnb|Bede|1898}} Book I, chapter 34</ref> was an [[early medieval]] [[Heptarchy|kingdom]] in what is now [[Northern England]] and [[Scottish Lowlands|South Scotland]].

The name derives from the ''Old English'' {{wikt-lang|ang|Norþanhymbre}} meaning "the people or province north of the Humber",<ref>{{harvnb|Bosworth|1898|p=725}}</ref> as opposed to the [[Southumbria|people south]] of the [[Humber|Humber Estuary]]. What was to become Northumbria started as two kingdoms, [[Deira]] in the south and [[Bernicia]] in the north. Conflict in the first half of the seventh century ended with the murder of the last king of Deira in 651, and Northumbria was thereafter unified under Bernician kings. 

At its height, the kingdom extended from the [[Humber]], [[Peak District]] and the [[River Mersey]] on the south to the [[Firth of Forth]] on the north. Northumbria ceased to be an independent kingdom in the mid-tenth century when Deira was conquered by the [[Danelaw|Danes]] and formed into the [[Kingdom of York]]. The rump [[Earl of Northumbria|Earldom of Bamburgh]] maintained control of Bernicia for a period of time; however, the area north of [[River Tweed|the Tweed]] was eventually absorbed into the medieval [[Kingdom of Scotland]] while the portion south of the Tweed was absorbed into the Kingdom of England as the county of [[Northumberland]] and [[County Palatine of Durham]].

==Kingdom (654–954)==
===Communities and divisions===
====Possible Celtic British origins====
The [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of Northumbria was originally two kingdoms divided approximately around the [[River Tees]]: [[Bernicia]] was to the north of the river and [[Deira]] to the south.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=44}}</ref> It is possible that both regions originated as native [[Celtic British]] kingdoms, which the [[Anglo-Saxon Settlement of Britain|Germanic settlers]] later conquered, although there is very little information about the infrastructure and culture of the British kingdoms themselves.<ref name="Rollason2003p81">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=81}}</ref> Much of the evidence for them comes from regional names that are British rather than Anglo-Saxon in origin. The names Deira and Bernicia are likely British in origin, for example, indicating that some British place names retained currency after the Anglo-Saxon migrations to Northumbria.{{efn|In addition to Bernicia and Deira, some other British place names are recorded for important Northumbrian locations. Northumbrian scholar [[Bede]] ({{circa|731}}) and Welsh ninth-century chronicler [[Nennius]] both provide British place names for centres of power. Nennius, for example, refers to the royal city of [[Bamburgh]] as Din Guaire.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|1969}} Book IV Chapter 19</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Nennius|2005}} para 62</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=81}}</ref><ref name="Rollason2003p81"/>}} There is also some archeological evidence to support British origins for the polities of Bernicia and Deira. In what would have been southern Bernicia, in the [[Cheviot Hills]], a hill fort at [[Yeavering]] Bell contains evidence that it was an important centre for first the British and later the Anglo-Saxons. The fort is originally pre-[[Ancient Rome|Roman]], dating back to the [[Iron Age]] at around the first century. In addition to signs of Roman occupation, the site contains evidence of timber buildings that pre-date Germanic settlement in the area that are probably signs of British settlement. Moreover, Brian Hope-Taylor has traced the origins of the name Yeavering, which looks deceptively English, back to the British gafr from Bede's mention of a township called Gefrin in the same area.<ref>{{harvnb|Hope-Taylor|1983|pp=15–16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=83–84}}</ref> Yeavering continued to be an important political centre after the Anglo-Saxons began settling in the north, as King [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]] had a royal palace at Yeavering.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book II, Chapter 14</ref>

Overall, English place-names dominate the Northumbrian landscape, suggesting the prevalence of an Anglo-Saxon elite culture by the time that Bede – Anglo-Saxon England's most prominent historian – was writing in the eighth century.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008|p=93}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=57–64}}</ref> According to Bede, the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]] were the predominant Germanic immigrants, who settled north of the Humber and gained political prominence during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book I, Chapter 15</ref> While the British natives may have partially assimilated into the Northumbrian political structure, relatively contemporary textual sources such as Bede's ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'' depict relations between Northumbrians and the [[Celtic Britons|British]] as fraught.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=100}}</ref>

====Unification of Bernicia and Deira====
The Anglo-Saxon states of Bernicia and Deira were often in conflict before their eventual semi-permanent unification in 651. Political power in Deira was concentrated in the East Riding of [[Yorkshire]], which included [[York]], the North York Moors, and the Vale of York.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=45–48}}</ref> The political heartlands of Bernicia were the areas around Bamburgh and [[Lindisfarne]], [[Monkwearmouth]] and [[Jarrow]], and in [[Cumbria]], west of the [[Pennines]] in the area around [[Carlisle, Cumbria|Carlisle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=48–52}}</ref> The name that these two states eventually united under, Northumbria, might have been coined by Bede and made popular through his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''.<ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|p=74}}</ref>

Information on the early royal genealogies for Bernicia and Deira comes from Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'' and Nennius' ''[[Historia Brittonum]]''. According to Nennius, the Bernician royal line begins with [[Ida of Bernicia|Ida]], son of [[Eoppa of Bernicia|Eoppa]].<ref>{{harvnb|Nennius|2005}} para 57, 59</ref> Ida reigned for twelve years (beginning in 547) and was able to annex Bamburgh to Bernicia.<ref>{{harvnb|Nennius|2005}} para 59</ref> In Nennius' genealogy of Deira, a king named Soemil was the first to separate Bernicia and Deira, which could mean that he wrested the kingdom of Deira from the native British.<ref name="Yorke1990p79">{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|p=79}}</ref> The date of this supposed separation is unknown. The first Deiran king to make an appearance in Bede's {{Lang|la|Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum}} is [[Ælla of Deira|Ælla]], the father of the first Christian Northumbrian king [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book II, Chapter 1</ref>

A king of Bernicia, Ida's grandson [[Æthelfrith]], was the first ruler to unite the two polities under his rule. He exiled the Deiran Edwin to the court of King [[Rædwald of East Anglia]] in order to claim both kingdoms, but Edwin returned in approximately 616 to conquer Northumbria with Rædwald's aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book II, Chapter 12</ref><ref name="Rollason2003p7">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=7}}</ref> Edwin, who ruled from approximately 616 to 633, was one of the last kings of the Deiran line to reign over all of Northumbria. Oswald's brother [[Oswiu]] eventually succeeded him to the Northumbrian throne despite initial attempts on Deira's part to pull away again.<ref name="Rollason2003p7"/> The last independent king of Deira was [[Oswine of Deira|Oswine]]. He was murdered by Oswiu in 651, and Northumbria was thereafter united under Bernician rule.{{sfn|Holdsworth|2014|p=340}}

While violent conflicts between Bernicia and Deira played a significant part in determining which line ultimately gained supremacy in Northumbria, marriage alliances also helped bind these two territories together. [[Æthelfrith]] married Edwin's sister [[Acha of Deira|Acha]], although this marriage did little to prevent future squabbles between the brothers-in-law and their descendants. The second intermarriage was more successful, with [[Oswiu]] marrying [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]]'s daughter and his own cousin [[Eanflæd]] to produce [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria|Ecgfrith]], the beginning of the Northumbrian line. However, Oswiu had another relationship with an Irish woman named Fina which produced the problematic Aldfrith.<ref name="Rollason2003p7"/> In his ''Life and Miracles of St. [[Cuthbert]],'' Bede declares that Aldfrith, known as Fland among the Irish, was illegitimate and therefore unfit to rule.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bede |title=The Life and Miracles of St. Cuthbert, Bishop of Lindisfarne |url=http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-cuthbert.asp |accessdate=23 March 2023 |website=Internet History Sourcebook |publisher=Fordham University: The Jesuit University of New York|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625103657/https://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-cuthbert.asp|archivedate=25 June 2016|url-status=dead|at=Chapter XXIV}}</ref>

====Northumbria and Norse settlement====
[[File:England 878.svg|thumb|150px|England in 878. The independent rump of the former Kingdom of Northumbria (yellow) was to the north of the Danelaw (pink).]]
The [[Viking activity in the British Isles|Viking invasions]] of the ninth century and the establishment of the [[Danelaw]] once again divided Northumbria. Although primarily recorded in the southern provinces of [[England]], the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]s (particularly the D and E recensions) provide some information on Northumbria's conflicts with [[Vikings]] in the late eighth and early ninth centuries. According to these chronicles, Viking raids began to affect Northumbria when a band attacked Lindisfarne in 793.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 793</ref> After this initial catastrophic blow, Viking raids in Northumbria were either sporadic for much of the early ninth century or evidence of them was lost.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=211}}</ref> However, in 865 the so-called [[Great Heathen Army]] landed in [[East Anglia]] and began a sustained campaign of conquest.<ref name="Rollason2003p212">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=212}}</ref><ref name="asc865">{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 865</ref> The Great Army fought in Northumbria in 866–867, striking [[York]] twice in less than one year. After the initial attack the Norse left to go north, leaving Kings Ælle and Osberht to recapture the city. The E recension of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle suggests that Northumbria was particularly vulnerable at this time because the Northumbrians were once again fighting amongst themselves, deposing Osberht in favour of Ælle.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 866–867</ref> In the second raid, the Vikings killed Kings Ælle and Osberht whilst recapturing the city.<ref name="Rollason2003p212"/>

After King [[Alfred the Great|Alfred]] re-established his control of southern England, the Norse invaders settled into what came to be known as the Danelaw in the [[The Midlands|Midlands]], [[East Anglia]], and the southern part of Northumbria.<ref name="Rollason2003p212"/> In Northumbria, the Norse established the [[Kingdom of York]] whose boundaries were roughly the River Tees and the Humber, giving it approximately the same dimensions as Deira.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=212–213}}</ref> Although this kingdom fell to [[Hiberno-Norse]] colonisers in the 920s and was in constant conflict with the West-Saxon expansionists from the south, it survived until 954 when the last Scandinavian king Eric, who is usually identified as [[Eric Bloodaxe]], was driven out and eventually killed.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=270}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=213}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Downham|2004}} reconsiders the Northumbrian Viking king known as Eric and his perhaps tenuous relationship to the Eric Bloodaxe of the sagas.</ref>

In contrast, the Great Army was not as successful in conquering territory north of the River Tees. There were raids that extended into that area, but no sources mention lasting Norse occupation and there are very few [[Old norse language|Scandinavian]] place names to indicate significant Norse settlement in northern regions of Northumbria.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=213,244}}</ref> The political landscape of the area north of the Tees during the Viking conquest of Northumbria consisted of the Community of [[St. Cuthbert]] and the remnants of the English Northumbrian elites.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=244}}</ref> While the religious Community of St. Cuthbert "wandered" for a hundred years after [[Halfdan Ragnarsson]] attacked their original home of Lindisfarne in 875, The [[Historia de Sancto Cuthberto|History of St. Cuthbert]] indicates that they settled temporarily at [[Chester-le-Street]] between the years 875–883 on land granted to them by the Viking King of York, [[Guthred]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=246–257}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=319}}</ref> According to the twelfth-century account ''Historia Regum'', Guthred granted them this land in exchange for establishing him as king. The land extended from the Tees to the Tyne and anyone who fled there from either the north or the south would receive sanctuary for thirty-seven days, indicating that the Community of St. Cuthbert had some juridical autonomy. Based on their positioning and this right of sanctuary, this community probably acted as a buffer between the Norse in southern Northumbria and the Anglo-Saxons who continued to hold the north.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|1885}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=183}}</ref>

North of the [[River Tyne|Tyne]], Northumbrians maintained partial political control in Bamburgh. The rule of kings continued in that area with [[Ecgberht I of Northumbria|Ecgberht I]] acting as regent around 867 and the kings [[Ricsige of Northumbria|Ricsige]] and [[Ecgberht II of Northumbria|Ecgberht II]] immediately following him.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=249}}</ref> According to twelfth-century historian [[Symeon of Durham]], Ecgberht I was a client-king for the Norse. The Northumbrians revolted against him in 872, deposing him in favour of Ricsige.<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|1885}} 867, 872</ref> Although the A and E recensions of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' report that Halfdan was able to take control of Deira and take a raiding party north of the River Tyne to impose his rule on Bernicia in 874, after Halfdan's death ({{circa|877}}) the Norse had difficulty holding on to territory in northern Bernicia.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} 874</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=181}}</ref> Ricsige and his successor Ecgberht were able to maintain an English presence in Northumbria. After the reign of Ecgberht II, [[Eadwulf II of Northumbria|Eadwulf]] "King of the North Saxons" (r. 890–912) succeeded him for control of Bamburgh, but after Eadwulf's death rulership of this area switched over to earls who were possible kinsmen or direct descendants of the royal Northumbrian house.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=249}} For the epithet, see also the [[Annals of Ulster]].</ref>

===Kings===
{{main|List of monarchs of Northumbria}}

====Æthelfrith (r. 593–616)====
{{main|Æthelfrith}}
[[Æthelfrith]] was the first Anglo-Saxon leader to hold the thrones of both [[Deira]] and [[Bernicia]],<ref>{{harvnb|Kirby|1991|pp=60–61}}</ref> and so he ruled over all the people north of the [[Humber]]. His rule was notable for his numerous victories over the [[British people|Britons]] and the [[Gaels]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book I chapter 34</ref>

====Edwin (r. 616–633)====
{{main|Edwin of Northumbria}}
[[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]], like Æthelfrith, was king of both Deira and Bernicia and ruled them from 616 to 633. Under his reign, the [[Isle of Man]] and the lands of [[Gwynedd]] in Northern Wales were incorporated into Northumbria. Edwin married [[Æthelburh of Kent|Æthelburh]], a Christian Princess from [[Kent]] in 625. He converted to Christianity two years later after a period of heavy consideration and after consulting numerous advisors.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} II.9–14</ref> Edwin fell in battle in 633 against [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan|Cadwallon of Gwynedd]] and the pagan [[Penda of Mercia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=124}}</ref> He was venerated as a saint and martyr after his death.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} II.20, III.24</ref>

====Oswald (r. 634–642)====
{{main|Oswald of Northumbria}}
Oswald was a king of Bernicia, who regained the kingdom of Deira after defeating [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan|Cadwallon]] in 634. Oswald then ruled Northumbria until his death in 642. A devout Christian, Oswald worked tirelessly to spread the faith in his traditionally pagan lands. It was during his reign that the monastery at [[Lindisfarne]] was created. Oswald fell in the Battle of [[Maserfield]] against [[Penda of Mercia]] in 642 but his influence endured because, like Edwin, Oswald was venerated as a saint after his death.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} III.1–13</ref>

====Oswiu (r. 642–670)====
{{main|Oswiu}}
Oswiu was the brother of Oswald and succeeded him after the latter's defeat in [[Maserfield]]. Oswiu succeeded where Edwin and Oswald failed as, in 655, he slew Penda during the [[Battle of the Winwaed]], making him the first Northumbrian King also to control the kingdom of [[Mercia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|pp=78–9}}</ref> During his reign, he presided over the [[Synod of Whitby]], an attempt to reconcile religious differences between Roman and Celtic Christianity, in which he eventually backed Rome.<ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|1990|}}</ref> Oswiu died from illness in 670 and divided Deira and Bernicia between two of his sons.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} IV.5</ref> His son [[Aldfrith of Northumbria]] took over the throne upon his death.

==== Eadberht (r. 738–758) ====
[[Eadberht of Northumbria]], the brother of [[Ecgbert of York|Ecgbert]], [[Archbishop of York]], is seen by some historians as a return to the imperial ambitions of seventh-century Northumbria and his reign may represent a period of economic prosperity. He faced internal opposition from rival dynasties and at least two actual or potential rivals were killed during his reign. In 758 he abdicated in favour of his son [[Oswulf of Northumbria|Oswulf]] and became a monk at York. Oswulf was murdered the next year and [[Æthelwald Moll of Northumbria]] seized the throne, which he occupied for seven years until he was deposed by [[Alhred]]. [[Æthelred I of Northumbria]], son of Æthelwald, reigned for 10 interrupted years to 796.

====Halfdan Ragnarsson (r. 876–877)====
{{main|Halfdan Ragnarsson}}
Halfdan Ragnarsson was a Viking leader of the Great Heathen Army which invaded England in 865.<ref>{{harvnb|Venning|2014|p=132}}</ref> He allegedly wanted revenge against Northumbria for the death of his father, who was supposedly killed by [[Ælla of Northumbria]].<ref>{{harvnb|Munch|Olsen|1926|pp=245–251}}</ref> While he himself only ruled Northumbria directly for about a year in 876, he placed [[Ecgberht I of Northumbria|Ecgberht]] on the throne as a client-king, who ruled from 867 to 872.<ref>{{harvnb|Stevenson|1885|p=489}}</ref> Halfdan was killed in Ireland in 877 whilst trying to regain control over [[Early Scandinavian Dublin|Dyflin (Dublin)]], a land he had ruled since 875. There were no further Viking kings in Northumbria until [[Guthred|Guthfrith]] took over in 883.<ref>{{harvnb|Lapidge|Blair|Keynes|Scragg|2013|p=526}}</ref>

====Æthelstan of Wessex (r. 927–939)====
{{main|Æthelstan}}
Æthelstan ruled as [[King of the Anglo-Saxons]] from 924 to 927 and [[King of the English]] from 927 to 939. The shift in his title reflects that in 927, Æthelstan conquered the Viking Kingdom of [[York]], previously part of the Northumbrian Kingdom.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Foot|2011|p=40}}</ref> His reign was quite prosperous and saw great strides in many fields such as law and economics, but was also characterized by frequent clashes with the [[Scottish people|Scots]] and the Vikings.<ref name="auto"/> Æthelstan died in 939, which led to the Vikings' retaking of York. Æthelstan is widely considered one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings for his efforts to consolidate the English kingdom and the prosperity his reign brought.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturluson|1964|pp=42–43}}</ref>

====Eric of York (r. 947–948, 952–954)====
{{main|Eric Bloodaxe}}
In the early twentieth century, historians identified Eric of York with the Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe, although more recent scholarship has challenged this association.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} He held two short terms as King of Northumbria, from 947 to 948 and 952 to 954.{{efn|Although the Northumbrian king Eric was conflated with King Eric Bloodaxe of Norway in Icelandic sagas, [[Clare Downham]] and others have recently argued that the two were separate people. For a discussion of this shift in identification, see Downham, Clare 2004 "Eric Bloodaxe – Axed? The Mystery of the Last Scandinavian King of York", ''Medieval Scandinavia'', vol. 14, pp. 51–77}} Historical documentation on his reign is scarce, but it seems Eric pushed out the joint English-Viking rulers of Northumbria in 947,<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} MS D 940</ref> who then regained the land in 948 or 949. Eric took back the throne in 952, only to be deposed again in 954.<ref>{{harvnb|Swanton|1996}} MS D & E 954</ref> Eric was the last Viking king of Northumbria and his authority only extended to the southern [[Scandinavian York|kingdom of York]]. In 954 he was murdered, allegedly with the connivance of [[Oswulf I of Bamburgh|Oswulf]], the Anglo-Saxon ruler of the northern Northumbrian territory of Bamburgh.{{sfn|Rollason|2003|pp=265-266}}

====Eadred of Wessex (r. 946–954)====
{{main|Eadred}}
King Eadred was the half-brother of [[Æthelstan]] and full brother of [[Edmund I|Edmund]], all of whom were sons of King [[Edward the Elder]]. Eadred inherited the rule of Northumbria, but like Edmund lost it soon afterwards. When Eadred finally regained control in 954, he appointed Oswulf earl of the whole of Northumbria.{{sfn|Rollason|2003|pp=266-267}}

===Politics and war===
{{main|List of monarchs of Northumbria}}
Between 737&nbsp;and 806, Northumbria had ten kings,<ref>{{harvnb|Petts|Turner|2011|pp=14–27}}</ref> all of whom were murdered, deposed, or exiled or became monks. Between [[Oswiu]], the first king of Northumbria in 651, and [[Eric Bloodaxe]], the last king of Northumbria in 954, there were forty-five kings, meaning that the average length of reign during the entire history of Northumbria is only six and a half years. Of the twenty-five kings before the Danish rule of Northumbria, only four died of natural causes. Of those that did not abdicate for a holy life, the rest were either deposed, exiled, or murdered. Kings during the Danish rule of Northumbria (see [[Danelaw]]) were often either kings of a larger North Sea or Danish empire, or were installed rulers.<ref>{{harvnb|Downham|2007|pp=40}}</ref>

Succession in Northumbria was hereditary,<ref>{{harvnb|Petts|Turner|2011|p=27}}</ref> which left princes whose fathers died before they could come of age particularly susceptible to assassination and usurpation. A noteworthy example of this phenomenon is Osred, whose father Aldfrith died in 705, leaving the young boy to rule. He survived one assassination attempt early in his rule, but fell victim to another assassin at the age of nineteen. During his reign he was adopted by Wilfrid, a powerful bishop.<ref>{{Harvnb|Higham|1993|pp=81–90}}</ref> Ecclesiastical influence in the royal court was not an unusual phenomenon in Northumbria, and usually was most visible during the rule of a young or inexperienced king. Similarly, ealdorman, or royal advisors, had periods of increased or decreased power in Northumbria, depending on who was ruling at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Fairless|1994|pp= 10–16}}</ref>

Warfare in Northumbria before the Danish period largely consisted of rivalries with the [[Picts]] to the north. The Northumbrians were successful against the Picts until the [[Battle of Dun Nechtain]] in 685, which halted their expansion north and established a border between the two kingdoms.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Parsons|first=Julie|date=4 May 2002|title=The First Battle for Scottish Independence: The Battle of Dunnichen, A.D.&nbsp;685. |type=MA thesis |publisher=East Tennessee State University |url=https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/657}}</ref> Warfare during the Danish period was dominated by warfare between the Northumbrians and other English Kingdoms.

==Ealdormen and earldoms of Northumbria==
{{main|Earl of Northumbria}}
{{see also|Ealdorman}}
After the English from Wessex absorbed the Danish-ruled territories south of the Tees, Scots invasions reduced the rump Northumbria to an earldom stretching from the Tyne to the Tweed. The surviving Earldom of Northumbria, alongside the [[County Palatine of Durham|Haliwerfolk]] between the Tyne and Tees, were then disputed between the emerging kingdoms of [[England]] and [[Scotland]], with the Earldom being split roughly in half along the [[River Tweed]].

==Religion==
===Roman and post-Roman Britain===
Under [[Roman Britain|Roman]] rule, some [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] north of the [[Humber]] practised Christianity. York had a [[Archbishop of York|bishop]] as early as the fourth century.<ref>{{harvnb|Clutton-Brock|1899|p=6}}</ref> After the [[End of Roman rule in Britain|Romans left Britain]] in the early fifth century, Christianity did not disappear,<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=65}}</ref> but it existed alongside Celtic paganism,<ref>{{harvnb|MacLean|1997|pp=88–89}}</ref> and possibly many other cults.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|pp=132–133}}</ref> Anglo-Saxons brought their own Germanic pagan beliefs and practices when they settled there. At [[Yeavering]], in [[Bernicia]], excavations have uncovered evidence of a pagan shrine, animal sacrifice, and ritual burials.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=102}}</ref>

=== Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity ===
The first King of Northumbria to convert to Christianity was [[Edwin of Northumbria|King Edwin]]. He was baptized by [[Paulinus of York|Paulinus]] in 627.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008|p=96}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, many of his people followed his conversion to the new religion, only to return to paganism when Edwin was killed in 633. Paulinus was [[Archbishop of York|Bishop of York]], but only for a year.<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|p=207}}</ref>

The lasting conversion of Northumbria took place under the guidance of the Irish cleric [[Aidan of Lindisfarne|Aidan]]. He converted [[Oswald of Northumbria|King Oswald]] of Northumbria in 635, and then worked to convert the people of Northumbria.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008|loc=III. 5}}</ref> King Oswald moved the bishopric from York to [[Lindisfarne]].<ref name="auto1"/>

===Monasteries and figures of note===
The monastery at [[Lindisfarne]] was founded by Aidan in 635, and based on the practices of the Columban monastery in Iona, Scotland.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=156}}</ref> The location of the bishopric shifted to Lindisfarne, and it became the centre for religion in Northumbria. The bishopric would not leave Lindisfarne and shift back to its original location at York until 664.<ref name="auto1"/> Throughout the eighth century, Lindisfarne was associated with important figures. Aidan, the founder, [[Wilfrid]], a student, and [[Cuthbert]], a member of the order and a hermit, all became bishops and later Saints. Aidan assisted [[Hieu]] to found her double monastery at [[Hartlepool]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=171}}</ref> She too came to be venerated as a saint.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|1866}}Volume IX 6 September</ref>

The Christianity culture of Northumbria was influenced by the continent as well as [[Ireland]]. In particular, Wilfrid travelled to [[Rome]] and abandoned the traditions of the [[Celtic church]] in favour of Roman practices. When he returned to [[England]], he became abbot of a new monastery at [[Ripon]] in 660. Wilfrid advocated acceptance of the authority of Rome at the [[Synod of Whitby]]. The two-halves of the double monastery [[Monkwearmouth–Jarrow]] were founded by the nobleman [[Benedict Biscop]] in 673 and 681. Biscop became the first abbot of the monastery, and travelled to Rome six times to buy books for the library.<ref name="Lapidge2006p35">{{harvnb|Lapidge|2006|p=35}}</ref> His successor, Abbot [[Ceolfrith]], continued to add to the library until by one estimate the library at Monkwearmouth–Jarrow had over two hundred volumes.<ref name="Lapidge2006p35"/> One who benefited from this library was Bede.<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|2008|pp=viii–ix}}</ref>

In the early seventh century in York, [[Paulinus of York|Paulinus]] founded a school and a minster but not a monastery. The School at York Minster is one of the oldest in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Leach|1915|pp=41}}</ref> By the late eighth century, the school had a noteworthy library, estimated at one hundred volumes.<ref>{{harvnb|Lapidge|2006|p=41}}</ref> [[Alcuin]] was a student and teacher at York before he left for the court of [[Charlemagne]] in 782.<ref>{{harvnb|Lapidge|2006|p=40}}</ref>

===Synod of Whitby===
{{main|Synod of Whitby}}
In 664, King [[Oswiu]] called the Synod of Whitby to determine whether to follow Roman or Irish customs. Since Northumbria was converted to Christianity by the Celtic clergy, the Celtic tradition for determining the date of [[Easter]] and Irish tonsure were supported by many, particularly by the Abbey of [[Lindisfarne]]. Roman Christianity was also represented in Northumbria, by [[Wilfrid]], Abbot of [[Ripon]].  By the year 620, both sides were associating the other's Easter observance with the Pelagian Heresy.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=114}}</ref> The King decided at Whitby that Roman practice would be adopted throughout Northumbria, thereby bringing Northumbria in line with Southern England and Western Europe.<ref name="auto2">{{harvnb|Bede|2008}} Book III chapter 25–26</ref> Members of the clergy who refused to conform, including the Celtic Bishop Colman of Lindisfarne, returned to Iona.<ref name="auto2"/> The episcopal seat of Northumbria transferred from Lindisfarne to York, which later became an [[Archbishop of York|archbishopric]] in 735.<ref name="auto3">{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=239}}</ref>

===Impact of Scandinavian raiding, settlement and culture ===
The [[Lindisfarne#Vikings|Viking attack on Lindisfarne]] in 793 was the first of many raids on monasteries of Northumbria. The [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] survived, but monastic culture in Northumbria went into a period of decline in the early ninth century. Repeated Viking assaults on religious centres were one reason for the decrease in production of manuscripts and communal monastic culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|p=318}}</ref>

After 867, Northumbria came under control of the Scandinavian forces, and there was an influx of Scandinavian immigrants.<ref>{{harvnb|Higham|1993|p=178}}</ref> Their religion was pagan and had a rich mythology.  Within the Kingdom of York, once the raids and war were over, there is no evidence that the presence of Scandinavian settlers interrupted Christian practice. It appears that they gradually adopted Christianity and blended their Scandinavian culture with their new religion. This can be seen in carved stone monuments and ring-headed crosses, such as the [[Gosforth Cross]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=237–239}}</ref> During the ninth and tenth centuries, there was an increase in the number of [[parish church]]es, often including stone sculptures incorporating Scandinavian designs.<ref name="auto3"/>

==Culture==
[[File:LindisfarneFol27rIncipitMatt.jpg|left|thumb|220px|upright|Page from the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]], {{circa|700}}, featuring zoomorphic knot-work.]]
[[File:DurhamAII10_folio_3v.png|thumb|250px|The colophon to the [[Gospel of Matthew]] from the Durham Gospel Fragment, featuring non-zoomorphic interlace patterns.]]
[[File:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg|thumb|The Book of Kells, (folio 292r), {{circa|800}}, showing the lavishly decorated text that opens the [[Gospel of John]]]]

===Golden Age of Northumbria===
{{main|Northumbria's Golden Age}}
The Christian culture of Northumbria, fuelled by influences from the continent and Ireland, promoted a broad range of literary and artistic works.

===Insular art===
The Irish monks who converted Northumbria to Christianity, and established monasteries such as [[Lindisfarne]], brought a style of artistic and literary production.<ref>{{harvnb|Neuman de Vegvar|1990|}}</ref> [[Eadfrith of Lindisfarne]] produced the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] in an Insular style.<ref>{{harvnb|Rollason|2003|pp=140}}</ref>

The Irish monks brought with them an ancient Celtic decorative tradition of curvilinear forms of spirals, scrolls, and doubles curves. This style was integrated with the abstract ornamentation of the native pagan Anglo-Saxon metalwork tradition, characterized by its bright colouring and [[zoomorphic]] interlace patterns.<ref>{{cite web
    |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Anglo-Saxon-art
    |title=Anglo-Saxon art
    |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online
    |year=2016
    }}</ref>

Insular art, rich in symbolism and meaning, is characterized by its concern for geometric design rather than naturalistic representation, love of flat areas of colour, and use of complicated interlace patterns.<ref>{{cite web
    |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Hiberno-Saxon-style
    |title=Hiberno-Saxon style
    |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online
    |access-date=13 May 2016
}}</ref> All of these elements appear in the Lindisfarne Gospels (early eighth century). The Insular style was eventually imported to the European continent, exercising great influence on the art of the [[Carolingian art|Carolingian empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pächt|1986|pp=72–73}}</ref>

[[File:Sword Pommel from the Bedale Hoard YORYM 2014 149 1-1.jpg|right|thumb|Sword pommel from the [[Bedale Hoard]], inlaid with gold foil.]]
Usage of the Insular style was not limited to manuscript production and metalwork. It can be seen in and sculpture, such as the [[Ruthwell Cross]] and [[Bewcastle Cross]]. The devastating [[Lindisfarne#Vikings|Viking raid on Lindisfarne]] in 793 marked the beginning of a century of Viking invasions that severely limited the production and survival of Anglo-Saxon material culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Owen-Crocker|1986|p=28}}</ref> It heralded the end of Northumbria's position as a centre of influence, although in the years immediately following visually rich works like the [[Easby Cross]] were still being produced.

===Literature===
The Venerable [[Bede]] (673–735) is the most famous author of the Anglo-Saxon Period, and a native of Northumbria. His {{lang|la|[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People|Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]}} (''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', completed in 731) has become both a template for later historians and a crucial historical account in its own right,<ref name=Worm29>{{harvnb|Wormald|1999|p= 29}}</ref> and much of it focuses on Northumbria.<ref>{{harvnb|Goffart|2005|p=238}}</ref><ref name=Bede69>{{harvnb|Bede|1969}}</ref> He's also famous for his theological works, and verse and prose accounts of holy lives.<ref name=Goffart245>{{harvnb|Goffart|1988|pp= 245–246}}</ref> After the [[Synod of Whitby]], the role of the European continent gained importance in Northumbrian culture. During the end of the eighth century, the scriptorium at [[Monkwearmouth–Jarrow Abbey|Monkwearmouth–Jarrow]] was producing manuscripts of his works for high demand on the Continent.<ref>{{harvnb|Lapidge|2006|p=44}}</ref>

Northumbria was also home to several Anglo-Saxon [[Christian poetry|Christian poets]]. [[Cædmon]] lived at the [[double monastery]] of Streonæshalch ([[Whitby Abbey]]) during the abbacy (657–680) of [[Hilda of Whitby|St. Hilda]] (614–680). According to Bede, he "was wont to make religious verses, so that whatever was interpreted to him out of [[Bible|scripture]], he soon after put the same into poetical expressions of much sweetness and humility in [[Old English|English]], which was his native language. By his verse the minds of many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven."<ref name=Bede69Caedmon>{{harvnb|Bede|1969}} Book 4 Chapter 24</ref> His sole surviving work is [[Cædmon's Hymn]]. [[Cynewulf]], prolific author of ''[[The Fates of the Apostles]]'', ''[[Juliana (poem)|Juliana]]'', [[Elene (poem)|''Elene'']], and [[Christ II (poem)|''Christ II'']], is believed to have been either Northumbrian or [[Mercia]]n.<ref>{{harvnb|Gradon|1958|pp= 9–14}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Woolf|1955|pp= 2–6}}</ref>
[[File:Gosforth cross.jpg|left|thumb|472x472px|Gosforth Cross, view from the north-west]]

===Scandinavians and the Danelaw===
From around 800, there had been waves of Danish raids on the coastlines of the British Isles.<ref name="asc865"/> These raids terrorized the populace, but exposure to Danish society brought new opportunities for wealth and trade.<ref name=fleming213>{{harvnb|Fleming|2010|pp=213–240}}</ref> In 865, instead of raiding, the Danes landed a large army in East Anglia, and had conquered a territory known as the [[Danelaw]], including Northumbria, by 867.<ref name="asc865"/><ref>{{harvnb|Roger of Wendover|1842|pp=298–299}}</ref> At first, the [[Scandinavia]]n minority, while politically powerful, remained culturally distinct from the English populace. For example, only a few Scandinavian words, mostly military and technical, became part of [[Old English]]. By the early 900s, however, Scandinavian-style names for both people and places became increasingly popular, as did Scandinavian ornamentation on works of art, featuring aspects of Norse mythology, and figures of animals and warriors. Nevertheless, sporadic references to "Danes" in charters, chronicles, and laws indicate that during the lifetime of the Kingdom of Northumbria, most inhabitants of northeast England did not consider themselves Danish, and were not perceived as such by other Anglo-Saxons.<ref>{{harvnb|Hadley|2002}}</ref>

The synthesis of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian and Christian and Pagan [[Motif (visual arts)|visual motifs]] within the Danelaw can be illustrated by an examination of stone sculpture. However, the tradition of mixing pagan and Christian motifs is not unique to the Danelaw, and examples of such synthesis can be seen in previous examples, such as the Franks Casket. The [[Franks Casket]], believed to have been produced in Northumbria, includes depictions of Germanic legends and stories of the founding Roman and the Roman Church and is dated to the early eighth century.<ref>{{harvnb|Karkov|2011|pp=149–152}}</ref> The Gosforth Cross, dated to the early tenth century, stands at {{convert|4.4|m|order=flip}} and is richly decorated with carvings of mythical beasts, Norse gods, and Christian symbolism.<ref>{{harvnb|Berg|1958|pp=27–30}}</ref> Stone sculpture was not a practice of native Scandinavian culture, and the proliferation of stone monuments within the Danelaw shows the influence that the English had on Viking settlers. On one side of the Gosforth Cross is a depiction of the Crucifixion; whilst on the other are scenes from Ragnarok. The melding of these distinctive religious cultures can further be seen in the depiction of Mary Magdalene as a valkyrie, with a trailing dress and long pigtail.<ref>{{harvnb|Richards|1991|pp=121}}</ref> Although one can read the iconography as the triumph of Christianity over paganism, it is possible that in the process of gradual conversion the Vikings might have initially accepted the Christian god as an addition to the broad pantheon of pagan gods.<ref>{{harvnb|Richards|1991|pp=123}}</ref> The inclusion of pagan traditions in visual culture reflects the creation of a distinctive [[Anglo-Scandinavian]] culture. Consequently, this indicates that conversion not only required a change in belief, but also necessitated its assimilation, integration, and modification into existing cultural structures.<ref>{{harvnb|Carver|2005|pp=36}}</ref>

==Economy==
[[File:Coin of Aldfrith.png|thumb|right|Silver sceatta of Aldfrith of Northumbria (686–705). OBVERSE: +AldFRIdUS, pellet-in-annulet; REVERSE: Lion with forked tail standing left.]]Northumbria's economy centred around agriculture, with livestock and land being popular units of value in local trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawyer|2013|pp=1–4}}</ref> By the mid 800s, the [[Open field system]] was likely the pre-eminent mode of farming. Like much of eastern England, Northumbria exported grain, silver, hides, and slaves.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawyer|2013|p=33}}</ref> Imports from Frankia included oil, luxury goods, and clerical supplies in the 700s.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawyer|2013|pp=64–67}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Allot|1974}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Alcuinus|2006}}</ref> Especially after 793, raids, gifts, and trade with Scandinavians resulted in substantial economic ties across the [[North Sea]].
[[File:Copper_alloy_styca_of_King_Osberht_(YORYM_2001_3265)_obverse.jpg|thumb|Copper alloy styca of King Osberht (YORYM 2001 3265) obverse]]
When [[Coinage in Anglo-Saxon England|coinage]] (as opposed to bartering) regained popularity in the late 600s, Northumbrian coins featured kings' names, indicating royal control of currency. Royal currency was unique in Britain for a long time. [[Aldfrith of Northumbria|King Aldfrith]] (685–705) minted Northumbria's earliest silver coins, likely in York. Later royal coinage bears the name of [[Eadberht of Northumbria|King Eadberht]] (738–758), as well as his brother, Archbishop [[Ecgbert of York]].<ref name="Wood28">{{harvnb|Wood|2008|p=28}}</ref> These coins were primarily small silver [[sceat]]tas, more suitable to small, everyday transactions than larger gold Frankish or Roman coins.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawyer|2013|p=34}}</ref> During the reign of [[Eanred of Northumbria|King Eanred]] the silver content of the coins declined until they were produced in copper alloy, these coins are commonly known as [[styca]]s, but the term is an antiquarian invention.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pirie|first=E.&nbsp;J. E|year=1982|title=THE RIPON HOARD, 1695: CONTEMPORARY AND CURRENT INTEREST|url=https://www.britnumsoc.org/publications/Digital%20BNJ/pdfs/1982_BNJ_52_8.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.britnumsoc.org/publications/Digital%20BNJ/pdfs/1982_BNJ_52_8.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|journal=British Numismatic Journal|volume=52}}</ref> Stycas remains in use throughout the kingdom until at least the 860s and possibly later.<ref>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Gareth|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1047651834|title=A riverine site near York : a possible Viking camp?|year=2020|others=Gareth Williams|isbn=978-0-86159-224-1|location=London|page=79|oclc=1047651834}}</ref> Larger [[bullion]] values can be seen in the silver ingots found in the [[Bedale Hoard]], along with sword fittings and necklaces in gold and silver.<ref>{{harvnb|Ager|2012}}</ref>

==Language==
{{see also|Northumbrian Old English}}
In the time of [[Bede]], there were five languages in Britain: [[Old English|English]], [[Brittonic languages|British]], [[Old Irish|Irish]], [[Pictish language|Pictish]], and [[Medieval Latin|Latin]].{{efn|"At the present time, there are five languages in Britain, just as the divine law is written in five books, all devoted to seeking out and setting forth one and the same kind of wisdom, namely the knowledge of sublime truth and of true sublimity. These are the English, British, Irish, Pictish, as well as the Latin languages".}}<ref>{{harvnb|Bede|1990|pp=152}}</ref> [[Northumbrian Old English|Northumbrian]] was one of four distinct dialects of [[Old English]], along with [[Mercian dialect|Mercian]], [[West Saxon dialect|West Saxon]], and [[Kentish dialect|Kentish]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baugh|2002|pp=71}}</ref> Analysis of written texts, brooches, runes and other available sources shows that Northumbrian vowel pronunciation differed from West Saxon.<ref>{{harvnb|Cuesta|Ledesma|Silva|2008|pp=140}}</ref> 
Although loans borrowed from the [[Celtic Languages]], such as the [[Common Brittonic]] language of the Britons, and the [[Old Irish]] of the [[Celtic Christianity|Irish missionaries]], into Old English were few, some place-names such as [[Deira]] and [[Bernicia]] derive their names from Celtic tribal origins.<ref>{{harvnb|Baugh|2002|pp=68–69}}</ref>
In addition to the five languages present in Bede's day, [[Old Norse]] was added during the ninth century. This was due to the settlements of the [[wikt:Norse|Norse]] in the north and east of England, an area that became the [[Danelaw]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baugh|2002|pp=85}}</ref> This language had a strong influence on the dialect of Northumbria.<ref>{{harvnb|Baugh|2002|pp=93}}</ref> These settlers gave the region many place-names from their language as well as contributing to the vocabulary, syntax, and grammar of Old English. Similarities in basic vocabulary between Old English and Old Norse may have led to the dropping of their different inflectional endings.<ref>{{harvnb|Baugh|2002|pp=94}}</ref> The number of borrowed words is conservatively estimated to be around nine-hundred in [[standard English]] but rises to the thousands in some dialects.<ref>{{harvnb|Baugh|2002|pp=95}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Anglo-Saxon England}}
* [[English of Northumbria]]
* [[Geordie dialect words]]
* [[Hen Ogledd]]
* [[History of Northumberland]]
* [[Northumbrian music]]
* [[Northumbrian smallpipes]]
* [[Northumbrian tartan]]

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
===Primary sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web|url=https://finds.org.uk/database/artefacts/record/id/504460
    |title=Record ID: YORYM-CEE620 – Early Medieval hoard
    |access-date=13 May 2016
    |website=Portable Antiquities Scheme
    |last=Ager
    |first=B.&nbsp;M.
    |year=2012
    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Allot
    |first=Stephen
    |year=1974
    |title=Alcuin of York: His Life and Letters
    |publisher= William Sessions Limited
    |isbn=978-0900657214
    |title-link=Alcuin
    }}
* {{cite web
    | url =http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/30_10_0735-0804-_Alcuinus,_Flaccus_Albinus.html
    | title =Excerpta ex Migne Patrologia Latina: Latinum - Latino - Latin
    | last=Alcuinus
    | first =Flaccus Albinus
    | year=2006
    | website =Documenta Catholica Omnia
    | publisher =Cooperatorum Veritatis Societas
    | access-date =3 April 2016
}}
* {{cite book
    |author=Bede
    |editor-last1=Colgrave
    |editor-first1=Bertram
    |editor1-link=Bertram Colgrave
    |editor-last2=Mynors
    |editor-first2=R.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;B.
    |editor2-link=R. A. B. Mynors
    |title= Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
    |location= Oxford
    |publisher=Clarendon Press
    |year=1969
    |isbn= 978-0-19-822202-6
    |title-link=Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum
    }} (Parallel Latin text and English translation with English notes.)
* {{cite book
    |author=Bede
    |editor1=Colgrave, Bertram
    |editor1-link=Bertram Colgrave
    |editor2=McClure
    |editor3=Collins
    |title= Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
    |location= Oxford
    |publisher=Oxford University Press
    |year=2008
    |isbn=  978-0199537235
    |title-link=Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author=Bede
    |editor=Miller, Thomas<!--1839-1900, Fellow of Queens' Cambridge, later Reader at Göttingen and at Strasbourg-->
    |editor-link=Thomas Nolan Miller
    |title=The Old English Version of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
    |series=Early English Text Society. Original series, no. 95–96, 110–111
 |location= London
    |publisher=Published for the Early English Text Society by Oxford University Press
    |year=1898
    |hdl=2027/yale.39002053190329
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author=Bede
    |editor=Latham, R. E.
    |others=Translated by [[Leo Sherley-Price]]
    |title= Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
    |location= London
    |publisher=Penguin Books
    |year=1990
    |isbn=9780140445657
    |title-link=Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author=Bede
    |first2=Eddius
    |last2=Stephanus
    |first3=David Hugh
    |last3=Farmer
    |title=The Age of Bede
    |location= Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England
    |publisher=Penguin
    |year=1983
    |isbn=  9780140444377
    |author2-link=Stephen of Ripon
 }}
* {{cite book
    |editor-first=Thomas
    |editor-last=Arnold
    |translator-last=Stevenson
    |translator-first=J.
    |series=Symeonis Monachi Opera Omnia
    |volume=2
    |title= Historia Regum (Anglorum et Dacorum)
    |location= London
    |year=1885
    |pages=1–283
    |title-link=Historia Regum
    }}
* {{cite book
    |editor-last=Coxe
    |editor-first=Henricus
    |author=Roger of Wendover
    |title=Flores Historiarum
    |year=1842
    |publisher=Sumptibus Societatis
    |title-link=Flores Historiarum
    |author-link=Roger of Wendover
 }}
* {{cite book
    |author=Nennius
    |translator-first=Richard
    |translator-last=Rowley
    |title=Historia Brittonum (The History of the Britons)
    |location= Cribyn
    |publisher=Llanerch Press
    |year=2005
    |isbn=  9781861431394
    |title-link=Historia Brittonum
    |author-link=Nennius
 }}
* {{cite book
    |editor-last=Stevenson
    |editor-first=Joseph
    |title=The Historical Works of Simeon of Durham
    |volume=3
    |series=The Church Historians of England
    |location= London
    |year=1885
    |pages=425–617
    |url=https://archive.org/details/churchhistorpt203unknuoft
    |publisher=London] Seeleys
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-last=Sturluson
    |author-first=Snorri
    |editor-last=Hollander
    |editor-first=Lee M.
    |title=Heimskringla; history of the kings of Norway.
    |location=Austin
    |publisher=Published for the American-Scandinavian Foundation by the University of Texas Press
    |year=1964
    |isbn=  9780292732629
    }}
* {{cite book
    |editor-first=Michael
    |editor-last=Swanton
    |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
    |location=London
    |publisher=Dent
    |year=1996
    |isbn=9780460877374
    |title-link=Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
    }}
{{Refend}}

===Secondary sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web
    |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Anglo-Saxon-art
    |title=Anglo-Saxon art
    |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online
    |year=2016
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Max
    |author-last=Adams
    |title=The King in the North : the life and times of Oswald of Northumbria
    |location=London
    |publisher=Head of Zeus
    |year=2014
    |isbn=9781781854204
    }}
* {{cite book
    |first=Martin
    |last=Carver
    |title=The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD&nbsp;300-1300
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4YKrpH222eYC
    |year=2005
    |publisher=Boydell Press
    |isbn=978-1-84383-125-9
    }}
* {{cite book
    |title=Cynewulf's Elene
    |editor-first=P.&nbsp;O.&nbsp;E.
    |editor-last=Gradon
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJMZMwEACAAJ
    |year=1958
    |location=London
    |publisher=Methuen
    |isbn=9781800857230
 }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=N.&nbsp;J.
    |author-last=Higham
    |title=The kingdom of Northumbria : AD&nbsp;350–1100
    |location=Dover, NH
    |publisher=A. Sutton
    |year=1993
    |isbn=9780862997304
    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Bosworth
    |first=Joseph
    |title=An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary: Based on the Manuscript Collections of the Late Joseph Bosworth
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m_o3AQAAMAAJ
    |year=1898
    |publisher=Clarendon Press
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Alban
    |author-last=Butler
    |title=The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints
    |chapter=St. Bega, or Bees, of Ireland, Virgin
    |location=Dublin
    |publisher=James Duffy
    |year=1866
    |chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/210/
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Albert C.
    |author-last=Baugh
    |title=A History of the English Language
    |location=London
    |publisher=Routledge
    |edition=5
    |year=2002
    |isbn=9780415280990
    }}
*{{cite journal
    |journal=Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes
    |volume=21
    |number=21 (1/2)
    |pages=27–30
    |year=1958
    |first=Knut
    |last=Berg
    |title=The Gosforth Cross
    |doi=10.2307/750485
    |jstor=750485
    |s2cid=195032909
 }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Arthur
    |author-last=Clutton-Brock
    |title=The Cathedral Church of York, Description of its Fabric and a Brief History of the Archi-Episcopal See
    |location=London
    |publisher=George Bell & Sons
    |year=1899
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inVTAAAAMAAJ
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Caitlin
    |author-last=Corning
    |title=The Celtic and Roman Traditions : Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church
    |location= New York
    |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
    |year=2006
    |isbn= 9781403972996
    }}
* {{cite journal
    |last1=Cuesta
    |first1=Julia Fernández
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    |first2=Nieves RodrÍguez
    |last3=Silva
    |first3=Inmaculada Senra
    |title=Towards a History of Northern English: Early and Late Northumbrian
    |journal=Studia Neophilologica
    |volume=80
    |issue=2
    |year=2008
    |pages=132–159
    |issn=0039-3274
    |doi=10.1080/00393270802493217
    |s2cid=161587451
 }}
* {{cite journal
    |last1=Downham
    |first1=Clare
    |title=Eric Bloodaxe – Axed? The Mystery of the Last Scandinavian King of York
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    |pages=51–77
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* {{cite book
    |author-first=Clare
    |author-last=Downham
    |title=Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland: The Dynasty of Ívarr to A.D. 1014
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    |year=2007
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    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Fleming
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* {{cite book
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* {{cite book
    |author-first=Sarah
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    |date=12 July 2011
    |publisher=Yale University Press
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    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Goffart
    |first=Walter&nbsp;A.
    |author-link=Walter Goffart
    |title=The Narrators of Barbarian History (A. D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon
    |publisher=Princeton University Press
    |location=Princeton, N.J.
    |year=1988
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    }}
* {{citation
    | last =Hadley
    | first =Dawn
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    | year =2002
    | doi =10.1111/1468-0254.00100
    | s2cid =154018306
 }}
* {{cite web
    |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Hiberno-Saxon-style
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    |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online
    |access-date=13 May 2016
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last= Holdsworth |first=Philip  |title=Northumbria |pages=340–341|year=2014|editor1-first= Michael|editor1-last= Lapidge|editor2-first= John|editor2-last= Blair|editor3-first= Simon|editor3-last= Keynes |editor4-first= Donald|editor4-last= Scragg |encyclopedia=The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England|edition=2nd| publisher= Wiley Blackwell |location=Chichester, West Sussex |isbn=978-0-470-65632-7}}
*{{cite book
    |series=Department of the Environmental Archaeological Reports
    |number=7
    |year=1983
    |first=Brian
    |last=Hope-Taylor
    |title=Yeavering: An Anglo-British Centre of Early Northumbria
    |location=London
    |publisher=Leicester University Press
    }}
*{{cite book
    |first=Catherine E.
    |last=Karkov
    |title=The Art of Anglo-Saxon England
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WD575Kdah-EC&pg=PA304
    |year=2011
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    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=D.&nbsp;P.
    |author-last=Kirby
    |title=The Earliest English Kings
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    |date=January 1991
    |publisher=Unwin Hyman
    |isbn=978-0-04-445692-6
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Michael
    |author-last=Lapidge
    |title=The Anglo-Saxon Library
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z1HbVyElFD4C
    |date=26 January 2006
    |publisher=OUP Oxford
    |isbn=978-0-19-153301-3
    }}
* {{cite book
    |first1=Michael
    |last1=Lapidge
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    |last2=Blair
    |first3=Simon
    |last3=Keynes
    |first4=Donald
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    |title=Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Anglo-Saxon England
    |date=2 October 2013
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    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Arthur Francis
    |author-last=Leach
    |title=The Schools of Medieval England
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyKV-3p7u50C
    |year=1915
    |publisher=Macmillan
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 }}
* {{cite book
    |last=MacLean
    |first=Douglas
    |editor1=Catherine E. Karkov
    |editor2=Michael Ryan
    |editor3=Robert T. Farrell
    |title=The Insular Tradition: A Resource Manual
    |chapter=King Oswald's wooden Cross at Heavenfield in Context
    |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kb-u7jlAZXkC
    |year=1997
    |publisher=SUNY Press
    |pages=79–98
    |isbn=978-0-7914-3455-0
    }}
* {{cite book
    |first1=Peter Andreas
    |last1=Munch
    |first2=Magnus Bernhard
    |last2=Olsen
    |title=Norse mythology: legends of gods and heroes
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-hDpjgEACAAJ
    |year=1926
    |publisher=The American-Scandinavian Foundation
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 }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Carol L.
    |author-last=[[Carol Neuman de Vegvar|Neuman de Vegvar]]
    |title=The Northumbrian Golden Age: The Parameters of a Renaissance
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=py8pjwEACAAJ
    |year=1990
    |publisher=University Microfilms
    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Nordenfalk
    |first=Carl
    |year=1976
    |title=Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800
    |location=  New York
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    |isbn=978-0-8076-0825-8
    }}
* {{cite book
    |first=Gale R.
    |last=Owen-Crocker
    |title=Dress in Anglo-Saxon England
    |year=1986
    |location=Manchester, UK
    |publisher=Manchester University Press
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Otto
    |author-last=Pächt
    |title=Book Illumination in the Middle Ages: An Introduction
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5vWAAAAMAAJ
    |year=1986
    |publisher=H. Miller Pub.
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    }}
* {{cite book
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    |title=Early Medieval Northumbria: Kingdoms and Communities, AD&nbsp;450-1100
    |publisher=Isd
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    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=David
    |author-last=Rollason
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    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mSogG6ZqN4C
    |date=25 September 2003
    |location= 	Cambridge, UK; New York
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* {{cite book
    |author-first=J.&nbsp;D.
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    |publisher=B.&nbsp;T. Batsford
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    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Schapiro
    |first=Meyer
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    |location=  London
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* {{cite book
    |last=Sawyer
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    |location=  Oxford
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    |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199253937.001.0001
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Frank M.
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    |date=7 June 2001
    |publisher=OUP Oxford
    |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5
    }}
*{{cite book
    | last = Goffart
    | first = Walter
    | title = The narrators of barbarian history (A.D. 550–800) : Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon
    | publisher = University of Notre Dame Press
    | location = Notre Dame, Ind
    | year = 2005
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    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Timothy
    |author-last=Venning
    |title=The Kings & Queens of Anglo-Saxon England
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TaoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT4
    |date=30 January 2014
    |publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited
    |isbn=978-1-4456-2459-4
    }}
* {{cite book
    |first1=Ann
    |last1=Williams
    |first2=Alfred P.
    |last2=Smyth
    |first3=D.&nbsp;P.
    |last3=Kirby
    |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Dark Age Britain: England, Scotland, and Wales, C. 500–c. 1050
    |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jR376Dp1OFIC&pg=PA71
    |year=1991
    |publisher=Psychology Press
    |isbn=978-1-85264-047-7
    |chapter=Athelstan, king of Wessex 924-39
    }}
*{{cite journal
    |journal=Northern History
    |volume=LII
    |number=1
    |date=March 2015
    |first=D.&nbsp;A.
    |last=Woodman
    |title=Charters, Northumbria and the Unification of England in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries
    |oclc=60626360
    }}
* {{cite encyclopedia
    |last=Wood
    |first=Ian
    |title=Thrymas, Sceattas and the Cult of the Cross
    |encyclopedia = Two Decades of Discovery
    |volume=1
    |series=Studies in Early Medieval Coinage
    |publisher=Boydell Press
    |location=Woodbridge, UK
    |isbn=978-1-84383-371-0
    |year=2008
    |pages=23–30
    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Woolf
    |first=Rosemary
    |year=1955
    |title=Juliana
    |location=  London
    |publisher= Methuen
    }}
* {{cite book
    |last=Wormald
    |first= Patrick
    |author-link=Patrick Wormald
    |title=The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century
    |publisher=Blackwell
    |year=1999
    |location=Oxford
    |isbn=978-0-631-13496-1
    }}
* {{cite book
    |author-first=Barbara
    |author-last=Yorke
    |title=Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England
    |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iAXAQAAIAAJ
    |date=1 January 1990
    |publisher=Seaby
    |isbn=978-1-85264-027-9
    }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Edmonds |first=Fiona |author-link=Fiona Edmonds |title=Gaelic Influence in the Northumbrian Kingdom: The Golden Age and the Viking Age |publisher=Boydell |location =Woodbridge, UK |year=2019|isbn=9781783273362}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.lowlands-l.net Lowlands-L, An e-mail discussion list for those who share an interest in the languages & cultures of the Lowlands]
* [http://www.lowlands-l.net/index.php?page=northumbrian Lowlands-L in Nothumbrian]
* [http://www.northumbriana.org.uk/langsoc/index.htm Northumbrian Language Society]
* [http://www.nspipes.co.uk/nsp/ Northumbrian Small Pipes Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.birchmore.org/northumbria/index.html Northumbrian Traditional Music]
* [http://www.visitnorthumberland.com/ Visit Northumberland – The Official Visitor Site for Northumberland]

{{Heptarchy}}
{{Northumbrian monarchs}}
{{Yorkshire}}
{{Authority control}}
{{coord|55|00|N|2|30|W|display=title|region:GB_type:country_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Northumbria| ]]
[[Category:Lothian]]
[[Category:North East England]]
[[Category:Northumberland]]
[[Category:Regions of England]]
[[Category:History of the Scottish Borders]]
[[Category:954 disestablishments]]
[[Category:653 establishments]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 950s]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 650s]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
[[Category:Former monarchies of Europe]]