View source for Papal supremacy

{{short description|Doctrine that the Pope has supreme power over the whole Church}}
{{Distinguish|Papal primacy|Papal temporal power|Papal infallibility}}
{{About|the Catholic spiritual doctrine|the doctrine of temporal authority in the Holy Roman Empire|Universal power}}
[[File:Pope Pius IX at the First Vatican Council (cropped).jpg|thumb|254x254px|[[Pius IX]] opening the [[First Vatican Council]]. It is during this council that papal supremacy was proclaimed a [[Dogma in the Catholic Church|dogma]].]]
{{Papal primacy and infallibility|expanded=patriarchs}}

'''Papal supremacy''' is the [[doctrine]] of the [[Catholic Church]] that the [[pope]], by reason of his office as [[vicar of Christ]], the visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful, and as priest of the entire Catholic Church, has full, supreme, and [[universal power]] over the whole church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered:<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2A.HTM Paragraph 882] of the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' (1997).</ref> that, in brief, "the pope enjoys, by divine institution, supreme, full, immediate, and universal power in the care of souls."<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2A.HTM Paragraph 937] of the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (1997).</ref>

The doctrine had the most significance in the relationship between the church and the temporal state, in matters such as [[Privilege (Catholic canon law)|ecclesiastic privileges]], the actions of monarchs and even successions.

==Institution of papal supremacy==
[[File:Inscription Ecclesiarum Mater San Giovanni in Laterano 2006-09-07.jpg|thumb|right|Inscription at front of [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]], cathedral church of the Bishop of Rome: ''Sacros(ancta) Lateran(ensis) eccles(ia) omnium urbis et orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput'' meaning "Most Holy Lateran Church, of all the churches in the city and the world, the Mother and Head"]]
The [[Catholic]] doctrine of papal supremacy is based on the idea that it was instituted by [[Christ]] and that [[papal succession]] is traced back to [[Peter the Apostle]] in the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century]]. The authority for the position is derived from the [[Confession of Peter]] documented in {{bibleref2|Matthew|16:17–19|NIV}} when, in response to Peter's acknowledgment of Jesus as the [[Messiah]] and [[Son of God]], which many relate to [[Divinity of Jesus|Jesus' divinity]], [[Jesus]] responded: 
{{blockquote|Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.}}

In his letter to Rome, [[Ignatius of Antioch]] says that the church at Rome "presides in the place of the region of the Romans" (προκάθηται ἐν τόπῳ χωρίου Ῥωμαίων).<ref>J.B. Lightfoot, "Letter of Ignatius of Antioch to the Romans, Prologue", ''The Apostolic Fathers: Part 2: Ignatius and Polycarp'' (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 1989, orig. 1890), vol. 2, pp. 190–191.</ref>

Scholars such as [[Francis A. Sullivan]] say that there was no single "bishop" of Rome until well after the year 150 AD, and that there was no papacy for the first three centuries. Sullivan "expressed agreement with the consensus of scholars that available evidence indicates that the church of Rome was led by a college of presbyters, rather than a single bishop, for at least several decades of the second century."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sullivan|first1=Francis A.|title=From apostles to bishops: the development of the episcopacy in the early church|date=2001|publisher=Newman Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0809105342|pages=221, 222|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rn4PIZYLCskC&q=It+seems+inconceivable+that,|access-date=28 March 2017}}</ref>

[[Raymond E. Brown]], while acknowledging the developmental aspect of bishoprics, did believe that early popes had high roles of authority among presbyters in Rome, and thus, it makes sense to speak of their successors.<ref>''Responses to 101 Questions on the Bible''. New York: Paulist Press. pp. 127–136.</ref>

Jesuit historian Klaus Schatz states that, "If one had asked a Christian in the year 100, 200, or even 300 whether the bishop of Rome was the head of all Christians, or whether there was a supreme bishop over all the other bishops and having the last word in questions affecting the whole Church, he or she would certainly have said no." He believes that this is because questions like these presuppose modern categories, which took time to develop. 
He goes on to explain how primacy was understood in the first centuries. He also believes it likely that "there very quickly emerged a presider or 'first among equals{{'"}}.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Klaus |last1=Schatz |translator1-last=Otto|translator1-first=John A.|translator2-last=Maloney|translator2-first=Linda M.|title=Papal primacy: from its origins to the present|date=1996|publisher=Liturgical Press|location=Collegeville, Minnesota|isbn=978-0814655221|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeH4OKYflbkC&pg=PA3}}</ref>

In the [[Early Christianity|first three centuries of Christianity]] the church in Rome intervened in other communities to help resolve conflicts.<ref>Afanassieff, Nicholas (1992). "The Church Which Presides In Love". In John Meyendorff, ed. ''The Primacy of Peter: Essays in Ecclesiology and the Early Church''. New York. [http://www.golubinski.ru/ecclesia/primacy.htm Ch. 4], pp. 126–127.</ref> [[Pope Clement I]] did so in [[Corinth]] in the end of the [[Christianity in the 1st century|first century]].<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. "Clement of Rome, St". ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.</ref> In the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|third century]], [[Pope Cornelius]] convened and presided over a synod of 60 African and Eastern bishops,<ref>McBrien, Richard P. [http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS "Pope Cornelius, a reconciler, had a hard road"] {{subscription required}}. ''National Catholic Reporter'' 40.41 (September 24, 2004): 19(1). Gale. Sacred Heart Preparatory (BAISL). 5 December 2008.</ref> and his rival, the [[antipope Novatian]], claimed to have "assumed the primacy".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| url= http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11138a.htm| last =Chapman | first =John | title = Novatian and Novatianism
| access-date=2014-01-31 | encyclopedia = Catholic Encyclopedia |year=1911|publisher = New Advent}}</ref>

In the complex development of papal supremacy, two broad phases may be noted.

===First phase of papal supremacy===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Pope-gregory-i-1-sized.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Pope Gregory I in his office]] -->
  
[[Irenaeus of Lyons]] believed in the [[Christianity in the 2nd century|second century]] that [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] had been the founders of the church in Rome and had appointed [[Pope Linus|Linus]] as succeeding [[bishop]].<ref>Irenaeus. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html ''Against Heresies'' 3.3]. From Philip Schaff, ed., ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Series II, Vol. I – via Christian Classics Ethereal Library. 2: the "Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops.&nbsp;... The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate."</ref>

From the beginning of his papacy in 401, [[Pope Innocent I]] was seen as the general arbitrator of ecclesiastical disputes in both the East and the West. During his papacy, the Roman apostolic See was seen as the ultimate resort for the settlement of all ecclesiastical disputes. His communications with [[Victricius of Rouen]], [[Exuperius|Exuperius of Toulouse]], Alexander of Antioch and others, as well as his actions on the appeal made to him by [[John Chrysostom]] against [[Pope Theophilus I of Alexandria|Theophilus of Alexandria]], show that opportunities of this kind were numerous and varied.<ref>Kirsch, Johann Peter (1910). [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08011a.htm "Pope Innocent I"]. ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 11 February 2020. {{PD-notice}}</ref>

[[Pope Leo I]] was a significant contributor to the centralisation of spiritual authority within the church and in reaffirming papal authority. The bishop of Rome had gradually become viewed as the chief patriarch in the Western church. On several occasions, Leo was asked to arbitrate disputes in Gaul. One involved [[Hilary of Arles]], who refused to recognize Leo's judicial status. Leo appealed to past practice, "And so we would have you recollect, brethren, as we do, that the Apostolic See, such is the reverence in which it is held, has times out of number been referred to and consulted by the priests of your province as well as others, and in the various matters of appeal, as the old usage demanded, it has reversed or confirmed decisions: and in this way 'the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace Ephesians 4:3 has been kept'",<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3604010.htm Pope Leo I. "Letter 10: To the Bishops of the Province of Vienne. In the matter of Hilary, Bishop of Arles"]. ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers''. Second Series. Vol. 12. Translated by Charles Lett Feltoe. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1895. {{PD-notice}}</ref> Feeling that the primatial rights of the bishop of Rome were threatened, Leo appealed to the civil power for support and obtained, from [[Valentinian III]], a decree of 6 June 445, which recognized the primacy of the bishop of Rome based on the merits of Peter, the dignity of the city, and the legislation of the [[First Council of Nicaea]]; and provided for the forcible extradition by provincial governors of any bishop who refused to answer a summons to Rome.<ref>Henry Bettenson, Chris Maunder, ''Documents of the Christian Church'' (Oxford University Press 2011 {{ISBN|9780199568987}}), p. 24</ref>

[[Pope Gelasius I|Gelasius I]], who served from 492 to 496, in a controversy with Anastasius, the Byzantine emperor, likewise fought to maintain the doctrine of papal supremacy. This dispute was an incipient point of conflict between the [[Holy See]] and the Empire.

From the late 6th to the late 8th centuries there was a turning of the papacy to the West and its escape from subordination to the authority of the [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperors]] of [[Constantinople]].  This phase has sometimes incorrectly been credited to [[Pope Gregory I]] (who reigned from 590 to 604), who, like his predecessors, represented to the people of the Roman world a church that was still identified with the empire.  Unlike some of those predecessors, Gregory was compelled to face the collapse of imperial authority in northern Italy. As the leading civil official of the empire in [[Rome]], it fell to him to take over the civil administration of the cities and to negotiate for the protection of Rome itself with the [[Lombards|Lombard]] invaders threatening it. Another part of this phase occurred in the 8th century, after the rise of the new religion of [[Islam]] had weakened the Byzantine Empire and the Lombards had renewed their pressure in Italy. The popes finally sought support from the Frankish rulers of the West and received from the Frankish king [[Pepin The Short]] the first part of the Italian territories later known as the [[Papal States]]. With [[Pope Leo III]]'s [[coronation]] of [[Charlemagne]], first of the Carolingian emperors, the papacy also gained his protection.

In letters concerning the [[Second Council of Nicea]], the Roman Church is referred to as the "head of all churches" twice; at the same time it affirms Christ to be the head of the church, and the Apostle Peter is referred to as the "chief [of the] Apostles"—but when listed with Paul they are together referred to as the "chief apostles".<ref>Halsall, Paul. [https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/basis/nicea2.asp "Medieval Sourcebook: The Second Council of Nicea, 787"]. Fordham University.</ref>

===Second phase of papal supremacy===
From the middle of the 11th century and extending to the middle of the 13th century was the second great phase in the process of papal supremacy's rise to prominence. It was first distinguished in 1075 by Gregory VII's bold attack on the traditional practices whereby the emperor had controlled appointments to the higher church offices. The attack spawned the protracted civil and ecclesiastical strife in [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] known as the [[Investiture Controversy]]. Secondly, it was distinguished in 1095 by Urban II's launching of the [[Crusades]], which, in an attempt to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim domination, marshaled under papal leadership the aggressive energies of the European [[nobility]].  Both these efforts greatly enhanced papal prestige in the 12th and 13th centuries. Such powerful popes as [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (r. 1159–81), [[Pope Innocent III|Innocent III]] (r. 1198–1216), [[Gregory IX]] (r. 1227–1241), and [[Innocent IV]] (r. 1243–1254) wielded a primacy over the church that attempted to vindicate a jurisdictional supremacy over emperors and kings in temporal and spiritual affairs. As Matthew Edward Harris writes, "The overall impression gained is that the papacy was described in increasingly exalted terms as the thirteenth century progressed, although this development was neither disjunctive nor uniform, and was often in response to conflict, such as against Frederick II and Philip the Fair".<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Matthew|title=The Notion of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century: the Idea of Paradigm in Church History|year=2010|publisher=Edwin Mellen Press|location=Lewiston, New York|isbn=978-0-7734-1441-9|page=85}}</ref>

Early in this phase, defense of Papal supremacy was voiced by [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (1093–1109). Anselm insisted on his right and obligation to go to Rome to receive the [[pallium]], symbolic of his metropolitan authority. King [[William Rufus]] refused to permit this as he had not as yet recognized [[Urban II]] as opposed to [[Antipope Clement III|Clement III]], who had been installed by [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]]. A council was held at [[Rockingham, Northamptonshire|Rockingham]] on 25 February 1095, where Anselm boldly asserted the authority of Urban in a speech giving testimony to the doctrine of papal supremacy.<ref>Kent, William. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01546a.htm "St. Anselm"]. ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 11 February 2020. {{PD-notice}}</ref>

===Gallicanism===
[[Gallicanism]] was a movement in the [[Kingdom of France]] to augment the rights of the State and to prejudice the rights of the [[Catholic Church in France]].

An example of Gallicanism was the dispute between King [[Louis XIV of France]] and the [[Holy See]] about the application of the 1516 [[Concordat of Bologna]] after Louis XIV's extension of the {{lang|fr|[[droit de régale]]}} throughout the Kingdom of France in 1673.<ref name="Ott1911">{{Catholic|wstitle=Droit de Regale|first=Michael|last=Ott|volume=12|inline=1}}</ref> The dispute led to the 1682 ''[[Declaration of the Clergy of France]]'' promulgated by the 1681 [[Assembly of the French clergy]].<ref name="Degert1909">{{Catholic|wstitle=Gallicanism|first=Antoine|last=Dégert|volume=6|inline=1}}</ref> The Articles asserted that the civil power has absolute independence; that the pope is inferior to the General Council and the decrees of the [[Council of Constance]] were still binding; that the exercise of pontifical authority should be regulated by the ecclesiastical canons, and that dogmatic decisions of the pope are not irrevocable until they have been confirmed by the judgment of the whole church.<ref name="Sicard1907">{{Catholic|wstitle=Assemblies of the French Clergy|first=Jean Auguste|last=Sicard|volume=1|inline=1}}</ref> The [[apostolic constitution]] {{lang|la|[[Inter multiplices pastoralis officii]]}} promulgated by [[Pope Alexander VIII]] in 1690, and published in 1691, quashed the entire proceedings of the 1681 Assembly and declared that the ''Declaration of the clergy of France'' was null and void, and invalid. In 1693, Louis XIV rescinded the four articles and "wrote a letter of retraction" to [[Pope Innocent XII]].<ref name="Degert1909"/><ref name="Denzinger2012">{{cite encyclopedia|location=San Francisco|editor1-first=Heinrich|editor1-last=Denzinger|editor2-first=Peter|editor2-last=Hünermann|editor3-first=Robert L.|editor3-last=Fastiggi|editor4-first=Anne Englund|editor4-last=Nash|display-editors=2|title=Enchiridion symbolorum: a compendium of creeds, definitions and declarations of the Catholic Church|ref={{SfnRef|Denzinger|2012}}|isbn=978-0898707465|year=2012|publisher=Ignatius Press|edition=43rd|page=487}}</ref> Those members of the 1681 Assembly, who were presented as candidates for vacant episcopal sees and were refused papal confirmation of their appointment, received confirmation, in 1693, only after they disavowed everything that the 1681 Assembly decreed regarding ecclesiastical power and pontifical authority.<ref name="Degert1909"/>

=== First Vatican Council ===
{{Main|First Vatican Council}}
The doctrine of papal primacy was further developed in 1870 at the [[First Vatican Council]].

In the [[dogmatic constitution]] named ''[[Pastor aeternus]]'', [[ultramontanism]] achieved victory over [[conciliarism]] with the pronouncement of [[papal infallibility]] (the ability of the pope to define dogmas free from error ''[[ex cathedra]]'') and of papal supremacy, i.e., supreme, full, immediate, and universal ordinary jurisdiction of the pope.

Indeed, ''[[Pastor aeternus]]'' states papal supremacy is a [[Dogma in the Catholic Church|dogma]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.v.ii.i.html|title=Philip Schaff: Creeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical notes. Volume II. The History of Creeds |via=Christian Classics Ethereal Library|access-date=2020-02-18}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=according to the testimony of the Gospel, the primacy of jurisdiction over the universal Church of God was immediately and directly promised and given to blessed Peter the Apostle by Christ the Lord. ... Whence, whosoever succeeds to Peter in this See, does by the institution of Christ himself obtain the Primacy of Peter over the whole Church. ... The Roman Church possesses a superiority of ordinary power over all other churches, and that this power of jurisdiction of the Roman Pontiff, which is truly episcopal, is immediate; to which all, of whatever rite and dignity, both pastors and faithful, both individually and collectively, are bound, by their duty of hierarchical subordination and true obedience, to submit not only in matters which belong to faith and morals, but also in those that appertain to the discipline and government of the Church throughout the world, so that the Church of Christ may be one flock under one supreme pastor through the preservation of unity both of communion and of profession of the same faith with the Roman Pontiff. ... And since by the divine right of Apostolic primacy the Roman Pontiff is placed over the universal Church, we further teach and declare that he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all causes, the decision of which belongs to the Church, recourse may be had to his tribunal, and that none may re-open the judgment of the Apostolic See, than whose authority there is no greater, nor can any lawfully review its judgment. Wherefore they err from the right course who assert that it is lawful to appeal from the judgments of the Roman Pontiffs to an œcumenical Council, as to an authority higher than that of the Roman Pontiff.|title=|source=''Pastor Aeternus'', ch. I, III|author=Vatican I}}

=== Second Vatican Council ===
At the [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962–1965) the debate on papal primacy and authority re-emerged, and in the dogmatic constitution ''[[Lumen gentium]]'', the Catholic Church's teaching on the authority of the pope, bishops and councils was further elaborated. Vatican II sought to clarify the ecclesiology stated in Vatican I. The result is the body of teaching about the papacy and episcopacy contained in ''Lumen gentium''.

Vatican II reaffirmed everything Vatican I taught about papal primacy, supremacy and infallibility, but it added important points about bishops. Bishops, it says, are not "vicars of the Roman Pontiff". Rather, in governing their local churches they are "vicars and legates of Christ".<ref>{{Cite CCC|2.1|894–895}}</ref> Together, they form a body, a "[[College of Bishops|college]]", whose head is the pope. This episcopal college is responsible for the well-being of the Catholic Church. Here in a nutshell are the basic elements of the Council's much-discussed communio ecclesiology, which affirms the importance of local churches and the doctrine of collegiality.

In a passage about collegiality, Vatican II teaches: "The order of bishops is the successor to the college of the apostles in their role as teachers and pastors, and in it the apostolic college is perpetuated. Together with their head, the Supreme Pontiff, and never apart from him, they have supreme and full authority over the Universal Church; but this power cannot be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff".{{sfn|LG|loc=n. 22}} Much of the present discussion of papal primacy is concerned with exploring the implications of this passage.

Vatican II also emphasized the ''[[sensus fidelium]]'' as the vehicle for the living tradition,<ref>''Lumen Gentium'', 12</ref> with the promise to Peter assuring that the gates of Hades will not prevail against the church, which is the people who are the living tradition.<ref>Matthew 16:18</ref> Therefore, infallibility is "a doctrine and order rooted in and reflecting the ''sensus fidelium''".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Knoepffler|first1=Nikolaus|last2=O’Malley|first2=Martin|date=2017-01-25|title=Karl Rahner and Pope Francis on Papal Ministry|journal=Ecclesiology|volume=13|issue=1|pages=55–82|doi=10.1163/17455316-01301005|issn=1745-5316}}</ref> [[Karl Rahner|Rahner]] insists that a Pope's statements depend essentially on his knowledge of what the living tradition maintains. There is no question of revelation but of preservation from error in the exercise of this oversight. This living tradition was gathered from communication with all the Bishops in the two instances where the Pope defined dogmas apart from a Council, the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption.<ref>[http://www.fides.org/eng/approfondire/totustuus/immacolata02.html "150th Anniversary of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception"]. Fides Press Agency. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024105943/http://www.fides.org/eng/approfondire/totustuus/immacolata02.html|date=24 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Henn|first=William|publisher=[[Pontifical Gregorian University|Gregorian Publishing Group]]|year=2006|volume=87|issue=4|location=Rome|pages=413–437|title=Interpreting Marian Doctrine |journal=Gregorianum: Commentarii de Re Theologica et Philosophica|issn=0017-4114|orig-year=1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSDURP09LJYC&pg=413}}</ref>

== Opposition ==

=== Early Church ===
[[Ignatius of Antioch]] claimed that there was no ecclesiastical authority above that of the local Bishop.<ref>Carlton, C., (1997) The Faith: Understanding Orthodox Christianity, (Regina Orthodox Press; Salisbury, MA), p. 169.</ref>

[[Tertullian]], noted for his contributions for the doctrine of the [[Trinity]],  explicitly rejected papal supremacy in his treatise ''[[De Pudicitia]]''; his views on the matter were influenced by his adherence to [[Montanism]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greatcommissioncorps.com/post/the-papacy-under-scrutiny-early-church-arguments-against-papal-supremacy|title=The Papacy Under Scrutiny: Early Church Arguments against Papal Supremacy |date=24 May 2025 }}</ref>

The [[Dictatus papae]], which some attributed to [[Pope Saint Gregory VII]] (11th century), states that "the Roman pontiff alone can with right be called universal". The popes have not on the basis of this right employed the title "universal bishop". [[Pope Saint Gregory I]] (6th century) condemned the use of this expression by the patriarch of Constantinople of this title, and said that whoever claims it "is, in his elation, the precursor of Antichrist" possibly referring to whoever is made Patriarch of the other 4 Sees.{{sfn|Gregory I|''to Mauricius Augustus''|loc=par. 2}} According to [[John Norman Davidson Kelly]], Gregory I was not in any way denying the universal jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome; to Kelly, Gregory I "was indefatigable ... in upholding the Roman primacy, and successfully maintained Rome's appellate jurisdiction in the east. ... Gregory argued that St. Peter's commission [e.g. in Matthew 16:18f] made all churches, Constantinople included, subject to Rome".{{sfn|Kelly|2010|p=64}}{{sfn|P (pseud.)|1995}} In 1998, the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]] explained that while every bishop is a subject of the ''{{lang|la|sollicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum}}'' (in ref. to [[2 Corinthians 11|2 Co 11]]:28), "In the case of the Bishop of Rome - Vicar of Christ in the way proper to Peter as Head of the College of Bishops - the ''{{lang|la|sollicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum}}'' acquires particular force because it is combined with the full and supreme power in the Church: a truly episcopal power, not only supreme, full and universal, but also immediate, over all pastors and other faithful."{{sfn|CDF|1998|loc=n. 6}} Gregory I himself, though he asserted the ''reality'' of the primacy of the bishop of his apostolic see, the bishop who carried on the work entrusted to Peter,{{sfn|Evans|1986|p=128}} rejected use of the ''title'' "universal bishop", which he called "profane".{{sfn|Gregory I|''to Eulogius''}}

=== Protestant ===
{{Main|Protestant opposition to papal supremacy}}
Protestant opposition to papal supremacy can be traced back to the Protestant Reformation. Early Reformers such as [[Martin Luther]], [[Philip Melanchthon]], and [[John Calvin]] were highly critical of papal authority and saw it contrary to the teachings of scripture. Luther went as far as to regard the pope as the [[Antichrist]] as found in the Bible.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Godfrey |first1=W. Robert |title=Protestants and the Pope |url=https://www.wscal.edu/resource-center/protestants-and-the-pope |website=Westminster Seminary California |access-date=19 August 2022 |language=en |date=1 July 2005}}</ref>

=== Eastern Orthodox ===
{{Main|Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy}}
Catholic Cardinal and theologian [[Yves Congar]] wrote:

{{blockquote|The East never accepted the regular jurisdiction of Rome, nor did it submit to the judgment of Western bishops. Its appeals to Rome for help were not connected with a recognition of the principle of Roman jurisdiction but were based on the view that Rome had the same truth, the same good. The East jealously protected its autonomous way of life. Rome intervened to safeguard the observation of legal rules, to maintain the orthodoxy of faith and to ensure communion between the two parts of the church, the Roman see representing and personifying the West ... In according Rome a 'primacy of honour', the East avoided basing this primacy on the succession and the still living presence of the apostle Peter. A ''modus vivendi'' was achieved which lasted, albeit with crises, down to the middle of the eleventh century.{{sfn|Congar|1984|pp=26–27}}}}

Referring to Ignatius of Antioch, in ''[[Letter to the Smyrnaeans]]'',{{sfn|Ignatius|''Letter to the Smyrnaeans''|loc=c. 8}} "Let Nothing Be Done Without the Bishop", Carlton wrote:

{{blockquote|Contrary to popular opinion, the word catholic does not mean "universal"; it means "whole, complete, lacking nothing." ... Thus, to confess the Church to be catholic is to say that She possesses the fullness of the Christian faith. To say, however, that Orthodox and Rome constitute two lungs of the same Church is to deny that either Church separately is catholic in any meaningful sense of the term. This is not only contrary to the teaching of Orthodoxy, it is flatly contrary to the teaching of the Catholic Church, which considered itself truly catholic.{{sfn|Carlton|1999|p=22}}{{discuss|section=Sculpting the term catholic|date=May 2015}}}}

The church is in the image of the Trinity and reflects the reality of the incarnation.{{sfn|Lossky|1976|p=176}}{{blockquote|"The body of Christ must always be equal with itself...The local church which manifests the body of Christ cannot be subsumed into any larger organisation or collectivity which makes it more catholic and more in unity, for the simple reason that the principle of total catholicity and total unity is already intrinsic to it."{{sfn|Sherrard|1978|p=15}}}}

==See also==
* [[Conclave capitulation]]
* [[Donation of Constantine]]
* [[Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy]]
* [[Papal infallibility]]
* [[Papal primacy]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite wikisource|author=Augustine of Hippo|year=1888|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume VII|series=Series 1|volume=7|chapter=Gospel According to St. John/Part 10|at=Tractate 10|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''On 1 John''}}}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Augustine of Hippo|year=1887|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume IV/Donatist Controversy|series=Series 1|volume=4|chapter=The Correction of the Donatists/Chapter 10|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''Donatists''}}}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Augustine of Hippo|year=1887|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume II|series=Series 1|volume=2|chapter=On Christian Doctrine/Book I/Chapter 18|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''On Christian doctrine''}}}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Augustine of Hippo|year=1888|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume VII|series=Series 1|volume=7|chapter=Gospel According to St. John/Part 124|at=Tractate 124|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''On Gospel of John''}}}}
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**{{harvc|last=Walf|first=Knut|chapter=The supreme authority of the Church|pp=423–453|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YCpraE-7xcC&pg=PA431|in=Beal et al.|year=2000|ps=, translated by Ronny Jenkins.}}
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*{{cite book|author=Catholic Church. Vatican Council I|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0063/_PD.HTM|title=First dogmatic constitution on the church of Christ: Pastor aeternus|date=1870-07-18|publisher=Èulogos SpA|edition=IntraText|location=Rome|publication-date=2007|ref={{sfnRef|PA}}|access-date=2015-05-25|via=The IntraText Digital Library}} Translation taken from {{cite book|title=Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils|publisher=Sheed & Ward|year=1990|isbn=978-0-87840-490-2|editor-last=Tanner|editor-first=Norman P.|location=London}}
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*{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=54768|title=Ecumenical talks reach partial accord on papal primacy|date=2007-11-14|website=catholicculture.org|publisher=Trinity Communications|location=Manassas, VA|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205193810/http://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=54768|archive-date=2010-12-05|access-date=2009-01-22|ref={{sfnRef|catholicculture.org|2007}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Clapsis|first=Emmanuel|title=Orthodoxy in conversation: Orthodox ecumenical engagements|publisher=World Council of Churches|year=2000|isbn=978-2-8254-1337-1|location=Geneva}} Reprinted in {{cite web|url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8523|title=Papal primacy|website=goarch.org|publisher=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|location=New York|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203104411/http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8523|archive-date=2008-12-03}} 
*{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxanswers.org/history|title=An Orthodox Christian historical timeline|editor-last=Cleenewerck|editor-first=Laurent|website=orthodoxanswers.org|publisher=St. Innocent Orthodox Church|location=Eureka, CA|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223102513/http://orthodoxanswers.org/history|archive-date=2010-12-23|ref={{sfnRef|''orthodoxanswers.org''}}|access-date=2020-03-03}} {{tertiary source|date=May 2015}}
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*{{cite web|url=http://www.zenit.org/article-27320?l=english|title=Orthodox-Catholic commission studies primacy of Peter|last=Colina|first=Jesús|date=2009-10-23|website=zenit.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027020136/http://www.zenit.org/article-27320|archive-date=2009-10-27|access-date=2020-03-03}}
*{{cite web|url=http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives2/1997d/102497/102497f.htm|title=Stress on papal primacy led to exaggerated clout for a pope among equals|last=Collins|first=Paul|date=1997-10-24|website=natcath.org|publisher=National Catholic Reporter|access-date=2009-01-20}}
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*{{cite book|last=Davis|first=Leo D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMhzlnY0P0QC&pg=PA1|title=The first seven Ecumenical Councils (325–787): their history and theology|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8146-5616-7|series=Theology and life series|volume=21|location=Collegeville, MN}}
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*{{cite book|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwfZAAAAMAAJ|title=Byzantium and the Roman primacy|publisher=Fordham University Press|year=1966|location=New York|isbn=9780823207015}}
*{{cite book|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumromanp00dvor|title=Byzantium and the Roman primacy|publisher=Fordham University Press|others=Translated by Edwin A. Quain|year=1979|isbn=978-0-8232-0701-5|edition=2nd print with corrections|location=New York}}
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*{{cite book|last=Evans|first=Gillian R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=276qdQQzzXIC&pg=PA128|title=The thought of Gregory the Great|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1986|isbn=978-0-521-30904-2|edition=Reprint|series=Cambridge studies in medieval life and thought, 4th series|volume=2|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|publication-date=1999}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Farmer|editor-first=David H.|year=2004|orig-year=2003|title=Peter (1)|encyclopedia=The Oxford dictionary of saints|edition=5th|location=Oxford [u.a.]|publisher=Oxford University Press|series=Oxford paperback reference|isbn=978-0-19-860949-0|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=Farmer+%22is+not+explicitly+affirmed%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks}}
*{{cite conference|author=First Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission|year=1977|title=Agreed Statement on Authority in the Church|url=https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=4|conference=Authority in the Church I, August 24 – September 2, 1976|location=Venice, IT|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526233927/https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=4|archive-date=2015-05-26|ref={{sfnRef|ARCIC I|1976}}|url-status=live}}
*{{cite conference|author=First Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission|date=1981-09-03|title=Agreed Statement on Authority in the Church|url=https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=7|conference=Authority in the Church II, August 24 – September 2, 1981|location=Windsor, GB|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527005949/https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=7|archive-date=2015-05-27|ref={{sfnRef|ARCIC I|1981}}|url-status=live}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Gregory I|year=1895|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XII/Gregory the Great|series=Series 2|volume=12|chapter=Register of Epistles/Book VII/Chapter 21|at=Letter 33 (to Mauricius Augustus)|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|Gregory I|''to Mauricius Augustus''}}}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Gregory I|year=1895|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XII/Gregory the Great|series=Series 2|volume=12|chapter=Register of Epistles/Book V/Chapter 22|at=Letter 43 (to Eulogius)|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|Gregory I|''to Eulogius''}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Guettée|first=René François Wladimir|url=https://archive.org/stream/papacyitshistori00guet#page/175/mode/1up|title=The papacy its historic origin and primitive relations with the Eastern churches|publisher=Minos Publishing|year=1866|location=New York|oclc=263029067|ref={{sfnRef|Guettee|1866}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Hardon|first=John A.|author-link=John Hardon|year=2013|title=Primacy|encyclopedia=Catholic dictionary: an abridged and updated edition of Modern Catholic dictionary|location=New York|publisher=Image|isbn=978-0-307-88634-7|pages=400–401|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1MsufgDEL1oC&pg=PA400}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Hilary of Poitiers|year=1898|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume IX/Title Page/De Trinitate or on the Trinity|series=Series 2|volume=9|chapter=De Trinitate or on the Trinity/Book VI|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|Hilary|''On the Trinity''}}}}
*{{cite book|title=La Champagne bénédictine: contribution à l'Année saint Benoît (480–1980)|publisher=Academie Nationale de Reims|year=1981|editor-last=Hourlier|editor-first=Jacques|series=Travaux de l'Academie Nationale de Reims|volume=160|location=Reims|language=fr, la|chapter=Anselme de Saint-Remy, ''Histoire de la Dédicace de Saint-Remy''|oclc=11808869}}
*{{cite interview|last=Hovorun|first=Kirill|interviewer=Taras Antoshevskyy|title=First of all, a balanced position concerning the question about the primacy in the church must be accepted|url=http://risu.org.ua/en/index/expert_thought/interview/37178/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820123754/http://www.risu.org.ua/en/index/expert_thought/interview/37178/|archive-date=2010-08-20|work=risu.org.ua|publisher=Religious Information Service of Ukraine. Ukrainian Catholic University|location=Lviv-Kyiv|date=2010-08-12|publication-place=Lviv, UA|publication-date=2010-08-17|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1=L'Huillier|first1=Peter|title=The church of the ancient councils: the disciplinary work of the first four ecumenical councils|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-88141-007-5|location=Crestwood, NY}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Ignatius of Antioch|class=book|year=1885|plaintitle=The Ante-Nicene Fathers: the writings of the fathers down to A.D. 325|wslink=Ante-Nicene Christian Library|volume=1|chapter=Epistle to the Smyrnaeans|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Roberts|editor3-last=Donaldson|editor4-last=Coxe|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Alexander|editor3-first=James|editor4-first=A. Cleveland|ref={{sfnRef|Ignatius|''Letter to the Smyrnaeans''}}|display-editors=1}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Irenaeus|class=book|year=1885|plaintitle=The Ante-Nicene Fathers: the writings of the fathers down to A.D. 325|wslink=Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/IRENAEUS|volume=1|chapter=Against Heresies: Book III/Chapter III.|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Roberts|editor3-last=Donaldson|editor4-last=Coxe|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Alexander|editor3-first=James|editor4-first=A. Cleveland|ref={{sfnRef|Irenaeus|''Against heresies'' 3.3}}|display-editors=1}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=John Chrysostom|year=1889|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume XIV|series=Series 1|volume=14|chapter=On the Gospel of John/Preface|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Wace|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Henry|ref={{sfnRef|John Chrysostom|''On the Gospel of John''}}}}
*{{cite conference|author=Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church|date=2007-10-13|title=Ecclesiological and canonical consequences of the sacramental nature of the church: ecclesial communion, conciliarity and authority|url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/ch_orthodox_docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20071013_documento-ravenna_en.html|conference=Tenth Plenary Session, October 8–15, 2007|location=Ravenna, IT|publication-place=Vatican City|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117103025/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/ch_orthodox_docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20071013_documento-ravenna_en.html|archive-date=2007-11-17|ref={{sfnRef|Ravenna Document|2007}}|url-status=live}}
*{{cite conference|author=Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church|date=2008-10-03|title=The Role of the Bishop of Rome in the Communion of the Church in the First Millennium|conference=September 27 – October 4, 2008|type=unpublished unofficial draft|location=Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece|ref={{sfnRef|Crete Draft|2008}}}} Leaked in {{cite web|url=http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/1341814?eng=y|title=The role of the Bishop of Rome in the Communion of the Church in the First Millennium|date=2010-01-23|website=chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it|publisher=Gruppo Editoriale L'Espresso|location=Rome|type=leaked unofficial draft|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130185512/http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/1341814?eng=y|archive-date=2010-01-30}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_25051995_ut-unum-sint.html|title=Ut unum sint|author=John Paul II|date=1995-05-25|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|location=Vatican City|ref={{sfnRef|UUS}}}}
*{{cite web|url=http://philorthodox.blogspot.com/2008/11/anglican-catholicism-and-papal-primacy_11.html|title=Anglican Catholicism and the Papal Primacy|last=Jones|first=Chandler H.|date=2008-11-11|website=philorthodox.blogspot.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708060626/http://philorthodox.blogspot.com/2008/11/anglican-catholicism-and-papal-primacy_11.html|archive-date=2011-07-08}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|ref={{sfnRef|Justinian I|Novel 131}}|url=http://www.uwyo.edu/lawlib/blume-justinian/ajc-edition-2/novels/121-140/novel%20131_replacement.pdf|publication-date=2009|publisher=University of Wyoming College of Law|location=Laramie, WY|edition=electronic version of 2nd|url-status=live|archive-date=2015-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531164310/http://www.uwyo.edu/lawlib/blume-justinian/ajc-edition-2/novels/121-140/novel%20131_replacement.pdf|access-date=2015-05-31|encyclopedia=Annotated Justinian code|author=Justinian I|others=Translated by Fred H. Blume|editor2-first=Timothy|editor2-last=Kearley|editor1-link=Fred H. Blume|editor1-first=Fred H.|editor1-last=Blume|title=Novel 131: concerning ecclesiastical canons and privileges|orig-year=promulgated 545-03-18|year=2009|oclc=189852432}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|year=2010|last=Kelly|first=John N. D.|author-link=John Norman Davidson Kelly|title=Gregory I, St|editor-last=Walsh|editor-first=Michael J.|encyclopedia=The Oxford dictionary of popes|edition=2nd|location=Oxford [u.a.]|publisher=Oxford University Press|series=Oxford paperback reference|isbn=978-0-19-929581-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVmcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA64}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.the-orb.net/textbooks/westciv/papacy.html|title=The papacy|last=Knox|first=Ellis L.|year=1999|website=the-orb.net|publisher=Online Resource Book for Medieval Studies|oclc=35987956|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030918013403/http://the-orb.net/textbooks/westciv/papacy.html|archive-date=2003-09-18}}
*{{cite book|last=Lançon|first=Bertrand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaTzyXVX-NgC&pg=PA27|title=Rome in late antiquity: everyday life and urban change, AD 312-609|publisher=Routledge|others=Translated by Antonia Nevill|year=2000|isbn=978-0-415-92975-2|location=New York|author-link=Bertrand Lançon}}
*{{cite book|last=Larchet|first=Jean-Claude|title=The Petrine ministry: Catholics and Orthodox in dialogue: academic symposium held at the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity|publisher=Paulist Press|others=Translated by Brian Farrell|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8091-4334-4|editor-last=Kasper|editor-first=Walter|chapter=The question of the Roman primacy in the thought of Saint Maximus the Confessor|quote=The question of the primacy of the Roman pope has been and remains, together with the question of the Filioque, one of the main causes of separation between the Latin Church and the Orthodox churches and one of the principal obstacles to their union.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mxbj99yRaQC&pg=PA188}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id=4748|title=Vatican I and the papal primacy|last=Larson|first=James|year=2003|website=catholicculture.org|publisher=Trinity Communications|location=Manassas, VA|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526001111/http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id=4748|archive-date=2015-05-26}} Reprint of {{cite journal|date=June 2003|title=An exposition of Vatican I's teaching on papal primacy in its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ (Pastor Aeternus)''|journal=Homiletic & Pastoral Review|pages=50–55|issn=0018-4268}}
*{{cite book|last=Lossky|first=Vladimir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxqvWwPSCSwC&pg=PA176|title=The mystical theology of the Eastern Church|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|others=Translated by members of the Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius|year=1976|isbn=978-0-913836-31-6|edition=reprint|location=Crestwood, NY|author-link=Vladimir Lossky|orig-year=1957}}
*{{cite book|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k51603x|title=Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio|publisher=H. Welter|year=1902|editor-last=Mansi|editor-first=Giovanni D.|editor-link=Giovanni Domenico Mansi|edition=facsimile|volume=19|location=Paris|language=la|chapter=Concilium Remense|oclc=682472075|ref={{sfnRef|Mansi|''Concilium Remense''}}|orig-year=1774}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.remnantnewspaper.com/2011-0331-statement-of-reservations-beatification.htm|title=A statement of reservations concerning the impending beatification of Pope John Paul II|date=2011-03-21|website=remnantnewspaper.com|publisher=The Remnant Newspaper|location=Forest Lake, MN|type=Petition|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110325121738/http://www.remnantnewspaper.com/2011-0331-statement-of-reservations-beatification.htm|archive-date=2011-03-25|editor-last1=Matt|editor-first1=Michael J.}}
*{{cite book|last=McBrien|first=Richard P.|url=https://archive.org/details/churchevolutiono0000mcbr|title=The church: the evolution of Catholicism|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2008|isbn=978-0-06-124521-3|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/churchevolutiono0000mcbr/page/99 99]|url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book|last=McCarthy|first=James G.|title=The Gospel according to Rome: comparing Catholic Tradition and the Word of God|publisher=Harvest House|year=1995|isbn=978-1-56507-107-0|location=Eugene, OR}}
*{{cite book|last=Merle d'Aubigné|first=Jean Henri|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afgpAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA27|title=History of the Reformation in the sixteenth century|publisher=Blackie and Son|others=Translated by David D. Scott|year=1846|volume=1|location=Edinburgh|page=27|author-link=Jean-Henri Merle d'Aubigné|access-date=2011-11-01}} This work is found in numerous revisions.
*{{cite book|title=The primacy of Peter: essays in ecclesiology and the early church|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-88141-125-6|editor-last=Meyendorff|editor-first=John|edition=reprinted and rev.|location=Crestwood, NY|orig-year=1963}}
**{{harvc|last=Afanassieff|first=Nicholas|chapter=The church which presides in love|pp=|in=Meyendorff|year=1995}}
**{{harvc|last=Kesich|first=Veselin|chapter=Peter's primacy in the New Testament and the early tradition|pp=|in=Meyendorff|year=1995}}
**{{harvc|last=Schmemann|first=Alexander|chapter=The idea of primacy in Orthodox ecclesiology|pp=|in=Meyendorff|year=1995}}
*{{cite book|last1=Miller|first1=J. Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njXIJaDZhV4C&pg=PA203|title=The divine right of the papacy in recent ecumenical theology|publisher=Gregorian University Press|year=1980|isbn=9788876521898|series=Analecta Gregoriana|volume=218|location=Rome|issn=0066-1376|oclc=7634405}}
*{{cite book|last=Misner|first=Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9g3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA72|title=Papacy and development: Newman and the primacy of the Pope|publisher=Brill|year=1976|isbn=978-90-04-04466-1|series=Studies in the history of Christian thought|volume=15|location=Leiden}}
*{{cite book|last=Newman|first=John Henry|url=https://archive.org/details/a676975100newmuoft|title=An essay on the development of Christian doctrine|publisher=Longmans, Green|year=1888|edition=6th|location=London; New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/a676975100newmuoft/page/148 148]–166|oclc=676797352|orig-year=1845}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.scoba.us/resources/orthodox-catholic/response-ravenna.html|title=A common response to the Joint International Commission for the Theological Dialogue Between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church regarding the Ravenna Document ' ''Ecclesiological and Canonical Consequences of the Sacramental Nature of the Church: Ecclesial Communion, Conciliarity and Authority'' '|author=North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation|author-link=North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation|date=2009-10-24|website=scoba.us|publisher=[[Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas]]|location=Washington, DC|publication-place=New York|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612044157/http://www.scoba.us/resources/orthodox-catholic/response-ravenna.html|archive-date=2010-06-12|ref={{sfnRef|NAOCTC|2009}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Nichols|first=Aidan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hje62q52XNsC&pg=PA202|title=Rome and the Eastern Churches: a study in schism|publisher=Ignatius Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1-58617-282-4|edition=2nd|location=San Francisco}}
*{{cite book|last=Nichols|first=Terence L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRG3L0eCh7AC&pg=PA113|title=That all may be one: hierarchy and participation in the Church|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8146-5857-4|location=Collegeville, MN}}
*{{cite book|last=O'Malley|first=John W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sWHwrmZowu8C&pg=PA11|title=A history of the popes: from Peter to the present|publisher=Rowland & Littlefield|year=2010|isbn=978-1-58051-227-5|location=Lanham, MD|orig-year=2009}}
*{{cite book|last=Ott|first=Ludwig|title=Fundamentals of Catholic dogma|publisher=B. Herder|others=Translated by Patrick Lynch|year=1960|editor-last=Bastible|editor-first=James|edition=4th|location=St. Louis, MO|oclc=1265696}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.biblicalcatholic.com/apologetics/num7.htm|title=Pope Gregory the Great and the 'Universal Bishop' controversy|author=P (pseud. of unknown)|date=July 1995|website=biblicalcatholic.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811185930/http://www.biblicalcatholic.com/apologetics/num7.htm|archive-date=2014-08-11|ref={{sfnRef|P (pseud.)|1995}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Phan|first=Peter C.|title=The gift of the church: a textbook on ecclesiology in honor of Patrick Granfield, O.S.B.|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8146-5931-1|editor-last=Phan|editor-first=Peter C.|location=Collegeville, MN|chapter=A North American ecclesiology: the achievement of Patrick Granfield|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2knW3bIxIYgC&pg=PA486}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Schilling|first=Johannes|year=2005|title=Pope, Papacy|editor1-last=Fahlbusch|editor1-first=Erwin|editor2-last=Bromiley|editor2-first=Geoffrey W.|others=Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley|encyclopedia=The encyclopedia of Christianity|location=Grand Rapids, MI|publisher=Eerdmans|volume=4|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA272}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=3218|title=The battle over primacy|last=Shaw|first=Russell|year=2000|website=catholicculture.org|publisher=Trinity Communications|location=Manassas, VA}} Reprint of {{cite journal|date=January 2000|title=The battle over primacy|journal=Crisis|pages=25–27|issn=1535-332X}}
*{{cite book|last1=Shotwell|first1=James T.|title=The See of Peter|last2=Loomis|first2=Louise Ropes|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1927|series=Records of civilization, sources and studies|location=New York|oclc=614952967}}
*{{cite web|url=http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/en/homepage/inquiries-and-interviews/detail/articolo/germania-germany-alemania-8380/|title=Ratzinger's Ecumenism between light and shadows|last=Speciale|first=Alessandro|date=2011-09-25|work=La Stampa|location=Turin, IT|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731130439/http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/en/inquiries-and-interviews/detail/articolo/germania-germany-alemania-8380/|archive-date=2013-07-31}}
*{{cite book|last=Ray|first=Stephen K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RnQiVgUn728C&pg=PA11|title=Upon this rock: St. Peter and the primacy of Rome in scripture and the early church|publisher=Ignatius Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-89870-723-6|series=Modern apologetics library|location=San Francisco}}
*{{cite book|last=Sánchez|first=Jesús Hortal|title=De Initio potestatis primatialis romani pontificis: investigatio historico-juridica a tempore Sancti Gregorii Magni usque ad tempus Clementis V|publisher=Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana|year=1968|series=Analecta Gregoriana|volume=167|location=Rome|language=la|oclc=864705|ref={{sfnRef|Sanchez|1968}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Schatz|first=Klaus|title=Papal primacy: from its origins to the present|publisher=Liturgical Press|others=Translated by John A. Otto and Linda M. Maloney|year=1996|isbn=978-0-8146-5522-1|location=Collegeville, MN|chapter=The development of the primacy in the first five centuries|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeH4OKYflbkC&pg=PA1}}
*{{cite book|last=Schimmelpfennig|first=Bernhard|url=https://archive.org/details/papacy0000schi_x5t1|title=The papacy|publisher=Columbia University Press|others=Translated by James Sievert|year=1992|isbn=978-0-231-07515-2|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/papacy0000schi_x5t1/page/27 27]|url-access=registration}}
*{{Catholic|prescript=|last=Shahan|first=Thomas|title=First Council of Constantinople|volume=4|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308a.htm}}
*{{cite book|last=Sherrard|first=Philip|title=Church, papacy, and schism: a theological enquiry|publisher=S.P.C.K.|year=1978|isbn=978-0-281-03620-2|location=London}}
*{{cite book|last=Tajra|first=Harry W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d--2wss0t1cC&pg=PA180|title=The martyrdom of St. Paul: historical and judicial context, traditions, and legends|journal=Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. 2. Reihe.|publisher=Mohr|year=1994|isbn=978-3-16-146239-9|series=Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 2|volume=67|location=Tübingen|issn=0340-9570}}
*{{cite wikisource|author=Tertullian|class=book|year=1885|plaintitle=The Ante-Nicene Fathers: the writings of the fathers down to A.D. 325|wslink=Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume IV/Tertullian: Part Fourth|volume=4|chapter=On Modesty/Chapter 21|edition=American|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|editor1-last=Schaff|editor2-last=Roberts|editor3-last=Donaldson|editor4-last=Coxe|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-first=Alexander|editor3-first=James|editor4-first=A. Cleveland|ref={{sfnRef|Tertullian|''On modesty'', 21}}|display-editors=1}}
*{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Ernest T.|title=Through the ages: a history of the Christian church|publisher=CLC Press|year=1965|series=Covenant life curriculum|location=Richmond, VA}}
*{{cite book|last=Ware|first=Timothy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f7D-5Q-Q19MC&pg=PA28|title=The Orthodox Church|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1993|isbn=978-0-14-014656-1|edition=New|series=Penguin religion and mythology|location=London [u.a.]}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.the-highway.com/Matt16.18_Webster.html|title=The Church Fathers' interpretation of the Rock of Matthew 16:18&thinsp;: an historical refutation of the claims of Roman Catholicism|last=Webster|first=William A.|website=the-highway.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020625185244/http://the-highway.com/Matt16.18_Webster.html|archive-date=2002-06-25}} Possibly based on {{cite book|last=Webster|first=William A.|title=The Church of Rome at the bar of history|publisher=Banner of Truth Trust|year=1995|isbn=978-0-85151-673-8|location=Edinburgh|pages=43–ff}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Wetterau|first=Bruce|title=World history |year=1994|encyclopedia=World history: a dictionary of important people, places, and events from ancient times to the present|location=New York|publisher=H. Holt|isbn=978-0-8050-2350-3|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistorydict00wett}}
*{{Source-attribution|sentence=yes|{{cite book|last=Woywod|first=Stanislaus|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Callistus|year=1948|orig-year=©1943|title=A practical commentary on the Code of canon law|location=New York|publisher=J. F. Wagner|volume=1|edition=Rev. and enl.|oclc=746242376|hdl=2027/mdp.35112104152493}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Whelton|first=Michael|title=Two paths: papal monarchy, collegial tradition|publisher=Regina Orthodox Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-9649141-5-5|location=Salisbury, MA}}
*{{cite web|url=https://02varvara.wordpress.com/2010/09/24/catholics-and-orthodox-discuss-the-role-of-the-pope-of-rome-in-vienna-meeting/|title=Catholics and Orthodox discuss the role of the Pope of Rome in Vienna meeting|date=2010-09-24|website=02varvara.wordpress.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718084916/http://02varvara.wordpress.com/2010/09/24/catholics-and-orthodox-discuss-the-role-of-the-pope-of-rome-in-vienna-meeting/|archive-date=2011-07-18|access-date=2015-05-26|ref={{sfnRef|''02varvara.wordpress.com''}}}}{{Self-published source|date=May 2015}}{{tertiary source|biblio=yes|date=May 2015}} Translated from {{cite web|url=http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=37468|title=-: ''' 1000- '''|date=2010-09-21|website=interfax-religion.ru|location=Moscow|language=ru|script-title=ru:Католики и православные пытаются преодолеть главную причину 1000-летнего раскола в Церкви|trans-title=Catholics and Orthodox trying to overcome main reason for 1000 year schism in the Church|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018002418/http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=37468|archive-date=2010-10-18|access-date=2015-05-26}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite web|title=Synodality and Primacy During the First Millennium: Towards a Common Understanding in Service to the Unity of the Church (Chieti, 21 September 2016)|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/ch_orthodox_docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20160921_sinodality-primacy_en.html|website=www.vatican.va|access-date=2020-05-20}}

{{Popes}}
{{History of the Roman Catholic Church}}
{{Catholicism}}

[[Category:Catholic theology and doctrine]]
[[Category:Holy See]]
[[Category:Catholicism-related controversies]]
[[Category:Papal primacy]]
[[Category:Western Christianity]]