View source for Parable of the Prodigal Son

{{Short description|Parable from the Gospel of Luke}}
{{Redirect-several|The Prodigal Son|The Return of the Prodigal Son}}
[[File:Pompeo Batoni 003.jpg|thumb|''The Return of the Prodigal Son'' (1773) by [[Pompeo Batoni]]]]

The '''Parable of the Prodigal Son''' (also known as the parable of the '''Two Brothers''', '''Lost Son''', '''Loving Father''', or of the '''Forgiving Father'''; {{langx|el|Παραβολή του Ασώτου Υιού|translit=Parabolē tou Asōtou Huiou}})<ref>"[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+15%3A11-32 The Parable of the Lost Son]." [[Bible|''Holy Bible'']] ([[New International Version]]). – via ''BibleGateway'', Biblica, Inc. 2011 [1973].</ref><ref>"[https://www.biblegateway.com/resources/ivp-nt/Parable-Forgiving-Father Parable of the Forgiving Father (15:11-32)]." Holy Bible (''IVP New Testament Commentaries''). – via ''[[BibleGateway.com|BibleGateway]]''. 2016.</ref> is one of the [[parables of Jesus]] in [[Bible|the Bible]], appearing in [[Luke 15]]:11–32.<ref group="lower-roman">{{bibleverse|Luke|15:11–32|NIV}}</ref> In Luke 15, Jesus tells this story, along with those of a man with 100 sheep and a woman with ten coins, to a group of [[Pharisees]] and religious leaders who criticized him for welcoming and eating with tax collectors and others seen as sinners.

The Prodigal Son is the third and final parable of a cycle on redemption, following the parables of [[Parable of the Lost Sheep|the Lost Sheep]] and [[Parable of the Lost Coin|the Lost Coin]]. In the [[Revised Common Lectionary]] and [[Roman Rite]] Catholic [[Lectionary]], this parable is read on the fourth Sunday of [[Lent]] (in [[Lectionary#Three year cycle|Year C]]);<ref>{{cite web |work= TextWeek.com |title= Lent 4C |access-date= 2013-09-12 |url= http://www.textweek.com/yearc/lentc4.htm }}</ref> in the latter it is also included in the long form of the Gospel on the 24th Sunday of [[Ordinary Time]] in Year C, along with the preceding two parables of the cycle.<ref>{{cite web |work= TextWeek.com |title= Proper 19 (24th Sunday of Ordinary Time) |access-date= 2016-09-11 |url= http://www.textweek.com/yearc/properc19.htm }}</ref> In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] it is read on the [[Great Lent|Sunday of the Prodigal Son]].

==Narrative==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Return of the Prodigal Son (Le retour de l'enfant prodigue) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|left|[[James Tissot]] – ''The Return of the Prodigal Son'' ({{lang|fr|Le retour de l'enfant prodigue}}) – [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]

The parable begins with a wealthy man who has two sons, the younger of whom asks for his share of the man's estate. The implication is that the son did not want to wait for his father's death to receive his inheritance but instead wanted it immediately. The father agrees and divides his estate between the two sons.

Upon receiving his portion of the inheritance, the younger son travels to a distant country, where he squanders his wealth through reckless living. He runs out of money just before a severe [[famine]] strikes the land, leaving him desperately poor and forced to take a filthy and low-paying job as a [[swineherd]]. He reaches the point of envying the food of the pigs he is feeding. At this time, he finally comes to his senses:<ref group="lower-roman">{{Bibleverse|Luke|15:17–20|KJV}}</ref>

{{blockquote|And when he came to himself, he said, How many hired servants of my father's have bread enough and to spare, and I perish with hunger! I will arise and go to my father and will say unto him, Father, I have sinned against heaven, and before thee, and am no more worthy to be called thy son: make me as one of thy hired servants.

And he arose and came to his father. But when he was yet a great way off, his father saw him, and had compassion, and ran, and fell on his neck, and kissed him.|Luke 15:17–20, [[King James Version|KJV]]|title=|source=}}

This implies that the father was watching hopefully for the son's return. The son starts his rehearsed speech, admitting his sins, and declaring himself unworthy of being his father's son but does not even finish before his father accepts him back without hesitation.<ref>[[William Robertson Nicoll|Nicoll, William R.]], ed. 1897. [https://biblehub.com/commentaries/egt/luke/15.htm Luke 15:21] in ''Expositor's Greek Testament''. New York: [[George H. Doran Company]]. Retrieved 20 May 2020. – via ''Bible Hub''. Some ancient authorities completed verse 21 in line with the Son's prepared statement.</ref> The father calls for his servants to dress the son in the finest robe and put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet and to slaughter the "[[fatted calf]]" for a celebratory meal.

The older son, who was at work in the fields, hears the sound of celebration and is told by a slave about the return of his younger brother. He is not impressed and becomes angry. He also has a speech for his father:<ref group="lower-roman">{{Bibleverse|Luke|15:29–30|KJV}}</ref>

{{blockquote|And he answering said to his father, Lo, these many years do I serve thee, neither transgressed I at any time thy commandment: and yet thou never gavest me a kid, that I might make merry with my friends: but as soon as this thy son was come, which hath devoured thy living with harlots, thou hast killed for him the fatted calf.|Luke 15:29–30, KJV|title=|source=}}

The parable stops with the father explaining that while the older son has always been present and that everything the father owns also belongs to the older son, because the younger son had returned, in a sense, from the dead, celebration was necessary:<ref group="lower-roman">{{Bibleverse|Luke|15:32|KJV}}</ref>

{{blockquote|It was meet that we should make merry, and be glad: for this thy brother was dead, and is alive again; and was lost, and is found.|Luke 15:32, KJV|title=|source=}}


==Interpretation==
[[File:De_verloren_zoon,_Peter_Paul_Rubens,_(1618),_Koninklijk_Museum_voor_Schone_Kunsten_Antwerpen,_781.jpg|thumb|left|''[[The Prodigal Son (painting, Rubens)|The Prodigal Son]]'', a 1618 painting by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] portraying the son as a [[swineherd]]]]
[[File:Sebald Beham Der verlorene Sohn hütet seine Schweine.jpg|thumb|Engraving of the Prodigal Son as a swineherd by [[Hans Sebald Beham]], 1538]]
The opening, "A man had two sons" is a storyteller's trope and would immediately bring to mind [[Cain and Abel]], [[Ishmael]] and [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob and Esau]]. Jesus then confounds the listeners' expectations when the younger son is shown to be foolish.<ref name="Levine">Levine, Amy-Jill. 25 August 2014. "[https://www.christiancentury.org/article/2014-08/parable-and-its-baggage What the Prodigal Son story doesn't mean]." ''[[The Christian Century]]''.</ref>

While a number of commentators see the request of the younger son for his share of the inheritance as "brash, even insolent"<ref name="AH">Hultgren, Arland J. 2002. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=P2UvmRVLF18C&pg=PA70 The Parables of Jesus: A Commentary]''. MI: [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|Eerdmans Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-8028-6077-X}}. pp. 70–82.</ref> and "tantamount to wishing that the father was dead,"<ref name="AH"/> Jewish legal scholar [[Bernard Jackson (professor)|Bernard Jackson]] says "Jewish sources give no support to [the idea] that the prodigal, in seeking the advance, wishes his father dead."<ref name=Levine/>

The young man's actions do not lead to success; he squanders his inheritance and he eventually becomes an indentured servant, with the degrading job of looking after pigs, and even envying them for the [[carob pod]]s they eat.<ref name="AH"/> This recalls [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] 29:3: "Whoever loves wisdom gives joy to his father, but whoever consorts with harlots squanders his wealth."<ref group="lower-roman">{{Bibleverse|Proverbs|29:3}} ([[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]]) – via Oremus

[http://www.usccb.org/bible/prv/29:3#24029003 Proverbs 29:3] ([[New American Bible Revised Edition|NABRE]]) – via [[United States Conference of Catholic Bishops|U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops]]</ref>

Upon his return, his father treats the young man with a generosity far more than he has a right to expect.<ref name="AH" /> He is given the best robe, a ring for his finger, and sandals for his feet.<ref group="lower-roman">{{Bibleverse|Luke|15:22}}</ref> Jewish philosopher [[Philo]] observes:<ref name=Levine/>

{{blockquote|Parents often do not lose thought for their wastrel (''asoton'') children{{nbsp}}[...] In the same way, God too{{nbsp}}[...] takes thought also for those who live a misspent life, thereby giving them time for reformation, and also keeping within the bounds His own merciful nature.}}

The [[Pesikta Rabbati]] has a similar story:<ref name="Levine" />

{{blockquote|A king had a son who had gone astray from his father on a journey of a hundred days. His friends said to him, 'Return to your father.' He said, 'I cannot.' Then his father sent word, 'Return as far as you can, and I will come the rest of the way to you.' So God says, 'Return to me, and I will return to you.'}}

The older son, in contrast, seems to think in terms of "law, merit, and reward,"<ref name="AH" /> rather than "love and graciousness."<ref name="AH" /> He may represent the [[Pharisees]] who were criticizing Jesus.<ref name="AH" />

[[Leviticus Rabbah]] 13:4 also contains a short saying that matches the character of the parable:<ref>{{citation |url=https://intertextual.bible/text/luke-15.16-leviticus-rabbah-13.4 |title= intertextual.bible/text/luke-15.16-leviticus-rabbah-13.4}}</ref>

{{blockquote|R. Aha has said: When a Jew has to resort to carobs, he repents.}}

The last few verses of the parable summarize the tale in accordance with the Jewish teaching of the two ways of acting: the way of life (obedience) and the way of death (sin).<ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5181-didache Jewish Encyclopedia: Didache]</ref> God, according to Judaism, rejoices over and grants more graces to repentant sinners than righteous souls who do not need repentance.<ref>[[Kaufmann Kohler|Kohler, Kaufmann]], and Max Schlesinger. 2011 [1906]. "[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12680-repentance Repentance (Hebr. "teshubah")]" [[The Jewish Encyclopedia|''Jewish Encyclopedia'']]</ref>

Following the [[Parable of the Lost Sheep]] and the [[Parable of the Lost Coin]], this is the last of three parables about loss and redemption that Jesus tells after the Pharisees and religious leaders accuse him of welcoming and eating with "sinners."<ref name="RNL">[[Richard Longenecker|Longenecker, Richard N.]] 2000. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JojVvncUgk0C&pg=PA201 The Challenge of Jesus' Parables]''. MI: Eerdmans. {{ISBN|0-8028-4638-6}}. pp. 201–13.</ref> The father's joy described in the parable reflects divine love:<ref name="RNL" /> the "boundless mercy of God,"<ref name="Ignatius">Hahn, Scott, Curtis Mitch, and Dennis Walters. 2001. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZavVZE0xIq8C&pg=PA51 Gospel of Luke: The Ignatius Study Guide]'' (2nd ed.). [[Ignatius Press]]. {{ISBN|0-89870-819-2}}. p. 51.</ref> and "God's refusal to limit the measure of his grace."<ref name="RNL" />

===Catholic===
[[Justus Knecht]], like others, breaks this parable into three parts, noting that, "The father in the parable signifies God; the elder son, the just; and the younger son, the sinner." In the first part:

{{blockquote|Man begins to fall away from God by allowing unlawful desires to take possession of his heart. In consequence, he will soon come to regard God's commandments as so many fetters, and to long for greater licence. He loses all taste for prayer and the word of God, and imagines that he would be a happier man if he could live according to his passions. Having thus separated himself inwardly from God, an outward separation speedily follows. He renounces the friendship of good men, neglects the services of the Church and the frequenting of the Sacraments, follows his own way, and shamelessly transgresses God's commandments. He then goes into a strange and distant land, namely further and further from God: The "far country", says [[St. Augustine]], "signifies the forgetfulness of God". Almighty God lets the sinner go his own way, for He has given to man free-will, and does not want a forced obedience, but an obedience springing from love.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture/XLV. The Parable of the Prodigal Son|XLV. The Parable of the Prodigal Son]]|title=A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture|year=1910|publisher=B. Herder|first=Friedrich Justus|last=Knecht|author-link=Justus Knecht}}</ref>}}

[[Roger Baxter]] in his ''Meditations'' describes the second part:

{{blockquote|As soon as this young prodigal had left his father's house he fell into misfortunes. "He began to be in want." Thus sinners who estrange themselves from the sacraments, from exhortation, and the company of the virtuous, soon begin to be in want of spiritual subsistence. "He joined himself to one of the citizens of that country," as a servant. Every sinner is a slave to the Devil; and as the citizen employed the prodigal youth in feeding swine, so the Devil employs his followers in gratifying their own sensual appetites, which brutalize human nature. The prodigal attempted to satisfy his hunger, by feeding on the husks of swine, but he did not succeed: neither can the sinner succeed in filling the capacity of his immortal soul by earthly gratifications.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=[[s:Meditations For Every Day In The Year/Historical Narratives#475|The Prodigal Son]]|title=Meditations For Every Day In The Year|year=1823|publisher=Benziger Brothers|first=Roger|last=Baxter|author-link=Roger Baxter|location=New York}}</ref>}}

===Orthodox===
In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the parable of the Prodigal Son is central to the Christian understanding emphasizing God's boundless love for humanity. Archpriest [[Victor Potapov (priest)|Victor Potapov]] encapsulates this as "a multitude of themes...difficult to enumerate", including the historical contrast between God's chosen people and the pagans, the nature of sin (one reason why the parable is read on the third Sunday before [[Great Lent]], also including the subsequent [[fasting]] time to encourage spiritual discipline and refreshment),<ref name="frjames">{{Cite web |last=Guirguis |first=Fr. James |date=March 5, 2024 |title=The Prodigal Son Was Hungry |url=https://orthochristian.com/158989.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318044159/https://orthochristian.com/158989.html |archive-date=March 18, 2024 |website=OrthoChristian}}</ref> and the process and blessings of repentance. The Father's forgiving embrace represents God's joy in receiving sinners who return to Him with humility and remorse. It is as an allegory of the Church, with elements like [[baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]] symbolized through the Father's gifts to his son.<ref name="avp">{{Cite web |last=Potapov |first=Archpriest Victor |date=February 4, 2018 |title=The Parable of the Prodigal Son |url=https://orthochristian.com/110401.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608080616/https://orthochristian.com/110401.html#:~:text=The%20younger%2C%20prodigal%20son%20is,which%20each%20man%20is%20endowed. |archive-date=June 8, 2023 |website=OrthoChristian}}</ref>

As Fr. Potapov cites, Saint [[Theophan the Recluse]] compares the sinner with a man sunk into a deep sleep, and in his turning to God he notes three psychological moments that correspond to the parable's events: 1. Awakening from the sleep of sin ({{Bible|Luke|15:17}}); 2. The ripening of resolve to forsake sin and dedicate himself to pleasing God ({{Bible|Luke|15:17-21}}); 3. Investing the sinner with divine power for this in the "Mysteries of Repentance and Communion".<ref name="avp" />

Fr. James Guirguis puts the message in both plainspoken terms, yet also quoting Saint [[Tikhon of Zadonsk]]:<ref name="frjames" />
{{Blockquote|How God longs to see us come home! How God longs to embrace us and forgive us and restore us to a place of honor, to celebrate our return! How God longs to see those who are dead, restored back to life and health so that they might dwell with Him!
The whole universe of God's mercy and forgiveness is open wide to receive those who will repent and return. May we do so without hesitation, as St. Tikhon<!-- minor spelling variant corrected for consistency --> of Zadonsk writes,
"Sinners that repent are still saved; both publicans and fornicators cleansed by repentance enter into the Kingdom of Heaven. The compassionate God still calls to Himself all that have turned away, and He awaits them and promises them mercy. The loving Father still receives His prodigal sons come back from a far country and He opens the doors of His house and clothes them in the best robe, and gives them each a ring on their hand and shoes on their feet and commands all the saints to rejoice in them." + ''St. Tikhon of Zadonsk: Journey to Heaven Part II: The Way of Salvation''}}

==Commemoration and use==
[[File:Prodigal Son CHS cathedral.jpg|thumb|right|[[Stained glass window]] based on the parable, [[Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist (Charleston, South Carolina)|Charleston, South Carolina]]]]

===Orthodox===
The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] traditionally reads this story on the Sunday of the Prodigal Son,<ref>{{cite web | title = Scripture Readings Throughout the Year | access-date = 2008-11-09 | url = http://www.stots.edu/article.php?id=51 }}</ref> which in their [[liturgical year]] is the Sunday before Meatfare Sunday and about two weeks before the beginning of [[Great Lent]]. One common {{transliteration|grc|[[kontakion]]}} [[hymn]] of the occasion reads:

{{poemquote|
I have recklessly forgotten Your glory, O Father;
And among sinners I have scattered the riches which You gave to me.
And now I cry to You as the Prodigal:
I have sinned before You, O merciful Father;
Receive me as a penitent and make me as one of Your hired servants.}}

===Roman Catholic===
In his 1984 [[apostolic exhortation]] titled, in Latin, {{lang|la|[[Reconciliatio et paenitentia]]}} ('Reconciliation and Penance'), [[Pope John Paul II]] used this parable to explain the process of conversion and [[Sacrament of Reconciliation|reconciliation]]. Emphasizing that [[God the Father]] is "rich in mercy" and always ready to forgive, he stated that reconciliation is a "gift on his part". He stated that for the Church her "mission of reconciliation is the initiative, full of compassionate love and mercy, of that God who is love."<ref>[[Catholic Church]]. 1998 [1984]. "[http://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_jp-ii_exh_02121984_reconciliatio-et-paenitentia.html Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation: Reconciliation and Penance of John Paul II]." Vatican: [[Vatican Publishing House|Libreria Editrice Vaticana]]. {{ISBN|0-87973-928-2}}. pp. 234–39. Retrieved 20 May 2020.</ref> He also explored the issues raised by this parable in his second [[encyclical]], {{lang|la|[[Dives in misericordia]]}} ('Rich in Mercy'), issued in 1980.<ref>[[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]]. 1980. "[[Dives in misericordia|Rich in Mercy]]" ([[encyclical]]). Vatican: [[Libreria Editrice Vaticana]].</ref>

==In the arts==
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn - Return of the Prodigal Son - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Rembrandt]], ''[[The Return of the Prodigal Son (Rembrandt)|The Return of the Prodigal Son]]'' 1662–1669 ([[Hermitage Museum]], [[St Petersburg]])]]
[[File:Gerard van Honthorst 004.jpg|thumb|[[Gerard van Honthorst]], 1623, like many works of the period, allows a genre scene with moral content.]]
===Visual art===
Of the roughly 30 parables in the [[Gospel|canonical Gospels]], the Parable of the Prodigal Son was one of four that were shown in [[medieval art]]—along with that of the [[Parable of the Ten Virgins|Wise and Foolish Virgins]], the [[Rich man and Lazarus|Dives and Lazarus]], and the [[Parable of the Good Samaritan|Good Samaritan]]—almost to the exclusion of the others, though not mixed in with the narrative scenes of the ''[[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]]''.<ref>[[Emile Mâle|Mâle, Emile]]. 1973 [1913]. ''The Gothic Image: Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century'' (1st ed.), translated by D. Nussey. London: [[HarperCollins|Collins]]. {{ISBN|978-0064300322}}. p. 195.</ref> (The [[Labourers in the Vineyard|Laborers in the Vineyard]] also appears in [[Early Medieval]] works.){{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Scenes of the prodigal son were a popular subject in [[Northern Renaissance|Northern Renaissance art]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Barbara |date=1986 |title=The Prodigal Son in Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Century Netherlandish Art: Depictions of the Parable and the Evolution of a Catholic Image |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3780633 |journal=Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art |volume=16 |issue=2/3 |pages=128–138 |doi=10.2307/3780633 |issn=0037-5411|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schwartz |first=Gary |date=1988 |title=Dutch Prints in the Age of Iconoclasm |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41823819 |journal=Print Quarterly |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=173–182 |issn=0265-8305}}</ref>   [[Albrecht Dürer|Albrecht Dürer's]] 1496 [[engraving]] is a famous example.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Albrecht Dürer (1471-1528) - The Prodigal Son |url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/800038/the-prodigal-son |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=www.rct.uk |language=en}}</ref> In the seventeenth-century, [[Rembrandt]] depicted several scenes from the parable, especially the final episode, which he etched, drew, or painted on several occasions during his career.<ref>Fleischer, Roland E., and Susan C. Scott. 1997. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jT1_ppbRQagC&pg=PA64 Rembrandt, Rubens, and the art of their time: recent perspectives]''. US: [[Penn State University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-915773-10-4}}. pp. 64-65.</ref> At least one of Rembrandt's works—''[[The Prodigal Son in the Brothel|The Prodigal Son in the Tavern]]'', is a portrait of himself as the son reveling with his wife.{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

''[[The Prodigal Son (Barnard)|The Prodigal Son]]'' is a sculpture in Harrisburg, [[Pennsylvania]], by [[George Grey Barnard]] that depicts the loving reunion of the father and son from the "Parable of the Prodigal Son."<ref name="Strazdes">Diana Strazdes, et al., ''American Painting and Sculpture to 1945 in the Carnegie Museum of Art'', (New York: Hudson Hills Press, 1992), pp. 55-58.</ref>

===Theater===
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the theme was such a sufficiently popular subject that the 'Prodigal Son play' can be seen as a subgenre of the English [[morality play]]. Examples include ''The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune'', ''[[The Disobedient Child]]'', and ''Acolastus''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Craig|first=Hardin|date=1950|title=Morality Plays and Elizabethan Drama|journal=Shakespeare Quarterly|volume=1|issue=2|page=71|doi=10.2307/2866678| jstor=2866678 |issn=0037-3222}}</ref>

===Notable adaptations for performance===
*Many of these adaptations added to the original Biblical material to lengthen the story. For example, ''[[The Prodigal]]'' (1955) film took considerable liberties, such as adding a temptress priestess of [[Astarte]] to the tale.<ref>Hammond, Paul. 2000. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zrueeqrAovkC&pg=PA70 The shadow and its shadow: surrealist writings on the cinema]'' (3rd ed.). San Francisco: [[City Lights Bookstore|City Lights Books]]. {{ISBN|0-87286-376-X}}. p. 70.</ref>

===Music===
* A 1680 ''Filius prodigus'', H.399 & H.399 a, oratorio by [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]]
* An [[The Prodigal Son (Sullivan)|1869 oratorio]] by [[Arthur Sullivan]];
* An 1880 opera by [[Amilcare Ponchielli]];
* A [[L'enfant prodigue (Debussy)|1884 cantata]] by [[Claude Debussy]];
* A [[The Prodigal Son (ballet)|1929 ballet]] choreographed by [[George Balanchine]] to music by [[Sergei Prokofiev]];
* A 1957 ballet by [[Hugo Alfvén]];<ref>Don Michael Randel, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9fjl7NhMmWwC&pg=PA13 The Harvard Biographical Dictionary of Music]'', Harvard University Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0-674-37299-9}}, pp. 13-14,</ref> and
* A [[The Prodigal Son (Britten)|1968 opera]] by [[Benjamin Britten]].

===Popular music===
The parable is referenced in the last verse of the traditional [[Irish traditional music|Irish folk]] tune "[[The Wild Rover]]":

{{poemquote|text=I'll go home to me parents, confess what I've done
and I'll ask them to pardon their prodigal son|author=|title=|source=}}

"[[Jump Around]]" by the Los Angeles rap group [[House of Pain]] (1992) includes a verse by member [[Everlast (musician)|Everlast]], who references the parable as well as the Bible itself:

{{poemquote|text=Word to your moms, I came to drop bombs
I got more rhymes than the Bible's got Psalms
And just like the Prodigal Son I've returned
Anyone stepping to me you'll get burned|author=|title=|source=}}

====Other references and semi-adaptations include====
* "The Return of the Prodigal Son" by trumpeter [[Freddie Hubbard]] appears as the second track in his album [[Backlash (Freddie Hubbard album)|Backlash]] (1967).<ref>{{Citation |title=Backlash - Freddie Hubbard {{!}} Album {{!}} AllMusic |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/backlash-mw0000651298 |access-date=2024-12-28 |language=en}}</ref>

* "Prodigal Son" by Reverend [[Robert Wilkins]], which tells the story of the parable, is probably better known by the [[Rolling Stones]] cover version, which is featured on ''[[Beggars Banquet]]'' (1968).
* "Prodigal Man", written by [[Ted Nugent]], was performed by [[The Amboy Dukes (band)|The Amboy Dukes]] as the second track of their third album [[Migration (The Amboy Dukes album)|''Migration'']] (1969)
* "[[Let Me In (The Osmonds song)|Let Me In]]" by [[The Osmonds]] presents a version of the parable as part of their [[Mormon music|Mormon]] [[concept album]] ''[[The Plan (The Osmonds album)|The Plan]]'' (1973), and was a hit song in its time.
* "Prodigal Son" by [[Steel Pulse]], featured on the British Reggae band's debut album ''[[Handsworth Revolution]]'' (1979), recreates the Biblical story as a [[Rastafari]]an parable.
* "Prodigal Son" by [[British rock music|British heavy-metal]] band [[Iron Maiden]] appears on their second album ''[[Killers (Iron Maiden album)|Killers]]'' (1981).
* "The First Time" by [[U2]], featured on ''[[Zooropa]]'' (1993), is based on the parable but suggests an alternate ending to the story.
* "Make Me A Servant" by [[Kelly Willard]] (1982) could be argued as being based on what the son says to his father when he returns home.
* "The Prodigal Son Suite" by [[Keith Green]] is featured on his ''[[The Prodigal Son (Keith Green album)|The Prodigal Son]]'' (1983) album and is one of the first posthumous releases by the late piano player and gospel singer.
* "When God Ran" by [[Benny Hester]] (1985), which is based on the parable, is another such song from the 1980s [[Christian music]] scene.
* "Who Cares?" by [[Extreme (band)|Extreme]] was influenced by the parable and appears on the album ''[[III Sides to Every Story]]'' (1992).
* "Prodigal Son" by [[Kid Rock]] appears on his second album ''[[The Polyfuze Method]]'' (1993). The Detroit musician later re-recorded the track for his ''[[The History of Rock|History of Rock]]'' (2000) [[compilation album]].
* "She Walked Away" by [[BarlowGirl]] was influenced by the parable<ref>[http://www.newreleasetuesday.com/albumdetail.php?album_id=253&sortflag=2&page=1 BarlowGirl by BarlowGirl CD review] at NewReleaseTuesday.com</ref> and is featured on the [[Christian rock]] trio's 2004 [[BarlowGirl (album)|self-titled album]].
* [[One (Neal Morse album)|''One'']], a progressive rock concept album released by [[Neal Morse]] in 2004, is based on the prodigal son story.
* "The Prodigal Son" by the [[indie rock]] band, [[Two Gallants (band)|Two Gallants]], as part of their ''[[What the Toll Tells]]'' (2006) album.
* "The Prodigal Son's Prayer" by country artist [[Dierks Bentley]], featured on the album ''[[Long Trip Alone]]'' (2006), is based on the son's perspective of coming home after he's ruined himself in the world.
* "Please Come Home" by [[Dustin Kensrue]] is the titular song of the [[Please Come Home|album of the same name]] released in 2007.<ref>[http://www.youthministry.com/dustin-kensrue Dustin Kensrue] at YouthMinistry.com</ref> 
* "Prodigal Son" by [[Bad Religion]] is featured on [[New Maps of Hell (Bad Religion album)|''New Maps of Hell'']] (2007).
* "Prodigal Son" by rock band [[Sevendust]] is featured on ''[[Chapter VII: Hope & Sorrow|Chapter VII: Hope and Sorrow]]'' (2008).
* "Modern Day Prodigal Son" by [[Brantley Gilbert]] is featured on [[A Modern Day Prodigal Son|the album of the same name]] from 2009.
* "Prodigal Son" by [[Gideon (band)|Gideon]] appears on the [[post-hardcore]] band's second album ''[[Milestone (Gideon album)|Milestone]]'' (2012).
* The parable is used as inspiration for several songs in [[The Oh Hellos]]' album ''Through the Deep Dark Valley''.
* "Prodigal Son" by [[Jamie's Elsewhere]], a post-hardcore band.
* "[[Left Hand Free]]" by English indie rock band [[alt-J]] (2014) references the parable in the first verse.
* "Prodigal" by [[Sidewalk Prophets]] is included in the Christian band's ''[[Something Different (Sidewalk Prophets album)|Something Different]]'' (2015) album. The song is uplifting, with lyrics that are directed towards the titular Son from the parable, or any person who is or has felt like they are in a similar situation.
* "When the Prodigal Comes Home" by gospel artists [[Tribute Quartet]] (2016).
* "Fire in Bone" is a retelling of the parable by the rock band [[the Killers]], featured on their album ''[[Imploding the Mirage]]'' (2020).
*"Prodigal" by Texas southern rock band [[Blacktop Mojo]] on their album ''Burn The Ships'' (2017).

===Literature===
[[File:L Spada Regreso del hijo pródigo Museo del Louvre.jpg|thumb|right|The Return of the Prodigal Son ([[Leonello Spada]], [[Louvre]], [[Paris]])]]
Another literary tribute to this parable is Dutch theologian [[Henri Nouwen]]'s 1992 book, ''The Return of the Prodigal Son: A Story of Homecoming'', in which he describes his own spiritual journey infused with understanding, based on an encounter with [[Rembrandt]]'s painting that depicts the son's return. The book deals with three personages: the younger, prodigal son; the [[self-righteous]], resentful older son; and the [[compassion]]ate father—all of whom the author identifies with personally.<ref>LaNoue, Deirdre. 2000. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=OS2u8ZoktZYC&pg=PA45 The Spiritual Legacy of Henri Nouwen]'', [[Continuum Books|Continuum]]. {{ISBN|0-8264-1283-1}}. p. 45.</ref> An earlier work with similarities to the parable is "''[[Le retour de l'enfant prodigue]]''" ('The Return of the Prodigal Son'), a short story by [[André Gide]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Martin |last=Turnell |title= André Gide and the Disintegration of the Protestant Cell |journal=Yale French Studies |publisher=Yale University Press |issue=7 |pages=21–31}}</ref>

[[Rudyard Kipling]] wrote a poem giving an interpretation of the younger brother's perspective. The poem appears as the heading to the fifth chapter, titled "The Prodigal Son", of his 1901 novel ''[[Kim (novel)|Kim]]''.<ref>[[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling, Rudyard]]. 2017 [1901]. "[http://www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/poems_prodigal.htm The Prodigal Son]," edited with notes by P. Holberton. ''[[The Kipling Society]]''. Also available via "''[http://famouspoetsandpoems.com/poets/rudyard_kipling/poems/14457 Famous Poets And Poems]''. Retrieved 20 May 2020.</ref><ref>Adam, Andrew K. M. 2001. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=GqkPR4EehX0C&pg=PA202 Postmodern Interpretations of the Bible: A reader].'' [[Chalice Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8272-2970-4}}. pp. 202–03.</ref>

The Parable is a recurring theme in the works of [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], who interpreted it in a different way to the conventional reading. Rilke's version is not so concerned with redemption and the [[forgiveness]] of family: the love of the family, and human love in general, was seen as less worthy than unreciprocated love, which is the purest form of love. In loving the family less, the Son can love God more, even if this love is not returned.<ref>[[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke, Rainer Maria]]. 2000 [1907]. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=wRCJwgmfhzYC&pg=PA41 The Departure of the Prodigal Son]." Pp. 41 in ''[[New Poems]]'' (bilingual ed.), translated by S. Cohn. Evanston, IL: [[Northwestern University Press]].</ref><ref>[[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke, Rainer Maria]]. 2008 [1910]. ''[[The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge]]'', translated by [[Burton Pike|B. Pike]]. Champaign, IL: [[Dalkey Archive Press]]. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bcNpVv9wpPsC&pg=PA196 p. 196].</ref>

The theme of the Prodigal Son plays a major role in [[Anne Tyler]]'s novel ''[[A Spool of Blue Thread]]''.<ref name="Sinkler, R. P. 2015">{{cite news|author=Sinkler, Rebecca Pepper|date=February 13, 2015|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/15/books/review/a-spool-of-blue-thread-by-anne-tyler.html?emc=eta1|title=Sunday Book Review: 'A Spool of Blue Thread' by Anne Tyler|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=October 5, 2015}}</ref>

The parable is also referred to in two comedies by [[William Shakespeare]], specifically ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'' and ''[[As You Like It]]'', as well as in Shakespeare's romance, ''[[The Winter's Tale]]''.<ref group="lower-roman">Shakespeare, ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'' 4.4.89.</ref>

In one of his clemency petitions to the [[Bombay Presidency]] in 1913, the Indian independence activist [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] described himself as a "prodigal son" longing to return to the "parental doors of the government".

==Similar parable in Mahayana Buddhism==
A parable of a lost son can also be found in the [[Mahayana]] Buddhist ''[[Lotus Sutra]]''.<ref name="sutra">[[Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern|Kern, Johan H. C.]], trans. 2011 [1884]. "[https://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/lotus/lot04.htm Disposition]." Ch. 4 in [[Lotus Sutra|''Saddharma Pundarîka or the Lotus of the True Law'']], (''[[Sacred Books of the East]]'' 21), edited by [[Max Müller|M. Müller]]. Oxford: Evinity Publishing. – via [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]].</ref><ref>Suzuki, Takayasu. 2015. "[https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ibk/63/3/63_KJ00009915786/_pdf/-char/en Two parables on 'The wealthy father and the poor son' in the 'Saddharmapundarika and the Mahaberisutra'] (PDF)." ''Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies'' 63(3):1263–70.

{{doi|10.4259/ibk.63.3_1263}}. {{ISSN|1884-0051}}.</ref> The two parables share the premise of a father and son being reunited after a time apart, and several scholars have assumed that one version has influenced the other or that both texts share a common origin.<ref name="lai">Lai, Whalen W. 1981. "[https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/view/8551/2458 The Buddhist 'Prodigal Son': A Story of Misperceptions]." ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 4(2):91–98. {{ISSN|0193-600X}}</ref> However, an influence of the biblical story on the Lotus sutra is very unlikely given the early dating of the stratum of the sutra containing the Buddhist parable.<ref name="lai"/>

Both parables document a son who leaves a father. In the Lotus sutra, there is a lapse of decades after which the poor son no longer recognises his wealthy father and is terrified of his father's accumulated power and wealth. When the father sends out some attendants to welcome the son, the son panics. The father then lets the son leave without telling him of their kinship, providing him with a heap of straw to sleep on and employment clearing a pile of dirt.<ref name="The Lotus Sutra">{{cite web |last1=Kern |first1=H |title=Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXII |url=http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/Lotus_Sutra.htm |website=Buddhism.org |access-date=2 February 2023}}</ref> 

As the decades pass, the father gradually conditions the son to his company and gets him accustomed to special honors. Close to death, the wealthy man reveals his kinship with a public announcement to the whole community.<ref name="sutra" /> The sutra applies the story to the human quest for omniscience which is unexpectedly received. In the Buddhist parable, the father symbolises the Buddha, and the son symbolises any human being. Their kinship symbolises that any being has [[Buddha nature]]. The concealment of the kinship of the father to his son is regarded as a skillful means ([[Sanskrit]]: [[Upaya|''upāya'']]).<ref>{{cite book|title=Opening the Heart of the Cosmos|last=Nhất Hạnh|first=Thích|pages=37–41|isbn=9781888375336|publisher=Parallax Press|year=2003}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Ministry of Jesus]]
* [[Parable of the Workers in the Vineyard]] regarding the theme of God's unmerited grace, as distinguished from the idea of "earning" God's favour.

==References==

=== Verses ===
{{Reflist|group=lower-roman}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Further reading==
*[[David Brooks (commentator)|Brooks, David]]. 17 February 2014. "[https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/18/opinion/brooks-the-prodigal-sons.html The Prodigal Sons]." ''[[The New York Times]]''.
*[[Raniero Cantalamessa|Cantalamessa, Raniero]]. 17 March 2007. "Comments on Fourth Sunday of Lent Readings." ''[[Zenit News Agency]]''.
*Dimopoulos, George. 24 February 2008. "The Prodigal Son." ''Orthodoxy and the World''.
* Holgate, David A. 1999. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=AqrXUmDm-PEC Prodigality, liberality and meanness in the parable of the prodigal son: a Greco-Roman perspective on Luke 15.11-32].'' Continuum. {{ISBN|1-84127-025-3}}.
*Horbury, Ezra. 2019. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ORJIwwEACAAJ Prodigality in Early Modern Drama].'' [[Boydell & Brewer]]. {{ISBN|978 1 78744 606 9}}
*[[G. Campbell Morgan|Morgan, G. Campbell]]. ''The Parable of the Father's Heart''.
*[[Tim Keller (pastor)|Keller, Timothy]]. 2011. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1594484023/ref=cm_sw_r_tw_dp_x_myhLFbMH8ZG8Z ''The Prodigal God: Recovering the Heart of the Christian Faith'']. {{ISBN|978-1594484025}}.
*{{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture/XLV. The Parable of the Prodigal Son|The Parable of the Prodigal Son]]|title=A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture|year=1910|publisher=B. Herder|first=Friedrich Justus|last=Knecht}}

<br />

* Di Rocco, E., ed. 2013. "{{Langx|it|Il romanzo della misericordia. La parabola del figliol prodigo nella letteratura|label=none|italic=no}}." ''Studium'' 4(109).
* — 2013. "{{Langx|it|Leggere le Scritture con le Scritture: Ugo di Santo Caro e Nicola di Lira lettori di Luca (15, 11-32)|label=none|italic=no}}." ''Studium'' 4(109).
* — 2014. "{{Langx|it|Il romanzo della misericordia. La parabola di Luca nella letteratura moderna e contemporanea|label=none|italic=no}}." ''Studium'' 2(110).
* — 2014. "Heimkehr: wohin?, Auszug: wohin?: {{Langx|it|la parabola esistenziale del figliol prodigo nella letteratura del Novecento|label=none|italic=no}}." ''Studium'' 2(110).

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Prodigal son}}

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