View source for Paul the Apostle

{{Short description|Christian apostle and missionary}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
|name = Paul the Apostle
|image = Fresco of Saint Paul at Ephesus.jpg
|caption = [[Painting of Paul, Thecla, and Theocleia|Painting]] in the [[Grotto of St. Paul]], [[Ephesus]], late 5th cent.{{Sfn|Trebilco|2023|pp=368-369}}
|major_shrine = [[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls]], [[Rome]], Italy
|titles = Apostle to the Gentiles, Martyr
|birth_name = Saul of Tarsus
|birth_date = {{c.|5 AD}}<ref name="pbs.org" />
|birth_place = [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], [[Cilicia (Roman province)|Cilicia]], [[Roman Empire]]
|death_date = {{c.|64/65 AD}}{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=436}}{{sfn|Harris|2003|p=42|ps=: He was probably martyred in Rome about 64–65 AD}}
|death_place = [[Rome]], [[Roman Italy|Italia]], Roman Empire{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=436}}{{sfn|Harris|2003}}
|venerated_in = All [[Christian denominations]] that venerate [[saints]]
|feast_day = {{plainlist|
* 25 January – [[Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul]]
* 30 June – solo feast day, still celebrated by some religious orders
* 29 June – [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]] (with [[Peter the Apostle]])
* 10 February – Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in [[Malta]]
* 18 November – Feast of the dedication of the [[basilica]]s of Saints Peter and Paul
* Saturday before the sixth Sunday after Pentecost – Feast of the [[Twelve Apostles]] and Paul the thirteenth Apostle ([[Armenian Apostolic Church]])<ref>''Domar: the calendrical and liturgical cycle of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church'', Armenian Orthodox Theological Research Institute, 2003, p. 446.</ref>}} 
|canonized_by = 
|canonized_date = [[Pre-Congregation]]
|canonized_place =
|attributes= [[Christian martyrs#Degrees of martyrdom|Christian martyrdom]], [[sword]], book
|suppressed_date =
|patronage = Missionaries, theologians, [[Evangelists (Christianity)|evangelists]], and [[Pauline Christianity|Gentile Christians]], Malta
|module = {{Infobox theologian
| embed=yes
| notable_works      = {{ubl|'''Certain:'''|[[Epistle to the Romans]]|[[Epistle to the Galatians]]|[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]|[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]|[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]|[[Epistle to Philemon]]|[[Epistle to the Philippians]]|'''Disputed:'''|[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]|[[Epistle to the Colossians]]|[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]|[[First Epistle to Timothy]]|[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]|[[Epistle to Titus]]}}
| era                = [[Apostolic Age]]
| tradition_movement = [[Pauline Christianity]]
| language           = [[Koine Greek]]
| occupation         = [[Christian mission]]ary and preacher 
| main_interests     = [[Torah]], [[Christology]], [[eschatology]], [[soteriology]], [[ecclesiology]]
| notable_ideas      = [[Pauline privilege]], [[Law of Christ]], [[Holy Spirit in the Pauline epistles|Holy Spirit]], [[Unknown God]], [[divinity of Jesus]], [[thorn in the flesh]], [[Pauline mysticism]], [[biblical inspiration]], [[supersessionism]], [[Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity#Gentiles and circumcision|non-circumcision]], [[Salvation in Christianity#Paul|salvation]]
| education          = School of [[Gamaliel]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|22:3|NRSV}}</ref>
}}
}}

'''Paul''',{{efn|{{langx|la|Paulus}}; {{langx|grc-x-koine|Παῦλος|translit=Paûlos}}; {{langx|cop|ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ}}; {{langx|he|פאולוס השליח}}}} also named '''Saul of Tarsus''',{{efn|[[Aramaic]]: שאול ܫܐܘܠ, <small>romanized</small>: ''Šāʾūl''}} commonly known as '''Paul the Apostle'''{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=442}} and '''Saint Paul''',{{sfn|Sanders|2019}} was a [[Apostles in the New Testament|Christian apostle]] ({{circa|5|64/65}} AD) who spread the [[Ministry of Jesus|teachings]] of [[Jesus]] in the [[Christianity in the 1st century|first-century world]].<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web |title=Saint Paul the Apostle {{!}} Biography & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle |access-date=2025-06-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> For his contributions towards the [[New Testament]], he is generally regarded as one of the most important figures of the [[Apostolic Age]],{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}{{sfn|Dunn|2001|loc=Ch 32|p=577}} and he also founded [[Early centers of Christianity|several Christian communities in Asia Minor and Europe]] from the mid-40s to the mid-50s AD.<ref name="Britannica" />

The main source of information on Paul's life and works is the [[Acts of the Apostles]] in the [[New Testament]]. Approximately half of its content documents his travels, preaching and [[miracle]]s. Paul was not one of the [[Twelve Apostles]], and did not know Jesus during his lifetime. According to the Acts, Paul lived as a [[Pharisees|Pharisee]] and participated in the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution]] of early [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] of Jesus before [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]].{{refn|group=note|name="persecution"}}  On his way to arrest Christians in [[Damascus]], Paul saw a bright light, heard Christ speak, was blinded, and later healed by [[Ananias of Damascus|Ananias]]. After these events, Paul was baptized, beginning immediately to proclaim that Jesus of Nazareth was the [[Messiah in Judaism|Jewish messiah]] and the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:3–22|ESV}}</ref> He made three missionary journeys to spread the Christian message to non-Jewish communities.

Fourteen of the 27 books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=407}} Seven of the [[Pauline epistles]] are undisputed by scholars as being [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|authentic]].   Of the other six, [[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]], [[First Epistle to Timothy|1]] and [[Second Epistle to Timothy|2 Timothy]], and [[Titus]] are generally considered [[Pseudepigrapha|pseudepigraphical]], while [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]] and [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] are debated. Pauline [[authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews]] is almost universally rejected by scholars.{{sfn|Brown|Fitzmyer|Murphy|1990|p=920, col.2|loc=Ch 60:2}} The other six are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}{{refn|group=note|Paul's undisputed epistles are 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Philippians, and Philemon. The six letters believed by some to have been written by Paul are Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus.<ref name="umc.org"/>}}

Today, Paul's epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship and [[pastoral care|pastoral]] life in the [[Latin Church|Latin]] and Protestant traditions [[Western Christianity|of the West]], as well as the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions [[Eastern Christianity|of the East]].{{sfn|Aageson|2008|p=1}} Paul's influence on Christian thought and practice  is pervasive in scope and profound in impact.{{sfn|Powell|2009}} Christians, notably in the [[Lutheran]] tradition, have read Paul as advocating a law-free Gospel against Judaism. He has been accused of corrupting or hijacking [[Christianity]], often by introducing [[pagan]] or [[Hellenistic]] themes to the early church.{{sfn|Waardenburg|1999|p=276}} There has recently been increasing acceptance of [[Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christianity|Paul as a fundamentally Jewish figure]] in line with the original disciples in [[Jerusalem]] over past interpretations, manifested through movements like "Paul Within Judaism".<ref>{{cite book |last=Thiessen |first=Matthew |year=2023 |title=A Jewish Paul |publisher=Baker Academic |pages=4–10 |isbn=978-1540965714}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fredriksen |first=Paula |author-link=Paula Fredriksen |year=2018 |title=Paul: The Pagans' Apostle |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0300240153}}</ref>{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=160}}

== Names ==
[[File:Saint Paul, Rembrandt van Rijn (and Workshop?), c. 1657.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Apostle Paul'', portrait by [[Rembrandt]] ({{circa|1657}})|left]]
Paul's Jewish name was "Saul" ({{Hebrew name|שָׁאוּל|Sha'ûl|Šā'ûl}}), perhaps after the biblical [[Saul|King Saul]], the first [[Kings of Israel and Judah|king of Israel]] and, like Paul, a member of the [[Tribe of Benjamin]]; the Latin name Paulus, meaning small, was not a result of his conversion as is commonly believed but a second name for use in communicating with a Greco-Roman audience.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=21}}<ref>
a. {{cite book|last1=Marrow|first1=Stanley B.|title=Paul: His Letters and His Theology : an Introduction to Paul's Epistles|year=1986|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0809127443|pages=5, 7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RPu1qx50HmgC&pg=PA5}}
<br />b. {{cite web|title=Why did God change Saul's name to Paul?|url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/why-did-god-change-sauls-name-to-paul|website=Catholic Answers|access-date=31 August 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030000303/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/why-did-god-change-sauls-name-to-paul|archive-date=30 October 2012}}</ref>

According to the [[Acts of the Apostles]], he was a [[Roman citizenship|Roman citizen]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|22:25–29|9}}</ref> As such, he bore the [[Roman naming conventions|Latin name]] {{lang|la|Paulus}}, which translates in [[Koine Greek|biblical Greek]] as {{lang|grc|Παῦλος}} ({{transliteration|grc|Paulos}}).<ref name="Strong" /><ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:37|9}}, {{Bibleverse-nb|Acts|22:25–289}}</ref> It was typical for the Jews of that time to have two names: one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek.{{sfn|Prat|1911}}{{sfn|Lewis|Short|1879|loc=Paulus: "a Roman surname (not a praenomen;)"}}{{sfn|Cole|1989}}

Jesus called him "Saul, Saul"<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|9:4; 22:7; 26:14|9}}</ref> in "the Hebrew tongue" in the Acts of the Apostles, when he had the vision which led to [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]] on the road to Damascus.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|26:14|9}}</ref> Later, in a vision to [[Ananias of Damascus]], "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus".<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|9:11|9}}</ref> When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul".<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|9:17; 22:13}}</ref>

In [[Acts 13:9]], Saul is called "Paul" for the first time on the island of [[Early centers of Christianity#Cyprus|Cyprus]], much later than the time of his conversion.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13:9|9}}</ref> The [[Authorship of Luke–Acts|author of Luke–Acts]] indicates that the names were interchangeable: "Saul, who also is called Paul." He refers to him as Paul through the remainder of Acts. This was apparently Paul's preference since he is called Paul in all other Bible books where he is mentioned, including [[Pauline epistles|those that he authored]]. Adopting his Roman name was typical of Paul's missionary style. His method was to put people at ease and approach them with his message in a language and style that was relatable to them, as he did in [[1 Corinthians 9]]{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|9:19–23|9|:19–23}}.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|9:19–23|9}}</ref><ref name=CathAns />

== Available sources ==
{{further|Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles}}
[[File:Conversion of Saint Paul (Michelangelo Buonarroti).jpg|thumb|upright=1|''[[The Conversion of Saul (Michelangelo)|The Conversion of Saul]]'', a [[fresco]] by [[Michelangelo]] developed between 1542 and 1545]]
The main source for information about Paul's life is the material found in [[Pauline epistles|his epistles]] and in the Acts of the Apostles.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=19–20}} However, the epistles contain little information about Paul's pre-conversion past. The Acts of the Apostles recounts more information but leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his probable but undocumented execution in Rome.{{sfn|Cross |Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} The Acts of the Apostles also appear to contradict Paul's epistles on multiple matters, in particular concerning the frequency of Paul's visits to the [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|church in Jerusalem]].<ref name="dalemartin"/>{{sfn|Ehrman|2000|pp=262–65}}

Sources outside the New Testament that mention Paul include:
* [[Pope Clement I|Clement of Rome]]'s [[First Epistle of Clement|epistle to the Corinthians]] (late 1st/early 2nd century);
* [[Ignatius of Antioch]]'s epistles to [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans|the Romans]] and to [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians|the Ephesians]]{{sfn|Ladeuze|1909}} (early 2nd century);
* [[Polycarp]]'s epistle to [[Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians|the Philippians]] (early 2nd century);
* [[Eusebius]]'s {{lang|la|[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiae]]}} (early 4th century);
* The [[apocryphal Acts]] narrating the life of Paul ([[Acts of Paul]], [[Acts of Paul and Thecla]], [[Acts of Peter and Paul]]), the apocryphal epistles attributed to him (the Latin [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]], the [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]], and the [[Correspondence of Paul and Seneca]]) and some [[Apocalyptic literature|apocalyptic texts]] attributed to him ([[Apocalypse of Paul]] and [[Coptic Apocalypse of Paul]]). These writings are all later, usually dated from the 2nd to the 4th century.

==Biography==
=== Early life ===
[[File:Broad overview of geography relevant to paul of tarsus.png|thumb|upright=1|Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]] to [[Early centers of Christianity#Rome|Rome]]]]
The two main sources of information that give access to the earliest segments of Paul's career are the Acts of the Apostles and the autobiographical elements of Paul's letters to the early Christian communities.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=19–20}} Paul was likely born between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD.{{sfn|White|2007|pp=145–47}} The Acts of the Apostles indicates that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth, but [[Helmut Koester]] took issue with the evidence presented by the text.{{sfn|Koester|2000|p=107}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:37}},{{Bibleverse|Acts|22:25–29}}</ref> Some have suggested that Paul's ancestors may have been freedmen from among the thousands of Jews whom [[Pompey]] took as slaves [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|in 63 BC]], which would explain how he was born into [[Roman citizenship]], as slaves of Roman citizens gained citizenship upon emancipation.<ref>John B. Polhill, 532; cf. Richard R. Losch, ''The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible'' (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2005), 176–77.</ref>

He was from a devout Jewish family{{sfn|Wright|1974|p=404}} based in the city of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]], which had been made part of the [[Roman province of Syria|Roman Province of Syria]] by the time of Paul's adulthood.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-22 |title=Saint Paul the Apostle {{!}} Biography & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle#:~:text=Paul%20was%20a%20Greek-speaking,in%20his%20life%20and%20letters. |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Tarsus was one of the larger centers of trade on the Mediterranean coast and renowned for its  [[academy]]. It had been among the most influential cities in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] since the time of [[Alexander the Great]], who died in 323 BC.{{sfn|Wright|1974|p=404}}

Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the [[tribe of Benjamin]], a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a [[Pharisees|Pharisee]]".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:5}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Acts quotes Paul referring to his family by saying he was "a Pharisee, born of Pharisees".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|23:6}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=22}} Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16.<ref name="Acts 23">{{Bibleverse|Acts|23:16}}</ref>

The family had a history of religious piety.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Timothy|1:3}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="disputed"|1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death.}} Apparently, the family lineage had been very attached to [[Pharisees#Practices|Pharisaic traditions]] and observances for generations.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:5–6}}</ref> Acts says that he was an artisan involved in the leather crafting or tent-making profession.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|18:1–3}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=41–42}} This was to become an initial connection with [[Priscilla and Aquila]], with whom he would partner in tentmaking<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|18:3}}</ref> and later become very important teammates as fellow missionaries.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|16:4}}</ref>

While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school of [[Gamaliel]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|22:3}}</ref>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} one of the most noted teachers of [[Halakha|Jewish law]] in history. Although modern scholarship accepts that Paul was educated under the supervision of Gamaliel in Jerusalem,{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} he was not preparing to become a scholar of Jewish law, and probably never had any contact with the [[Hillel the Elder|Hillelite]] school.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=21–22}} Some of his family may have resided in Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.<ref name="Acts 23"/>{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=21}} Nothing more is known of his biography until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|7:58–60; 22:20}}</ref> a Hellenised diaspora Jew.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|pp=242–44}}

Some modern scholarship argues that while Paul was fluent in [[Koine Greek]], the language he used to write his letters, his first language was probably [[Aramaic]].{{sfn|Bruce|2000|p=43}} In his letters, Paul drew heavily on his knowledge of [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophy]], using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the Gospel and to explain his Christology.{{sfn|Lee|2006|pp=13–26}}{{sfn|Kee|1983|p=208}}

===Persecutor of early Christians===
[[File:Conversion on the Way to Damascus-Caravaggio (c.1600-1).jpg|thumb|upright=1|''[[Conversion on the Way to Damascus]]'', a 1601 portrait by [[Caravaggio]]]]
Paul says that before [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:13–14}}, {{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:6}}, {{Bibleverse|Acts|8:1–3}}</ref> he persecuted early Christians "beyond measure", more specifically Hellenised diaspora Jewish members who had returned to the area of [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]].{{sfn|Dunn|2009|pp=246–47, 277}}{{refn|group=note|name="persecution"|Acts 8:1 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:13 "at Jerusalem"; Acts 9:21 "in Jerusalem"; Acts 26:10 "in Jerusalem". In Galatians 1:13, Paul states that he "persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it," but does not specify where he persecuted the church. In Galatians 1:22 he states that more than three years after his conversion he was "still unknown by sight to the churches of Judea that are in Christ," seemingly ruling out Jerusalem as the place he had persecuted Christians.<ref name="dalemartin">{{Cite web |title=Introduction to the New Testament History and Literature – 5. The New Testament as History |url=http://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-152/lecture-5 |website=Open Yale Courses |publisher=Yale University |year=2009 |first=Dale B. |last=Martin}}</ref>}} According to [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]], the Jerusalem community consisted of "Hebrews", Jews speaking both Aramaic and Greek, and "Hellenists", Jews speaking only Greek, possibly diaspora Jews who had resettled in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|pp=246–47}} Paul's initial persecution of Christians probably was directed against these Greek-speaking "Hellenists" due to their anti-Temple attitude.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=277}} Within the early Jewish Christian community, this also set them apart from the "Hebrews" and their continuing participation in the Temple cult.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=277}}

===Conversion===
{{Main|Conversion of Paul the Apostle}}
[[File:Júnior, José Ferraz de Almeida - A Conversão de São Paulo a Caminho de Damasco, Acervo do Museu Paulista da USP.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Conversion of Saint Paul on the Way to Damascus'', a {{circa|1889|lk=no}} portrait by [[José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior]]]]
[[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|Paul's conversion]] to the movement of followers of Jesus can be dated to 31–36 AD{{sfn|Bromiley|1979|p=689}}{{sfn|Barnett|2002|p=21}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=200}} by his reference to it in one of his [[Pauline epistles|letters]]. In Galatians 1:16, Paul writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to me."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:16|ESV}}</ref> In 1 Corinthians 15:8, as he lists the order in which Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection, Paul writes, "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to me also."<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|15:8|NASB}}</ref>

According to the account in the Acts of the Apostles, it took place on the road to [[Damascus]], where he reported having experienced a [[Vision (spirituality)|vision]] of the ascended Jesus. The account says that "He fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, 'Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?' He asked, 'Who are you, Lord?' The reply came, 'I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting'."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts |9:4–5}}</ref>

According to the account in Acts 9:1–22, he was blinded for three days and had to be led into Damascus by the hand.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:1–22|9}}</ref> During these three days, Saul took no food or water and spent his time in prayer to God. When [[Ananias of Damascus]] arrived, he laid his hands on him and said: "Brother Saul, the Lord, ''[even]'' Jesus, that appeared unto thee in the way as thou camest, hath sent me, that thou mightest receive thy sight, and be filled with the Holy Ghost."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:17}}</ref> His sight was restored, he got up and was baptized.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:18}}</ref> This story occurs only in Acts, not in the Pauline epistles.{{sfn|Aslan|2013|p=184}}

The author of the Acts of the Apostles may have learned of Paul's conversion from the [[Apostolic Age#Apostolic Church in Jerusalem|church in Jerusalem]], or from the [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|church in Antioch]], or possibly from Paul himself.{{sfn|McRay|2007|p=66}}

According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by the Jewish [[Merkabah mysticism|Merkabah]] tradition.{{sfn|Eskola|2001}}  [[John Bowker (theologian)|John Bowker]], [[Alan F. Segal|Alan Segal]] and [[Daniel Boyarin]] have variously argued that Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the heavens (in [[2 Corinthians 12]]) are the earliest first-person accounts that are extant of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature.{{sfn|Churchill|2010|pp=4,16-17,22-23}} Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.{{sfn|Churchill|2010|pp=250ff.}}

=== Post-conversion ===
According to [[Acts 9|Acts]]:
{{Blockquote|And immediately he proclaimed Jesus in the synagogues, saying, "He is the Son of God." And all who heard him were amazed and said, "Is not this the man who made havoc in Jerusalem of those who called upon this name? And has he not come here for this purpose, to bring them bound before the chief priests?" But Saul increased all the more in strength, and confounded the Jews who lived in Damascus by proving that Jesus was the Christ.|Acts 9:20–22<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:20–22}}</ref>}}

=== Early ministry ===
[[File:Ananias house.jpg|thumb|upright=1|What is believed to be the house of [[Ananias of Damascus]] in [[Damascus]]]]
[[File:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Bab Kisan]], believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in Damascus]]
After his conversion, Paul went to [[Early centers of Christianity#Damascus|Damascus]], where [[Acts 9]] states he was healed of his blindness and [[Baptism|baptized]] by Ananias of Damascus.{{sfn|Hengel|1997|p=43}} Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Corinthians|11:32}}</ref> Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:17}}</ref>{{sfn|Lake|1911|pp=320–23}} Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, although it has been theorized that he traveled to [[Mount Sinai]] for meditations in the desert.{{sfn|Wright|1996|pp=683–92}}{{sfn|Hengel|2002|pp=47–66}} He describes in [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] how three years after his conversion he went to [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]. There he met [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] and stayed with [[Saint Peter|Simon Peter]] for 15 days<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:13–24}}</ref> starting around 35 or 36 AD.<ref>{{cite book | last =Ehrman | first =Bart | year =2012 | title =Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth | publisher =HarperOne | isbn =9780062206442 |pages=144–146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Longenecker |editor1-first=Bruce |title=The New Cambridge Companion to St. Paul |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1108438285 |page=23}}</ref> Paul located Mount Sinai in Arabia in Galatians 4:24–25.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|4:24–25}}</ref>

Paul asserted that he received the [[Gospel]] not from man, but directly by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:11–16}}</ref> He claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community{{sfn|Harris|2003|p=517}} (possibly in the [[Cenacle]]), but agreed with it on the nature and content of the gospel.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:22–24}}</ref> He appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various growing [[Gentile]] churches that he started. In his writings, Paul used the [[Persecution of Christians in the New Testament#Examples of persecution in the Acts of the Apostles|persecutions]] he endured to avow proximity and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.

Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:1–10">{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1–10}}</ref> It is not known what happened during this time, but both Acts and Galatians provide some details.{{sfn|Barnett|2005|p=200}}  At the end of this time, [[Barnabas]] went to find Paul and brought him to [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]].{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=369}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:26}}</ref> The Christian community at Antioch had been established by Hellenised diaspora Jews living in Jerusalem, who played an important role in reaching a Gentile, Greek audience, notably at Antioch, which had a large Jewish community and significant numbers of Gentile "God-fearers."{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=297}} From Antioch the mission to the Gentiles started, which would fundamentally change the character of the early Christian movement, eventually turning it into a new, Gentile religion.{{sfn|Dunn|2009}}

When a famine occurred in [[Judea]], around 45–46,{{sfn|Ogg|1962}} Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.{{sfn|Barnett|2005|p=83}} According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]]. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians".<ref>[[Acts 11:26]]</ref>

=== First missionary journey ===
[[File:Map missionary journeys stpaul knecht.png|thumb|upright=1|Map of St. Paul's missionary journeys]]
The author of Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13–14}}</ref> for which Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the Antioch community,{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=370}} and led initially by Barnabas,{{refn|group=note|The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Paul, in that order. Later in the same chapter, the team is referred to as Paul and his companions.}} took Barnabas and Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then into southern Asia Minor, and finally returning to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds [[Elymas]] the magician<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13:8–12}}</ref> who was criticizing their teachings.

They sailed to [[Perga]] in [[Pamphylia]]. [[John Mark]] left them and returned to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas went on to [[Antioch of Pisidia|Pisidian Antioch]]. On [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] they went to the synagogue. The leaders invited them to speak. Paul reviewed Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduced Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his group had come to bring the message of salvation. He recounted the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quoted from the [[Septuagint]]<ref name="JewEnc:Saul of Tarsus" /> to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the "[[God-fearer|God-fearing]]" Gentiles invited them to talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|13:13–48}}</ref>

Antioch served as a major Christian home base for Paul's early missionary activities,{{sfn|Harris|2003}} and he remained there for "a long time with the disciples"<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|14:28|NKJV}}</ref> at the conclusion of his first journey. The exact duration of Paul's stay in Antioch is unknown, with estimates ranging from nine months to as long as eight years.{{sfn|Spence-Jones|2015|p=16}}

In [[Raymond E. Brown]]'s ''An Introduction to the New Testament'', published in 1997, a chronology of events in Paul's life is presented, illustrated from later 20th-century writings of [[biblical scholar]]s.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=445}} The first missionary journey of Paul is assigned a "traditional" (and majority) dating of 46–49 AD, compared to a "revisionist" (and minority) dating of after 37 AD.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=428–29}}

=== Council of Jerusalem ===
{{Main|Council of Jerusalem}}
{{See also|Circumcision controversy in early Christianity}}
A vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place in the year 49 AD by traditional (and majority) dating, compared to a revisionist (and minority) dating of 47/51 AD.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=428–29, 445}} The meeting is described in Acts 15:2<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:2|NIV}}</ref> and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1-10|NRSV}}</ref>{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} The key question raised was whether [[Gentile]] converts needed to be circumcised.{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}}<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:2|NIV}},{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1|NIV}}</ref> At this meeting, [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James (brother of Jesus)|James]], and [[John the Apostle|John]], who Paul calls [[Pillars of the Church]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:9|NRSV}}</ref><ref>Margaret M. Mitchell, ''Gentile Christianity'' (2006), p. 103</ref> accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles.

The Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, and also in Paul's letters.{{sfn|White|2007|pp=148–49}} For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:27–30}}</ref> apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Peter and James only).<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|1:18–20">{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:18–20}}</ref>{{sfn|White|2007|pp=148–49}} [[F. F. Bruce]] suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first visit to Jerusalem.{{sfn|Bruce|2000|p=151}}

=== Incident at Antioch ===
{{Main|Incident at Antioch}}
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "[[Incident at Antioch]]", over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}}

Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong", and says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet you [[Hellenistic Judaism|live like a Gentile and not like a Jew]]. How is it, then, that you [[Judaizers|force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs]]?"<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:11–14">{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:11–14}}</ref> Paul also mentions that even Barnabas, his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time, sided with Peter.{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}}

The outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' suggests that Paul won the argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke".{{sfn|Bechtel|1910}} However, Paul himself never mentions a victory, and [[L. Michael White]]'s ''From Jesus to Christianity'' draws the opposite conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as ''persona non grata'', never again to return".{{sfn|White|2007|p=170}}

The primary source account of the incident at Antioch is Paul's [[Epistle to the Galatians|letter to the Galatians]].<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:11–14"/>

=== Second missionary journey ===
[[File:V&A - Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens (1515).jpg|thumb|upright=1|St. Paul in [[Athens]] delivering the ''[[Areopagus sermon]]'' in which he addressed early issues in [[Christology]], depicted in a 1515 portrait by [[Raphael]]{{sfn|McGrath|2006}}{{sfn|Mills|2003|pp=1109–10}}]]
Paul left for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49 AD,{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=400}} after the meeting of the [[Council of Jerusalem]] where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean Sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking [[John Mark]] with them on their trips. The Acts of the Apostles said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while [[Silas]] joined Paul.

Paul and Silas initially visited [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus]] (Paul's birthplace), [[Derbe]] and [[Lystra]]. In Lystra, they met [[Saint Timothy|Timothy]], a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. Paul and his companions, Silas and Timothy, had plans to journey to the southwest portion of Asia Minor to preach the gospel but during the night, Paul had a vision of a man of Macedonia standing and begging him to go to Macedonia to help them. After seeing the vision, Paul and his companions left for Macedonia to preach the gospel to them.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:6–10}}</ref> The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening in faith daily.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|16:5|KJV}}</ref>

In [[Philippi]], Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a servant girl, whose masters were then unhappy about the loss of income her soothsaying provided.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|16:16–24}}</ref> They seized Paul and Silas and dragged them into the marketplace before the authorities and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas could have escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|16:25–40}}</ref> They continued traveling, going by [[Berea (Bible)|Berea]] and then to Athens, where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the [[Areopagus]]. Paul continued from Athens to [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]].

===Interval in Corinth===
Around 50–52 AD, Paul spent 18 months in [[Corinth]]. The reference in Acts to Proconsul [[Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus|Gallio]] helps ascertain this date (cf. [[Delphi Inscription|Gallio Inscription]]).{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} In Corinth, Paul met [[Priscilla and Aquila]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:2|NKJV}}</ref> who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to [[Ephesus]] and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:18–21|NKJV}}</ref>

In 52, departing from Corinth, Paul stopped at the nearby village of [[Kechries|Cenchreae]] to have his hair cut off, because of a vow he had earlier taken.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:18|NKJV}}</ref> It is possible this was to be a final haircut before fulfilling his vow to become a [[Nazirite]] for a defined period of time.{{sfn|Driscoll|1911}} With Priscilla and Aquila, the missionaries then sailed to Ephesus<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:19–21|NKJV}}</ref> and then Paul alone went on to [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] to greet the Church there. He then traveled north to Antioch, where he stayed for some time ({{langx|grc|ποιήσας χρόνον τινὰ }}).<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:22-23|NKJV}}</ref>  Some New Testament texts{{refn|group=note|This clause is not found in some major sources: [[Codex Sinaiticus]], [[Codex Alexandrinus]], [[Codex Vaticanus]] or Codex Laudianus}} suggest that he also visited Jerusalem during this period for one of the Jewish feasts, possibly [[Shavuot|Pentecost]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|18:21|NKJV}}</ref> Textual critic [[Henry Alford (theologian)|Henry Alford]] and others consider the reference to a Jerusalem visit to be genuine<ref name="PulCom" /> and it accords with Acts 21:29,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|21:29|NKJV}}</ref> according to which Paul and [[Trophimus|Trophimus the Ephesian]] had previously been seen in Jerusalem.

=== Third missionary journey ===
[[File:Eustache Le Sueur - The Preaching of St Paul at Ephesus - WGA12613.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Preaching of Saint Paul at [[Ephesus]]'', a 1649 portrait by [[Eustache Le Sueur]]{{sfn|Crease|2019|pp=309–10}}]]
According to Acts, Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of [[Galatia]] and [[Phrygia]] to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to [[Ephesus]], an important [[Early centers of Christianity|center of early Christianity]], and stayed there for almost three years, probably working there as a tent maker,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|20:34|NKJV}}</ref> as he had done when he stayed in [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]. He is said to have performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity in other regions.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-[[Artemis]] riot involving most of the city.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in Corinth.{{sfn|McRay|2007|p=185}} The letter to the church in [[Philippians|Philippi]] is generally thought to have been written from Ephesus, though a minority view considers it may have been penned while he was imprisoned in Rome.<ref>Michael Flexsenhar 111, [https://www.academia.edu/40090544/The_Provenance_of_Philippians_and_Why_it_Matters_Old_Questions_New_Approaches_Journal_for_the_Study_of_the_New_Testament_42_1_2019_18_45  'The Provenance of Philippians and Why it Matters: Old Questions, New Approaches,'] [[Journal for the Study of the New Testament]] Volume 42, Issue 1 2019 : 18-45.</ref>

Paul went through [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] into [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]]<ref name="bibleref2|Acts|20:1–2|NKJV">{{bibleverse|Acts|20:1–2|NKJV}}</ref> and stayed in Greece, probably Corinth, for three months<ref name="bibleref2|Acts|20:1–2|NKJV"/> during 56–57 AD.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} Commentators generally agree that Paul dictated his [[Epistle to the Romans#Dating|Epistle to the Romans]] during this period.{{sfn|Sanday|n.d.|p=202}} He then made ready to continue on to [[Roman Syria|Syria]], but he changed his plans and traveled back through Macedonia, putatively because certain Jews had made a plot against him. In Romans 15:19,<ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|15:19}}</ref> Paul wrote that he visited [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], but he may have meant what would now be called [[Illyria Graeca]],{{sfn|Burton|2000|p=26}} which was at that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia.{{sfn|Petit|1909}} On their way back to Jerusalem, Paul and his companions visited other cities such as [[Philippi]], [[Troad|Troas]], [[Miletus]], [[Rhodes]], and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]. Paul finished his trip with a stop in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], where he and his companions stayed with [[Philip the Evangelist]] before finally arriving in Jerusalem.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|21:8–10}}, {{bibleverse|Acts|21:15}}</ref>

===Conjectured journey from Rome to Spain===
Among the writings of the early Christians, [[Pope Clement I]] said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West", and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west".<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html 1st Clement – Lightfoot translation] Early Christian Writings 1 Clem 5:5: "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, [5:6] having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance".</ref>

Where [[Joseph Lightfoot|Lightfoot]]'s translation has "had preached" below (in the "Church tradition" section), the Hoole translation has "having become a herald".<ref>See also the endnote (3) by [[Arthur Cleveland Coxe]] on the last page of [[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume I/CLEMENT OF ROME/First Epistle to the Corinthians/Chapter LIX.|wikisource 1st Clement]] regarding Paul's preaching in Britain.</ref> [[John Chrysostom]] indicated that Paul preached in Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know not".<ref>[https://biblehub.com/commentaries/chrysostom/2_timothy/4.htm Chrysostom's Homilies on 2 Timothy], verse 4:20</ref> [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and wonders".<ref>[[s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume VII/S. Cyril/Lecture 17|Cyril on Paul and gifts of the Holy Ghost]] (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II Volume VII, Lecture 17, para. 26)</ref> The [[Muratorian fragment]] mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain".<ref>[http://www.bible-researcher.com/muratorian.html The Muratorian Fragment] lines 38–39 Bible Research</ref>

=== Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles ===
The following table is adapted from the book ''From Jesus to Christianity'' by Biblical scholar [[L. Michael White]],{{sfn|White|2007|pp=148–49}} matching Paul's travels as documented in the Acts and the travels in his [[Epistle to the Romans|Epistles]] but not agreed upon fully by all Biblical scholars.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto;" cellpadding="5"
|- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;"
! style="width:50%;"| Acts
! style="width:50%;"| Epistles
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* First visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:26–27}}</ref>
** "after many days" of Damascus conversion
** preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas
** meets apostles
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* First visit to Jerusalem<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|1:18–20"/>
** three years after Damascus conversion<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:17–18}}</ref>
** sees only Cephas (Simon Peter) and James
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Second visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:29–30}}, {{Bibleverse|Acts|12:25}}</ref>
** for famine relief
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|11:30, 12:25}}</ref> or the Jerusalem Council.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15}}</ref> If it refers to the former, then this was the trip made "after an interval of fourteen years".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|2:1}}</ref>
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Third visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:1–19}}</ref>
** with Barnabas
** "Council of Jerusalem"
** followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|15:36–40}}</ref>
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* Another{{refn|group=note|Paul does not exactly say that this was his second visit. In Galatians, he lists three important meetings with Peter, and this was the second on his list. The third meeting took place in Antioch. He does not explicitly state that he did not visit Jerusalem in between this and his first visit.}} visit to Jerusalem<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:1–10"/>
** 14 years later (after Damascus conversion?)
** with Barnabas and Titus
** possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"
** Paul agrees to "remember the poor"
** followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch<ref name="Bibleref2|Gal.|2:11–14"/>
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Fourth visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|18:21–22}}</ref>
** to "greet the church"
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* Apparently unmentioned.
|- -valign="top"
| style="text-align:left;"|
* Fifth visit to Jerusalem<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:17ff}}</ref>
** after an absence of several years<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|24:17}}</ref>
** to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings
** Paul arrested
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top;"|
* Another{{refn|group=note|Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have been additional visits before or after this visit, if he ever got to Jerusalem.}} visit to Jerusalem.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|15:25}}, {{Bibleverse|2 Corinthians|8–9}}, {{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|16:1–3}}</ref>
** to deliver the collection for the poor
|}

===Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest===
[[File:Paul arrested.jpg|thumb|upright=1|St. Paul's arrest depicted in an early 1900s Bible illustration]]
[[File:St. Paul’s Grotto.jpg|thumb|upright=1|St. Paul's [[grotto]] in [[Rabat, Malta]]]]
In 57 AD, upon completion of his third missionary journey, Paul arrived in Jerusalem for his fifth and final visit with a collection of money for the local community. The Acts of the Apostles reports that initially he  was warmly received. However, Acts goes on to recount how Paul was warned by [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] and the elders that he was gaining a reputation for being [[antinomianism|against the Law]], saying, "they have been told about you that you teach all the Jews living among the Gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to circumcise their children or observe the customs."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:21}}</ref> Paul underwent a [[Ritual washing in Judaism|purification ritual]] so that "all will know that there is nothing in what they have been told about you, but that you yourself observe and guard the law."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:22–26}}</ref>

When the seven days of the purification ritual were almost completed, some "Jews from Asia" (most likely from [[Asia (Roman province)|Roman Asia]]) accused Paul of defiling the temple by bringing gentiles into it. He was seized and dragged out of the temple by an angry mob. When the [[tribune]] heard of the uproar, he and some [[centurion]]s and soldiers rushed to the area. Unable to determine his identity and the cause of the uproar, they placed him in chains.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|21:27–36}}</ref> He was about to be [[Protective custody|taken into the barracks]] when he asked to speak to the people. He was given permission by the Romans and proceeded to tell his story. After a while, the crowd responded. "Up to this point they listened to him, but then they shouted, 'Away with such a fellow from the earth! For he should not be allowed to live.'"<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|22:22}}</ref> The tribune ordered that Paul be brought into the barracks and interrogated under [[Flagellation|flogging]]. Paul asserted his [[Roman citizenship]], which would [[Valerian and Porcian laws#Porcian laws|prevent his flogging]]. The tribune "wanted to find out what Paul was being accused of by the angry Jerusalemites, the next day he released him and ordered the chief priests and the entire council to meet".<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|22:30}}</ref> Paul spoke before the council and caused a disagreement between the [[Pharisees]] and the [[Sadducees]]. When this threatened to turn violent, the tribune ordered his soldiers to take Paul by force and return him to the barracks.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|23:10}}</ref>

The next morning, 40 Jews "bound themselves by an oath neither to eat nor drink until they had killed Paul",<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|23:12}}</ref> but the son of Paul's sister heard of the plot and notified Paul, who notified the tribune that the conspiracists were going to ambush him. The tribune ordered two centurions to "Get ready to leave by nine o'clock tonight for Caesarea with two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen, and two hundred spearmen. Also provide mounts for Paul to ride, and take him safely to [[Antonius Felix|Felix the governor]]."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|23:23}}</ref>

Paul was taken to [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], where the governor ordered that he be kept under guard in Herod's headquarters. "Five days later the high priest Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported their case against Paul to the governor."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|24:1}}</ref> Both Paul and the Jewish authorities gave a statement "But Felix, who was rather well informed about the Way, adjourned the hearing with the comment, "When Lysias the tribune comes down, I will decide your case."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|24:22}}</ref>

[[Antonius Felix|Marcus Antonius Felix]] then ordered the centurion to keep Paul in custody, but to "let him have some liberty and not to prevent any of his friends from taking care of his needs."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|24:23}}</ref> He was held there for two years by Felix, until a new governor, [[Porcius Festus]], was appointed. The "chief priests and the leaders of the Jews" requested that Festus return Paul to Jerusalem. After Festus had stayed in Jerusalem "not more than eight or ten days, he went down to Caesarea; the next day he took his seat on the tribunal and ordered Paul to be brought." When Festus suggested that he be sent back to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul exercised his right as a Roman citizen to "appeal unto Caesar".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand trial for his alleged crimes.{{sfn|Capes|Reeves|Richards|2011|p=203}}

Acts recounts that on the way to Rome for his appeal as a Roman citizen to Caesar, Paul was shipwrecked on Melita, which is present-day [[Malta]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|27:39–44}}</ref> where the islanders showed him "unusual kindness." Paul's traveling companion and author of Acts of the Apostles, Luke, recorded that the islanders "built a fire and welcomed us all because it was raining and cold. Paul gathered a pile of brushwood and, as he put it on the fire, a poisonous snake, driven out by the heat, fastened itself on his hand. When the islanders saw the snake hanging from his hand, they said to each other, 'This man must be a murderer; for though he escaped from the sea, the goddess Justice has not allowed him to live.'” But Paul shook the snake off into the fire and suffered no ill effects."<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|28:2-5}}</ref>After this, Paul was met by [[Saint Publius|Publius]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|28:1–10}}</ref> From Malta, he travelled to Rome via [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], [[Reggio Calabria|Rhegium]], and [[Pozzuoli|Puteoli]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|28:11–14}}</ref>

===Two years in Rome===
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 235.png|thumb|upright=1|''Paul Arrives in Rome'' from {{lang|de|[[commons:Die Bibel in Bildern|Die Bibel in Bildern]]}}, published in the 1850s]]
Paul finally arrived in Rome {{circa|60&nbsp;AD}}, where he spent another two years under house arrest, according to the traditional account.{{sfn|Polhill|1999|pp=80,164-5,329}} The narrative of Acts ends with Paul preaching in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|28:30–31|NKJV}}</ref>

[[Irenaeus]] wrote in the [[Christianity in the 2nd century#Irenaeus|2nd century]] that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the church in Rome and had appointed [[Pope Linus|Linus]] as succeeding bishop.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3].2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops.{{nbsp}}[...] The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate"; Christian Classics Ethereal Library</ref> However, Acts makes no mention of Paul being a bishop of Rome.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}} Paul only played a supporting part in the life of the church in Rome.<ref>MaGee Greg. [http://bible.org/article/origins-church-rome "The Origins of the Church at Rome"] Bible.org; Accessed 18 March 2013</ref>

=== Death ===
[[File:Decapitación de San Pablo - Simonet - 1887.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''The Beheading of Saint Paul'', an 1887 portrait by [[Enrique Simonet]]]]
Paul's death is believed to have occurred after the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in July 64 AD, but before the last year of [[Nero]]'s reign, in 68 AD.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p=436}} [[Acts 28]] concludes with Paul living and preaching in Rome but does not mention his death. Eric Franklin sees this as the author's "[[purposeful omission|omission]]", comparable to his emphasis on Stephen's preaching, rather than his death, in [[Acts 7]].<ref>Franklin, E., ''59. Luke'' in Barton, J. and Muddiman, J. (2001), [https://b-ok.org/dl/946961/8f5f43 The Oxford Bible Commentary], p. 939: "Luke will later omit an account of Paul's death".</ref>

[[Pope Clement I]] writes in his [[First Epistle of Clement|Epistle to the Corinthians]] that after Paul "had borne his testimony before the rulers", he "departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."<ref>Pope Clement I, ''First Epistle to the Corinthians'', 5:7</ref> [[Ignatius of Antioch]] writes in his [[Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians|Epistle to the Ephesians]] that Paul was "martyred", without giving any further information.<ref>Ignatius of Antioch, ''[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0104.htm Epistle to the Ephesians]'', 12:55. "You are initiated into the mysteries of the Gospel with Paul, the holy, the martyred, the deservedly most happy, at whose feet may I be found (...)."</ref> [[Tertullian]] writes that Paul was "crowned with an exit like John" (''Paulus Ioannis exitu coronatur''), although it is unclear [[New Testament people named John|which John]] he meant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''De praescriptione haereticorum.'' Caput XXXVI [3] - Wikisource |author=Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus |work=la.wikisource.org |date= |access-date=12 November 2023 |url= https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_praescriptione_haereticorum |language=la}} {{Cite web |title=CHURCH FATHERS: The Prescription Against Heretics (Tertullian) |author=Tertullian |translator=Peter Holmes |work=New Advent |date=1885 |access-date=12 November 2023 |url= https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm}}</ref>

[[Eusebius]] states that Paul was killed during the [[Neronian persecution|Neronian Persecution]]<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'', Book 2, Chapter 22, Paragraph 3</ref> and, quoting from [[Dionysius of Corinth]], argues that [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and Paul were martyred "at the same time".<ref>Eusebius, ''Church History'', Book 2, Chapter 25, Paragraph 8</ref> This is also reported by [[Sulpicius Severus]], who claimed Peter was crucified while Paul was beheaded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Chronicle / Sacred History, Book II''. Chapter 29. |author=Sulpitius Severus |work=[[New Advent]] |date=1894 |access-date=11 November 2023 |url= https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/35052.htm |quote=In the meantime, the number of the Christians being now very large, it happened that Rome was destroyed by fire, while Nero was stationed at Antium. (...) Nero could not by any means he tried escape from the charge that the fire had been caused by his orders. He therefore turned the accusation against the Christians (...) At that time Paul and Peter were condemned to death, the former being beheaded with a sword, while Peter suffered crucifixion.}}</ref> [[John Chrysostom]] provides an account of Nero imprisoning Paul, but not of his execution, and no mention of Peter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=''Concerning Lowliness of Mind.'' Chapter 4. |author=John Chrysostom |work=New Advent |date=1889 |access-date=11 November 2023 |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1907.htm |quote=Now Nero had then cast him into prison. (...) when he saw Paul having lighted a lamp throughout the world, (...) [Nero] exerted himself both to extinguish what was preached, and to put the teachers out of the way; in order that he might be allowed with authority to do anything he pleased; and after binding that holy man, cast him into prison.}}</ref> [[Lactantius]] only mentioned '[It was Nero] who first persecuted the servants of God; he crucified Peter, and slew Paul' (''Paulum interfecit'').<ref name=Lactantius /><ref>{{Cite web |title=''De mortibus persecutorum'' - Wikisource |author=Lactantius |work=la.wikisource.org |date= |access-date=12 November 2023 |url= https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_mortibus_persecutorum#2 |language=la}}</ref>

Based on the letters attributed to Paul, [[Jerome]] claims Paul was imprisoned by Nero in 'the twenty-fifth year after our Lord's passion' (''post passionem Domini vicesimo quinto anno''), 'that is the second of Nero' (''id est, secundo Neronis''), 'at the time when [[Porcius Festus|Festus]] Procurator of Judea succeeded [[Antonius Felix|Felix]], he was sent bound to Rome, (...) remaining for two years in free custody'. Jerome interpreted the [[Second Epistle to Timothy]] to indicate that 'Paul was dismissed by Nero' (''Paulum a Nerone dimissum'') 'that the gospel of Christ might be preached also in the West'; but 'in the fourteenth year of Nero' (''quarto decimo Neronis anno'') 'on the same day with Peter, [Paul] was beheaded at Rome for Christ's sake and was buried in the Ostian way, the thirty-seventh year after our Lord's passion' (''anno post passionem Domini tricesimo septimo'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=''De Viris Illustribus'' Chapter 5: Paul. |author=Jerome |translator=Ernest Cushing Richardson |work=New Advent |date=1892 |access-date=11 November 2023 |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hieronymus. ''De viris illustribus.'' Caput V |last=Khazarzar |first=Ruslan |work=khazarzar.skeptik.net |date= |access-date=11 November 2023 |url= http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/hieronym/viris_l.htm |language=la}}</ref>{{sfn|Tajra|2010|p=188}}

A legend later developed that his martyrdom occurred at the Aquae Salviae, on the [[Via Laurentina]]. According to this legend, after Paul was decapitated, his severed head bounced three times, giving rise to a source of water each time that it touched the ground, which is how the place earned the name "[[San Paolo alle Tre Fontane]]" ("St Paul at the Three Fountains").<ref name="VaticanBenedict">{{cite conference|first=Joseph Aloisius|last=Ratzinger|authorlink=Pope Benedict XVI|title=General Audience of 4 February 2009: St Paul's martyrdom and heritage|publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana|year=2009|location=[[Paul VI Audience Hall]], Rome|url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090204.html|access-date = 1 April 2016}}</ref>{{sfn|De Leonardis|Masi|1999|p=21}} The apocryphal [[Acts of Paul]] also describe the martyrdom and the burial of Paul.{{sfn|James|1924}}

== Remains ==
According to the {{lang|la|[[Liber Pontificalis]]}}, Paul's body was buried outside the walls of Rome, at the second mile on the [[Via Ostiensis]], on the estate owned by a Christian woman named Lucina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spazioinwind.libero.it/lucina/lucina.htm|title=Lucina|website=spazioinwind.libero.it}}</ref> It was here, in the fourth century, that the Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] built a first church. Then, between the fourth and fifth centuries, it was considerably enlarged by the Emperors [[Valentinian I]], [[Valentinian II]], [[Theodosius I]], and [[Arcadius]]. The present-day [[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls]] was built there in the early 19th century.<ref name=VaticanBenedict/>

[[Caius (presbyter)|Caius]] in his ''Disputation Against Proclus'' (198 AD) mentions this of the places in which the remains of the apostles Peter and Paul were deposited: "I can point out the trophies of the apostles. For if you are willing to go to the Vatican or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who founded this Church".<ref name=EcclHist_II.25 />

Writing on Paul's biography, [[Jerome]] in his {{lang|la|[[De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)|De Viris Illustribus]]}} in 392 AD mentions that "Paul was buried in the Ostian Way at Rome".<ref>{{cite web|author=Jerome|title=On Illustrious Men : Chapter 5|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm|access-date=3 June 2015|work=New Advent}}</ref>

In 2002, an {{convert|8|foot|m|adj=on}}-long marble sarcophagus, inscribed with the words {{lang|la|"PAULO APOSTOLO MART"}}, which translates as "Paul apostle martyr", was discovered during excavations around the [[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls]] on the [[Via Ostiensis]]. Vatican archaeologists declared this to be the tomb of Paul the Apostle in December 2006, the excavation having been completed in November.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fraser |first=Christopher |date=2006-12-07 |title=St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6219656.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224012105/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6219656.stm |archive-date=2023-12-24 |access-date=2024-08-08 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-04 |title=On Paul's tomb, at the origins of Roman Christianity |url=https://www.exaudi.org/on-pauls-tomb-at-the-origins-of-roman-christianity/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240705044024/https://www.exaudi.org/on-pauls-tomb-at-the-origins-of-roman-christianity/ |archive-date=2024-07-05 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=Exaudi |language=en-US}}</ref> In the early 2000s, Vatican archaeologists conducted excavations to make the tomb more accessible to pilgrims. These excavations confirmed the presence of a white marble sarcophagus beneath the altar. The sarcophagus was not removed, but a window was created to allow visitors to view it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Valsecchi |first=Maria Cristina |date=2006-12-31 |title=St. Paul's Tomb Unearthed in Rome |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-st-paul-tomb-found-rome |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530123418/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-st-paul-tomb-found-rome |archive-date=2023-05-30 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=[[National Geographic]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Independent 2009">{{Cite web |date=2009-06-29 |title=Bones confirmed as St Paul's remains |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/bones-confirmed-as-st-paul-s-remains-1723751.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628081146/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/bones-confirmed-as-st-paul-s-remains-1723751.html |archive-date=2024-06-28 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=[[The Independent]] |language=en}}</ref>

In 2009, [[Pope Benedict XVI]] announced that [[radiocarbon dating]] of bone fragments found in the sarcophagus indicated they were from the 1st or 2nd century, aligning with the traditional timeline of Paul's life.<ref name="Independent 2009" /> The Pope argued that this discovery, along with other artifacts such as a piece of purple linen laminated with pure gold, grains of [[incense]], and blue textiles with [[linen]] filaments, all support the hypothesis that the remains are indeed those of Saint Paul.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2009-06-29 |title=Pope Says Tests 'Seem to Conclude' Bones Are the Apostle Paul's |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/29/science/29vatican.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628081147/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/29/science/29vatican.html |archive-date=2024-06-28 |access-date=2024-08-08 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Squires |first=Nick |date=2009-06-29 |title=Bone fragments confirmed to be Saint Paul |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/vaticancityandholysee/5685157/Bone-fragments-confirmed-to-be-Saint-Paul.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119234656/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/vaticancityandholysee/5685157/Bone-fragments-confirmed-to-be-Saint-Paul.html |archive-date=2023-11-19 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |language=en}}</ref> However, Ulderico Santamaria, the head of the [[Vatican Museum]]s' diagnostics laboratory and a Professor with expertise in Analytical Chemistry and Materials Engineering at Tuscia University, urged caution, noting that the dating neither confirms nor invalidates the relics' traditional assignment to St. Paul.<ref name="UPIbonesLab">{{cite news |title=Vatican: Relics analysis is inconclusive |url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/07/04/Vatican-Relics-analysis-is-inconclusive/UPI-25501246685972/ |access-date=2 November 2024 |work=[[UPI]] |date=July 4, 2009}}</ref>

The Vatican also confirmed that it had discovered and restored the earliest known image of Saint Paul, dating to the early 4th century AD, in the [[Catacomb of Saint Thecla|Catacomb of Saint Thekla]], close to the Basilica of St Paul Outside the Walls in Rome.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pisa |first=Nick |date=2009-06-28 |title='Oldest' image of St Paul discovered |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/vaticancityandholysee/5675461/Oldest-image-of-St-Paul-discovered.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223213838/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/vaticancityandholysee/5675461/Oldest-image-of-St-Paul-discovered.html |archive-date=2024-02-23 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |language=en}}</ref> In 2010 it was revealed that this [[icon]], painted on the ceiling of a catacomb, was adjacent to the oldest known depictions of [[Saint Peter]], [[John the Apostle|Saint John]], and [[Andrew the Apostle|Saint Andrew]], surrounding an image of Christ as the [[Good Shepherd]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-06-22 |title=Earliest icons of Peter and Paul found |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37845439 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329155129/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna37845439 |archive-date=2023-03-29 |access-date=2024-08-08 |website=[[NBC News]] |language=en}}</ref>

== Church tradition ==
[[File: Greek orthodox mural of Apostle Paul.jpg|thumb|upright=1|A [[Greek Orthodox]] mural painting of St. Paul]]
Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life:

[[1 Clement]], a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome around the year 90, reports this about Paul:
{{blockquote|By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance.|{{harvnb|Lightfoot|1890|p=274|loc=The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:5–6}}}}

Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation".{{sfn|Brown|Meier|1983|p=124}} [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], who wrote in the 4th century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor [[Nero]].<ref name=EcclHist_II.25 /> This event has been dated either to the year 64 AD, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67 AD. According to one tradition, the church of [[San Paolo alle Tre Fontane]] marks the place of Paul's execution. A [[Roman Catholic]] [[Catholic liturgy|liturgical]] [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul|solemnity of Peter and Paul]], celebrated on 29 June, commemorates his [[martyrdom]], and reflects a tradition (preserved by Eusebius) that Peter and Paul were martyred at the same time.<ref name=EcclHist_II.25 /> The Roman liturgical calendar for the following day now remembers all Christians martyred in these early persecutions; formerly, 30 June was the feast day for St. Paul.{{sfn|Butler|1866|loc=30 June: St. Paul, the Apostle}} Persons or religious orders with a special affinity for St. Paul can still celebrate their patron on 30 June.

The apocryphal [[Acts of Paul]] and the apocryphal [[Acts of Peter]] suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some think that Paul could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Timothy|4:13|NIV}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="disputed"}} A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter {{lang|la|ad Catacumbas}} by the [[Appian Way|via Appia]] until moved to what is now the [[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls]] in Rome. [[Bede]], in his ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History]]'', writes that [[Pope Vitalian]] in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the [[Crypt of Lucina|crypts of Lucina]] to King [[Oswy of Northumbria]], northern Britain. The skull of Saint Paul is claimed to reside in the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]] since at least the ninth century, alongside the skull of [[Saint Peter]].<ref>{{cite journal|last = Cuming | first = H. Syer | title = Notes on a group of reliquaries | journal= Journal of the British Archaeological Association|date=December 1870 |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=UDAGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA272 }}</ref>

The [[Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul]] is celebrated on 25 January.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chambers' The Book of Days|url=http://www.thebookofdays.com/months/jan/25.htm|year= 1869|access-date=9 February 2012}}</ref>

== Feast days ==
[[File:Paul the Apostle. Detail of the mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale. Ravena, Italy.jpg|thumb|Paul the Apostle, detail of the mosaic in the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], 6th century]]

=== Roman Catholicism ===
The Roman Martyrology commemorates Paul with a feast celebrating his conversion on 25 January.<ref>''Martyrologium Romanum'' (2nd&nbsp;ed.). Vatican City. 2004. p. 115</ref> The Roman Martyrology also commemorates Paul and Peter with a [[solemnity]] on 29 June.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Martyrologium Romanum |year=2004 |edition=2nd |location=Vatican City |pages=359}}</ref>

=== Eastern Orthodoxy ===
The Eastern Orthodox Church has several fixed days for the commemoration of Paul:

* 7 March – The Synaxis of the Saints of the [[Dodecanese|Dodecanese Islands]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanidopoulos |first=John |date=7 March 2015 |title=Synaxis of All Saints of the Dodecanese |url=https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2015/03/synaxis-of-all-saints-of-dodecanese.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617221908/https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2015/03/synaxis-of-all-saints-of-dodecanese.html |archive-date=17 June 2017 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=Mystagogy Research Center}}</ref>
* 29 June – The Apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and Paul.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lives of all saints commemorated on June 29 |url=https://www.oca.org/saints/all-lives/2021/06/29/101840-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-leaders-of-the-apostles-peter |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521085523/https://www.oca.org/saints/all-lives/2021/06/29 |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=www.oca.org}}</ref> 
* 30 June – The [[Twelve Apostles]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lives of all saints commemorated on June 30 |url=https://www.oca.org/saints/all-lives/2014/06/30/101711-synaxis-of-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-twelve-apostles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521085956/https://www.oca.org/saints/all-lives/2014/06/30 |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=www.oca.org}}</ref>
* 12 October – The Synaxis of the Saints of [[Athens]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanidopoulos |first=John |date=12 October 2010 |title=Synaxis of All Saints of Athens |url=https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2010/10/synaxis-of-all-saints-of-athens.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630021520/https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2010/10/synaxis-of-all-saints-of-athens.html |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=Orthodox Christianity Then and Now}}</ref>

The Eastern Orthodox Church also has numerous non-fixed days for the veneration of Paul:

* 21 Days before [[Easter|Pascha]] – Synaxis of the Saints of [[Rhodes]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Σύναξη πάντων των εν Ρόδω Αγίων |url=https://www.saint.gr/3731/saint.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326145607/https://www.saint.gr/3731/saint.aspx |archive-date=26 March 2023 |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Ορθόδοξος Συναξαριστής |language=Greek}}</ref>
* 21 Days after [[Easter|Pascha]] – Synaxis of the Saints of [[Euboea]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Σύναξη πάντων των Ευβοέων Αγίων |url=https://www.saint.gr/4026/saint.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730101450/https://www.saint.gr/4026/saint.aspx |archive-date=30 July 2023 |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Ορθόδοξος Συναξαριστής |language=Greek}}</ref>
* First Sunday of May – Synaxis of the Saints of [[Gortyna]] and [[Arcades (Crete)|Arkadia]] in the island of [[Crete]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanidopoulos |first=John |date=7 May 2017 |title=Synaxis of All Saints of Gortyna and Arkadia in Crete |url=https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2017/05/synaxis-of-all-saintsof-gortyna-and.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004065508/https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2017/05/synaxis-of-all-saintsof-gortyna-and.html |archive-date=4 October 2022 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=Orthodox Christianity Then and Now}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kontogiorgakis |first=Georgios |title=Αγιολόγιο – Ιερά Μητρόπολις Γορτύνης και Αρκαδίας |url=https://www.imga.gr/agiologio/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925072718/https://www.imga.gr/agiologio/ |archive-date=25 September 2022 |access-date=21 May 2023 |language=el-GR}}</ref>
* The Sunday between 16 and 22 August – Synaxis of the Saints of [[Lefkada]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Σύναξη των εν Λευκάδι Αγίων |url=https://www.saint.gr/4152/saint.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602174657/https://www.saint.gr/4152/saint.aspx |archive-date=2 June 2023 |access-date=6 August 2023 |website=Ορθόδοξος Συναξαριστής |language=Greek}}</ref>

=== The Church of England ===
The Church of England celebrates the Conversion of Saint Paul on 25 January as a [[Festival (Anglicanism)|Festival]].<ref name="The Church of England">{{Cite web |title=The Calendar |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=The Church of England}}</ref> Furthermore, along with [[Saint Peter]], Paul is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] by the [[Church of England]] with a [[Festival (Anglicanism)|Festival]] on 29 June.<ref name="The Church of England" />

=== Lutheran Church Missouri Synod ===
The [[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod|Lutheran Church Missouri Synod]] has two festivals for Saint Paul, the first being his conversion on 25 January, and the second being for Saints Peter and Paul on 29 June.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Feasts and Festivals |url=https://www.lcms.org/worship/church-year/feasts-and-festivals |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427181403/https://www.lcms.org/worship/church-year/feasts-and-festivals |archive-date=27 April 2023 |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=www.lcms.org |language=en}}</ref>

=== Patronage ===
Paul is the [[patron saint]] of several locations. He is the patron saint of the island of [[Malta]], which celebrates Paul's arrival to the island via shipwreck on 10 February. This day is a public holiday on the island.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Public Holidays in Malta |url=https://www.gov.mt/en/About%20Malta/Pages/Public%20Holidays.aspx |access-date=21 May 2023 |website=www.gov.mt}}</ref> Paul is also considered to be the patron saint of the city of [[London]].

== Physical appearance ==
[[File:PaulusTarsus LKANRW.jpg|thumb|upright=1|A facial composite of St. Paul created by experts of the [[Landeskriminalamt]] of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] using historical sources]]
The New Testament offers little if any information about the physical appearance of Paul, but several descriptions can be found in [[apocrypha]]l texts. In the Acts of Paul{{sfn|Barnstone|1984|p=447}} he is described as "A man of small stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked".{{sfn|Malherbe|1986|p=170}} In the Latin version of the [[Acts of Paul and Thecla]] it is added that he had a red, florid face.

In ''The History of the Contending of Saint Paul'', his countenance is described as "ruddy with the ruddiness of the skin of the pomegranate".{{sfn|Budge|1901|p=531|loc=The History of the Contending of Saint Paul}} The Acts of Saint Peter confirms that Paul had a bald and shining head, with red hair.{{sfn|Budge|1901|p=501|loc=The Acts of Saint Peter}}
As summarised by Barnes,{{sfn|Barnes|1844|p=212}} [[Chrysostom]] records that Paul's stature was low, his body crooked and his head bald. [[Lucian]], in his ''[[Philopatris]]'', describes Paul as {{lang|la|"corpore erat parvo, contracto, incurvo, tricubitali"}} ("he was small, contracted, crooked, of three [[cubits]], or four feet six").{{sfn|Prat|1911}}

[[Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos|Nicephorus]] claims that Paul was a little man, crooked, and almost bent like a bow, with a pale countenance, long and wrinkled, and a bald head. [[Pseudo-Chrysostom]] echoes Lucian's height of Paul, referring to him as "the man of three cubits".{{sfn|Prat|1911}}

== Writings ==
{{Paul}}
{{Catholic philosophy}}
{{Main|Pauline epistles}}
[[File: Paulus San Giovanni in Laterano 2006-09-07.jpg|thumb|upright=1|A statue of St. Paul in the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]] by [[Pierre-Étienne Monnot]]]]
Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 13 identify Paul as the author; seven of these are widely considered authentic and Paul's own, while the authorship of the other six is disputed.{{sfn|Aune|2010|p=9}}{{sfn|Dunn|Rogerson|2003|p=1274}}{{sfn|Perkins|1988|pp=4–7}} The undisputed letters are considered the most important sources since they contain what is widely agreed to be Paul's own statements about his life and thoughts. Theologian Mark Powell writes that Paul directed these seven letters to specific occasions at particular churches. As an example, if the Corinthian church had not experienced problems concerning its celebration of the [[Agape feast|Lord's Supper]],<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:17–34}}</ref> today it would not be known that Paul even believed in that observance or had any opinions about it one way or the other. Powell comments that there may be other matters in the early church that have since gone unnoticed simply because no crises arose that prompted Paul to comment on them.{{sfn|Powell|2009|p=234}}

In Paul's writings, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus a description of Christian spirituality. His letters have been characterized as being the most influential books of the New Testament after the Gospels of Matthew and John.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Sanders|2019}}: "Paul [...] only occasionally had the opportunity to revisit his churches. He tried to keep up his converts' spirit, answer their questions, and resolve their problems by letter and by sending one or more of his assistants, especially Timothy and Titus.

Paul's letters reveal a remarkable human being: dedicated, compassionate, emotional, sometimes harsh and angry, clever and quick-witted, supple in argumentation, and above all possessing a soaring, passionate commitment to God, Jesus Christ, and his own mission. Fortunately, after his death one of his followers collected some of the letters, edited them very slightly, and published them. They constitute one of history's most remarkable personal contributions to religious thought and practice.}}

=== Date ===
Paul's authentic letters are roughly dated to the years surrounding the mid-1st century. Placing Paul in this time period is done on the basis of his reported conflicts with other early contemporary figures in the Jesus movement including James and Peter,{{sfn|Wiley|2002|p=21}} the references to Paul and his letters by [[Clement of Rome]] writing in the late 1st century,{{sfn|Donaldson|2010|p=53}} his reported issues in Damascus from 2 Corinthians 11:32 which he says took place while [[Aretas IV Philopatris|King Aretas IV]] was in power,{{sfn|Donaldson|2010|p=39}} a possible reference to [[Erastus of Corinth]] in Romans 16:23,{{sfn|Bitner|2015|p=268}} his reference to preaching in the province of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] (which dissolved in 80 AD),{{sfn|Andria|2012|p=271}} the lack of any references to the Gospels indicating a pre-war time period, the chronology in the Acts of the Apostles placing Paul in this time, and the dependence on Paul's letters by other 1st-century pseudo-Pauline epistles.{{sfn|Dunn|2010|pp=170–71}}

=== Authorship ===
{{Main|Authorship of the Pauline epistles}}
[[File: Probably Valentin de Boulogne - Saint Paul Writing His Epistles - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Paul Writing His Epistles'', a 17th portrait by [[Valentin de Boulogne]]]]
[[File:Paul Apostle.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Russian Orthodox]] [[icon]] of the Apostle Paul, an 18th-century [[iconostasis]] of [[Transfiguration of Jesus|Jesus' transfiguration]] in the [[Kizhi]] Monastery in [[Karelia]], Russia]]
Seven of the 13 letters that bear Paul's name, [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]], [[1 Corinthians]], [[2 Corinthians]], [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]], [[Philippians]], [[1 Thessalonians]] and [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], are almost universally accepted as being entirely authentic and dictated by Paul himself.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}{{sfn|Aune|2010|p=9}}{{sfn|Dunn|Rogerson|2003|p=1274}}{{sfn|Perkins|1988|pp=4–7}} They are considered the best source of information on Paul's life and especially his thought.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}

Four of the letters (Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) are widely considered [[pseudepigraphical]], while the authorship of the other two is subject to debate.{{sfn|Aune|2010|p=9}} Colossians and 2 Thessalonians are possibly "Deutero-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by Paul's followers after his death. Similarly, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a generation after his death. According to their theories, these disputed letters may have come from followers writing in Paul's name, often using material from his surviving letters. These scribes also may have had access to letters written by Paul that no longer survive.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}

The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as "the image of the invisible God", a Christology found elsewhere only in the Gospel of John.{{sfn|MacDonald|Harrington|2000|p=58}}

===Acts===
Although approximately half of the Acts of the Apostles deals with Paul's life and works, Acts does not refer to Paul writing letters. Charles Williams believes that the author of Acts did not have access to any of [[Pauline epistles|Paul's letters]]. He claims that one piece of evidence suggesting this is that Acts never directly quotes from the Pauline epistles. Further, discrepancies between the Pauline epistles and Acts could also support this conclusion.{{sfn|Williams|1957|pp=22, 240}} The scholarly consensus was indeed that the author of Acts did not know the Pauline epistles, but such consensus got superseded.{{sfn|Mount|2022|p=32}}

British Jewish scholar [[Hyam Maccoby]] contended that Paul, as described in the Acts of the Apostles, is quite different from the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Acts of the Apostles is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references to [[John the Baptist]] in the [[Pauline Epistles]], although Paul mentions him several times in the Acts of the Apostles.

Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bear his literary and theological marks.{{sfn|Shillington|2007|p=18}} Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.{{sfn|Marshall|1980|p=42}}

[[Ferdinand Christian Baur|F. C. Baur]] (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the [[Tübingen School]] of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with [[Adolf Deissmann]] (1866–1937) and [[Richard Reitzenstein]] (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and [[Albert Schweitzer]] stressing his dependence on Judaism.

==Views==
[[File:Saint-Paul.JPG|thumb|upright=1|Byzantine ivory relief, 6th{{snd}}early 7th century by [[Musée de Cluny]]]]

===Self-view===
In the opening verses of Romans 1,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|1}}</ref> Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic appointment to preach among the Gentiles<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:16}}</ref> and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}} Paul described himself as set apart for the gospel of God and called to be an apostle and a servant of Jesus Christ. Jesus had revealed himself to Paul, just as he had appeared to Peter, to James, and to the twelve disciples after his resurrection.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|9:1}}</ref> Paul experienced this as an unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to all-powerful grace, not as the fruit of his reasoning or thoughts.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:12–15}}, {{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|15:10}}</ref>

Paul also describes himself as afflicted with "a [[thorn in the flesh]]";<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Corinthians|12:7}}</ref> the nature of this "thorn" is unknown.<ref>{{cite book|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version With The Apocrypha |edition=4th |editor-last1=Coogan |editor-first1=Michael D. |editor-last2=Brettler |editor-first2=Marc Z. |editor-last3=Newsom |editor-first3=Carol A. |editor-last4=Perkins |editor-first4=Pheme |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2010 |chapter=The Second Letter Of Paul To The Corinthians |page=2038 |quote=[Footnote 7] Nature of the ''thorn'' is unknown.}}</ref>

There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the gentiles at the moment of his conversion.{{sfn|Horrell|2006|p=30}} Before his conversion he believed his persecution of the church to be an indication of his zeal for his religion;<ref name="Bibleref2|Philippians|3:6">{{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:6}}</ref> after his conversion he believed Jewish hostility toward the church was sinful opposition, that would incur God's wrath.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|2:14–16}}</ref>{{sfn|Powell|2009|p=236}} Paul believed he was halted by Christ, when his fury was at its height.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|9:1–2}}</ref> It was "through zeal" that he persecuted the Church,<ref name="Bibleref2|Philippians|3:6"/> and he obtained mercy because he had "acted ignorantly in unbelief".<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Timothy|1:13}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|name="disputed"}}

=== Understanding of Jesus Christ ===
Paul's writings emphasized the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]], Christ's [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] and the [[Parousia]] or second coming of Christ.{{sfn|Bromiley|1979|p=689}} Paul saw Jesus as Lord ({{transliteration|grc|kyrios}}), the true messiah and the Son of God, who was promised by God beforehand, through his prophets in the Holy Scriptures. While being a biological descendant from David ("according to the flesh"),<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|1:3}}</ref> he was declared to be the Son of God by his resurrection from the dead.

According to [[E. P. Sanders]], Paul "preached the death, resurrection, and lordship of Jesus Christ, and he proclaimed that faith in Jesus guarantees a share in his life."{{sfn|Sanders|2019}} In Paul's view, "Jesus' death was not a defeat but was for the believers' benefit",{{sfn|Sanders|2019}} a sacrifice which substitutes for the lives of others, and frees them from the bondage of sin. Believers [[Participation in Christ|participate]] in Christ's death and resurrection by their baptism. The resurrection of Jesus was of primary importance to Paul, bringing the promise of salvation to believers. Paul taught that, when Christ returned, "those who died in Christ would be raised when he returned", while those still alive would be "caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air".<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|4:14–18}}</ref>{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}

Sanders concludes that Paul's writings reveal what he calls the essence of the Christian message: "(1) God sent his Son; (2) the Son was crucified and resurrected for the benefit of humanity; (3) the Son would soon return; and (4) those who belonged to the Son would live with him forever. Paul's gospel, like those of others, also included (5) the admonition to live by the highest moral standard: "May your spirit and soul and body be kept sound and blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ"."<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|5:23}}</ref>{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}

In Paul's writings, the public, corporate devotional patterns towards Jesus in the early Christian community are reflective of Paul's perspective on the divine status of Jesus in what scholars have termed a "binitarian" pattern of devotion. For Paul, Jesus receives prayer,<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|1:2}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|2 Corinthians|12:8–9}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|3:11}}</ref> the presence of Jesus is confessionally invoked by believers,<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|16:22}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|10:9–13}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Philippians|2:10–11}}</ref> people are baptized in Jesus' name,<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|6:11}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|6:3}}</ref> Jesus is the reference in Christian fellowship for a religious ritual meal (the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]];<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:17–34}}</ref> in pagan cults, the reference for ritual meals is always to a deity), and Jesus is the source of continuing prophetic oracles to believers.<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|4:15–17}}</ref>{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|pp=134–52}}

=== Atonement ===
{{Main|Atonement in Christianity}}
Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection. His death was an expiation as well as a [[propitiation]], and by Christ's blood peace is made between God and man.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Atonement}} By grace, through faith,<ref>{{bibleverse|Ephesians|2:8–9|9}}</ref> a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining as a free gift a new, justified status of sonship.<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|4:4–7|9}}</ref>

According to [[Krister Stendahl]], the main concern of Paul's writings on Jesus' role, and salvation by faith, is not the individual conscience of human sinners, and their doubts about being chosen by God or not, but the problem of the inclusion of gentile (Greek) Torah observers into God's covenant.{{sfn|Stendahl|1963}}{{sfn|Dunn|1982|p=n.49}}{{sfn|Finlan|2004|p=2}}{{sfn|Westerholm|2015|pp=4–15}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvnb|Dunn|1982|p=n.49}} quotes {{harvnb|Stendahl|1976|p=2}} "... a doctrine of faith was hammered out by Paul for the very specific and limited purpose of defending the rights of Gentile converts to be full and genuine heirs to the promise of God to Israel"

{{harvnb|Westerholm|2015|pp=4–15}}: "For Paul, the question that 'justification by faith' was intended to answer was, 'On what terms can Gentiles gain entrance to the people of God?" Bent on denying any suggestion that Gentiles must become Jews and keep the Jewish law, he answered, 'By faith—and not by works of ''the (Jewish) law''.'" Westerholm refers to: {{harvnb|Stendahl|1963}}

Westerholm quotes Sanders: "Sanders noted that 'the salvation of the Gentiles is essential to Paul's preaching; and with it falls the law; for, as Paul says simply, Gentiles cannot live by the law'.<ref>{{bibleverse|Gal| 2.14}}</ref> (496). On a similar note, Sanders suggested that the only Jewish 'boasting' to which Paul objected was that which exulted over the divine privileges granted to Israel and failed to acknowledge that God, in Christ, had opened the door of salvation to Gentiles."}} "Dying for our sins" refers to the problem of gentile Torah-observers, who, despite their faithfulness, cannot fully observe commandments, including circumcision, and are therefore 'sinners', excluded from God's covenant.{{sfn|Mack|1997|pp=88–89, 92}} Jesus' death and resurrection solved this problem of the exclusion of the gentiles from God's covenant, as indicated by Romans 3:21–26.{{sfn|Mack|1997|pp=91–92}}

Paul's conversion fundamentally changed his basic beliefs regarding God's covenant and the inclusion of Gentiles into this covenant. Paul believed Jesus' death was a voluntary sacrifice, that reconciled sinners with God.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|5:6–10}}, {{Bibleverse|Philippians|2:8}}</ref> The law only reveals the extent of people's enslavement to the power of sin—a power that must be broken by Christ.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|3:20b}}, {{Bibleverse|Romans|7:7–12}}</ref> Before his conversion Paul believed Gentiles were outside the covenant that God made with Israel; after his conversion, he believed Gentiles and Jews were united as the people of God in Christ.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|3:28}}</ref> Before his conversion he believed circumcision was the rite through which males became part of Israel, an exclusive community of God's chosen people;<ref>{{Bibleverse|Philippians|3:3–5}}</ref> after his conversion he believed that neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything, but that the new creation is what counts in the sight of God,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|6:15}}</ref> and that this new creation is a work of Christ in the life of believers, making them part of the church, an inclusive community of Jews and Gentiles reconciled with God through faith.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|6:4}}</ref>

According to [[E. P. Sanders]], who initiated the [[New Perspective on Paul]] with his 1977 publication ''Paul and Palestinian Judaism'', Paul saw the faithful redeemed by participation in Jesus' death and rising. Though "Jesus' death substituted for that of others and thereby freed believers from sin and guilt", a metaphor derived from "ancient [[Korban|sacrificial]] theology,"{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}{{refn|group=note|name="sacrifice"|According to the Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), "The Mishnah says that sins are expiated (1) by sacrifice, (2) by repentance at death or on Yom Kippur, (3) in the case of the lighter transgressions of the positive or negative precepts, by repentance at any time{{nbsp}}[...] The graver sins, according to Rabbi, are apostasy, heretical interpretation of the Torah, and non-circumcision (Yoma 86a). The atonement for sins between a man and his neighbor is an ample apology (Yoma 85b)."<ref name="JE.SIN">Jewish Encyclopedia, [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13761-sin ''SIN'']</ref>

''[[The Jewish Encyclopedia]]'' states, "Most efficacious seemed to be the atoning power of suffering experienced by the righteous during the Exile. This is the idea underlying the description of the suffering servant of God in {{abbr|Isa.|Isaiah}} liii. 4, 12, {{abbr|Hebr.|Hebrews}}{{nbsp}}[...] of greater atoning power than all the Temple sacrifices was the suffering of the elect ones who were to be servants and witnesses of the Lord ({{abbr|Isa.|Isaiah}} xlii. 1–4, xlix. 1–7, l. 6). This idea of the atoning power of the suffering and death of the righteous finds expression also in IV {{abbr|Macc.|Maccabees}} vi. 27, xvii. 21–23; M. Ḳ. 28a; Pesiḳ. xxvii. 174b; {{abbr|Lev.|Leviticus}} R. xx.; and formed the basis of Paul's doctrine of the atoning blood of Christ ({{abbr|Rom.|Romans}} iii. 25)."<ref name="JE.ATONEMENT">Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2092-atonement ''ATONEMENT'']</ref>}} the essence of Paul's writing is not in the "legal terms" regarding the expiation of sin, but the act of "participation in Christ through [[Eucharist|dying and rising with him]]."{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} According to Sanders, "those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin{{nbsp}}[...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him."{{sfn|Sanders|2019}} By this participation in Christ's death and rising, "one receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the Spirit."

=== Relationship with Judaism ===
{{Main|Paul the Apostle and Judaism|New Perspective on Paul}}
Some scholars see Paul as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a Pharisee and student of Gamaliel as [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles|presented by Acts]]),{{sfn|Orr|1915|p=2276}} others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see [[Marcionism]]), while the majority see him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to insistence on keeping the "Ritual Laws" (for example the [[circumcision controversy in early Christianity]]) as necessary for entrance into God's New Covenant,{{sfn|Sanders|1977}}{{sfn|Dunn|1982}} but in full agreement on "[[Divine Law]]". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of [[Biblical law in Christianity]].

{{Quote box
 |quote = Paul redefined the people of Israel, those he calls the "true Israel" and the "true circumcision" as those who had faith in the heavenly Christ, thus excluding those he called "Israel after the flesh" from his new covenant.<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|6:16}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Philippians|3:3}}</ref> He also held the view that the Torah given to Moses was valid "until Christ came," so that even Jews are no longer "under the Torah," nor obligated to follow the commandments or [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]] as given to Moses.<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|3–4}}</ref>
 |source = {{harvnb|Tabor|2013}}
 |salign = center
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 |width = 30%
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}}

Paul is critical both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|2:16–26}}</ref> of Jews while conversely strongly sustaining the notion of a special place for the [[Israelites|Children of Israel]].<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|9–11}}</ref> Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development contrary to Paul's own intent. He wrote that faith in Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent. He argued that Gentile converts did not need to [[Judaize|become Jews]], get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws to be saved.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}}
 	
According to [[Paula Fredriksen]], Paul's opposition to male circumcision for Gentiles is in line with Old Testament predictions that "in the last days the gentile nations would come to the God of Israel, as gentiles (e.g., Zechariah 8:20–23),<ref>{{bibleverse|Zechariah|8:20–23}}</ref> not as proselytes to Israel."<ref name="Hurtado.Fredriksen.2018">Larry Hurtado (4 December 2018 ), [https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2018/12/04/when-christians-were-jews-paula-fredriksen-on-the-first-generation/ ''"When Christians were Jews": Paula Fredriksen on "The First Generation"'']</ref> For Paul, Gentile male circumcision was therefore an affront to God's intentions.<ref name="Hurtado.Fredriksen.2018"/> According to Hurtado, "Paul saw himself as what Munck called a salvation-historical figure in his own right," who was "personally and singularly deputized by God to bring about the predicted ingathering (the "fullness") of the nations."<ref>{{bibleverse|Romans|11:25}}</ref><ref name="Hurtado.Fredriksen.2018"/>

According to Sanders, Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of {{c.|200 BC}} until 200 AD, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.<ref>Jordan Cooper, [https://www.patheos.com/blogs/justandsinner/krister-stendahl-and-the-new-perspective-on-paul/ ''E.P. Sanders and the New Perspective on Paul'']</ref>

Sanders' publications{{sfn|Sanders|1977}}{{sfn|Sanders|1983}} have since been taken up by Professor [[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul".{{sfn|Dunn|1982|pp=95–122}} [[N.T. Wright]],<ref name="WrightNP">{{cite web |url=http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_New_Perspectives.htm |title=New Perspectives on Paul |publisher=Ntwrightpage.com |date=28 August 2003 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913214047/http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_New_Perspectives.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> the Anglican Bishop of Durham, notes a difference in emphasis between Galatians and Romans, the latter being much more positive about the [[Covenant (biblical)#Mosaic covenant|continuing covenant between God and his ancient people]] than the former. Wright also contends that performing Christian works is not insignificant but rather proof of having attained the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith).<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|2:13ff}}</ref> He concludes that Paul distinguishes between performing Christian works which are signs of ethnic identity and others which are a sign of obedience to Christ.<ref name="WrightNP" />

=== World to come ===
{{See also|Christian eschatology|Second Coming|World to come}}
According to [[Bart Ehrman]], Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime.{{sfn|Ehrman|2006}} [[N.T. Wright]] argues that Paul's eschatology did not remain static however, developing in his later epistles the idea that he would probably not see the Second Coming in his lifetime. Wright also argues that this shift was due to perspective and not belief.<ref>[[N.T. Wright]] (2018), ''Hope Deferred? Against the Dogma of Delay,'' page 58, University of St. Andrews</ref> Paul expected that Christians who had died in the meantime would be [[Resurrection of the Dead|resurrected]] to share in [[Kingdom of God|God's kingdom]], and he believed that the saved would be transformed, assuming heavenly, imperishable bodies.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|15:51–53}}</ref>

Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians|first]] and [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|second]] letters to the Christian community of [[Thessalonica]]. He assures them that [[Resurrection of the dead|the dead will rise first]] and be followed by those left alive.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Thessalonians|4:16ff}}</ref> This suggests an imminent end but he is unspecific about times and seasons and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.{{sfn|Rowland|1985|p=113}} The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the [[Man of Sin|man of lawlessness]]<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Thessalonians|2:3}}</ref> whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.

Before his conversion he believed God's messiah would put an end to the old age of evil, and initiate a new age of righteousness; after his conversion, he believed this would happen in stages that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus, but the old age would continue until Jesus returns.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|16:25}}, {{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|10:11}}, {{Bibleverse|Galatians|1:4}}</ref>{{sfn|Powell|2009|p=236}}

=== Role of women ===
{{Main|Paul the Apostle and women}}
{{See also|1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman")}}
[[File:Attributed to Lucas van Leyden 001.jpg|thumb|upright=1|A 16th century portrait of Paul the Apostle attributed to [[Lucas van Leyden]]]]
The second chapter of the first letter to Timothy—one of the six disputed letters—is used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.{{sfn|Kroeger|Kroeger|1998}}

{{poemquote|
{{sup|9}}In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array;
{{sup|10}}But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works.
{{sup|11}}Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
{{sup|12}}But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
{{sup|13}}For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
{{sup|14}}And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.
{{sup|15}}Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith and charity and holiness with sobriety.|1 Timothy 2:9–15<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Timothy|2:9–15|KJV}}</ref>}}

The [[King James Bible]] (Authorised Version) translation of this passage taken literally says that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles vis-à-vis men.{{sfn|Wright|2006|pp=5–10}}

[[Fuller Theological Seminary|Fuller Seminary]] theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk<ref name="Kirk">{{cite web|url=http://www.fuller.edu/academics/faculty/daniel-kirk.aspx|last=Kirk|first=J. R. Daniel|title=Faculty |work=fuller.edu|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424185441/http://fuller.edu/academics/faculty/daniel-kirk.aspx|archive-date=24 April 2012}}</ref> finds evidence in Paul's letters of a much more inclusive view of women. He writes that Romans 16 is a tremendously important witness to the important role of women in the early church. Paul praises [[Phoebe (Bible)|Phoebe]] for her work as a [[deaconess]] and [[Junia (New Testament person)|Junia]] who is described by Paul in Scripture as being respected among the Apostles.<ref name="Bibleref2|Romans|16:7">{{Bibleverse|Romans|16:7}}</ref> It is Kirk's observation that recent studies suggest that the passage in 1 Corinthians 14 ordering women to "be silent" during worship<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|14|TNIV}}</ref> was a later addition, apparently by a different author, and not part of Paul's original letter to the Corinthians.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Other scholars, such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, believe that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1 Corinthians 14 is genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case where there were local problems of women, who were not allowed in that culture to become educated, asking questions or chatting during worship services. He does not believe it to be a general prohibition on any woman speaking in worship settings since in 1 Corinthians Paul affirms the right (responsibility) of women to [[Prophesy#Christianity|prophesy]].<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11}}</ref>{{sfn|Giguzzi|2004|pp=95–107}}

{{Blockquote|Biblical prophecy is more than "fore-telling": two-thirds of its inscripturated form involves "forth-telling", that is, setting the truth, justice, mercy, and righteousness of God against the backdrop of every form of denial of the same. Thus, to speak prophetically was to speak boldly against every form of moral, ethical, political, economic, and religious disenfranchisement observed in a culture that was intent on building its own pyramid of values vis-a-vis God's established system of truth and ethics.|''Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology''<ref name="Baker">"Prophet, Prophetess, Prophecy". ''Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology''.</ref>}}

There were women prophets in the highly patriarchal times throughout the Old Testament.<ref name="Baker" /> The most common term for ''prophet'' in the Old Testament is {{transliteration|hbo|nabi}} in the masculine form, and {{transliteration|hbo|nebiah}} in the Hebrew feminine form, is used six times of women who performed the same task of receiving and proclaiming the message given by God. These women include Miriam, Aaron and Moses' sister,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|15:20}}</ref> Deborah,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Judges|4:4}}</ref> the prophet Isaiah's wife,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|8:3}}</ref> and Huldah, the one who interpreted the Book of the Law discovered in the temple during the days of Josiah.<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Kings|22:14}}, {{Bibleverse|2 Chronicles|34:22}}</ref> There were false prophetesses just as there were false prophets. The prophetess Noadiah was among those who tried to intimidate Nehemiah.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Nehemiah|6:14}}</ref> Apparently, they held equal rank in prophesying right along with Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Elisha, Aaron, and Samuel.<ref name="Baker" />

Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is Galatians 3:28:
{{Blockquote|There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.|Galatians 3:28<ref>{{Bibleverse|Galatians|3:28|NIV}}</ref>}}

In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome".{{sfn|Kirk|2012}}

Classicist [[Evelyn Stagg]] and theologian [[Frank Stagg (theologian)|Frank Stagg]] believe that Paul was attempting to "Christianize" the societal household or domestic codes that significantly oppressed women and empowered men as the head of the household. The Staggs present a serious study of what has been termed the [[New Testament domestic code]], also known as the ''Haustafel''.{{sfn|Stagg|Stagg|1978}} The two main passages that explain these "household duties" are Paul's letters to the Ephesians<ref>{{Bibleverse|Ephesians|5:22–6:5}}</ref> and to the Colossians.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Colossians|3:18–4:1}}</ref> An underlying Household Code is also reflected in four additional Pauline letters and 1 Peter: 1 Timothy 2:1ff, 8ff; 3:1ff, 8ff; 5:17ff; 6:1f; Titus 2:1–10<ref>{{Bibleverse|Titus|2:1–10}}</ref> and 1 Peter.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Peter|3:1–9}}</ref> Biblical scholars have typically treated the ''Haustafel'' in Ephesians as a resource in the debate over the role of women in ministry and in the home.{{sfn|Gombis|2005|pp=317–30}} Margaret MacDonald argues that the ''Haustafel'', particularly as it appears in Ephesians, was aimed at "reducing the tension between community members and outsiders".{{sfn|MacDonald|2004|p=109}}

E. P. Sanders has labeled Paul's remark in 1 Corinthians<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|14:34–36}}</ref> about women not making any sound during worship as "Paul's intemperate outburst that women should be silent in the churches".{{sfn|Sanders|1977}}{{sfn|Sanders|1983}} Women, in fact, played a very significant part in Paul's missionary endeavors:
* He became a partner in ministry with the couple [[Priscilla and Aquila]] who are specifically named seven times in the New Testament—always by their couple name and never individually. Of the seven times they are named in the New Testament, Priscilla's name appears first in five of those instances, suggesting to some scholars that she was the head of the family unit.{{sfn|Achtemeier|1985|p=882}} They lived, worked, and traveled with the Apostle Paul, becoming his honored, much-loved friends and coworkers in Jesus.{{sfn|Keller|2010}} In Romans 16:3–4,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|16:3–4}}</ref> thought to have been written in 56 or 57, Paul sends his greetings to Priscilla and Aquila and proclaims that both of them "risked their necks" to save Paul's life.
* Chloe was an important member of the church in Corinth.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|1:11}}</ref>
* Phoebe was a "deacon" and a "benefactor" of Paul and others.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|16:1–2}}</ref>
* Romans 16<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|16}}</ref> names eight other women active in the Christian movement, including Junia ("prominent among the apostles"), Mary ("who has worked very hard among you"), and Julia.
* Women were frequently among the major supporters of the new Christian movement.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}}

[[Beth Allison Barr]] believes that Paul's beliefs on women were progressive for the time period. Barr notes that medieval theologians rarely quoted him to support their patriarchal views and that [[Pope John Paul II]] believed that using these passages to support the inferiority of women would be akin to justifying slavery, due to the historical context of the household codes. Wives, like slaves, were considered to be under male authority in Roman law. Barr believes that Paul's intended message was to counter these ideals: he addresses women first and places Jesus as the ultimate authority that everyone was meant to submit to. She also notes that Paul did not believe that women were "deformed men" like his Roman contemporaries and used maternal language most frequently, often using such metaphors to describe himself as a woman. Barr believes that Roman authorities thought that early Christians were "gender deviants" precisely because they did not enforce the household codes as intended. She also believes that Paul was quoting [[Cicero]] when saying that women should be silent, before going on to counter this reasoning, and that this is more obvious when the verses are read aloud.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allison Barr |first1=Beth |title=[[The Making of Biblical Womanhood]]|date=2021 |publisher=Brazos Press |isbn=9781587434709 |pages=44–62}}</ref>

=== Views on homosexuality ===
{{See also|Homosexuality in the New Testament}}
Most Christian traditions<ref name="vatican.va"/><ref name="coptic.net"/><ref name="carm.org"/> say Paul clearly portrays homosexuality as sinful in two specific locations: Romans 1:26–27,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|1:26–27}}</ref> and 1 Corinthians 6:9-10.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|6:9–10}}</ref> Another passage, 1 Timothy 1:8–11, addresses the topic more obliquely.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Timothy|1:8–11}}</ref> Since the 19th century, however, most scholars have concluded that [[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]] (along with [[2 Timothy]] and [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]]) is not original to Paul, but rather an unknown Christian writing in Paul's name some time in the late-1st to mid-2nd century.{{sfn|Ehrman|2000|p=393}}{{sfn|Collins|2002|p=4}}

== Influence ==
[[File:San Pablo (1606) - Gregorio Fernández.jpg|thumb|upright=1|A 1606 statue of St. Paul by [[Gregorio Fernández]]]]
Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.{{sfn|Sanders|2019}} Paul declared that "[[Abrogation of Old Covenant laws|Christ is the end of the law]]",<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|10:4|NASB}}</ref> exalted the Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the "Lord's Supper",<ref>{{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|10:14–17}}, {{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:17–34}}</ref> a rite traditionally identified as the [[Christian communion]] or [[Eucharist]]. In the East, church fathers attributed the element of election in Romans 9<ref>{{Bibleverse|Romans|9}}</ref> to divine foreknowledge.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}} The themes of [[predestination]] found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.

===Pauline Christianity===
{{Main|Pauline Christianity}}
Paul had a strong influence on early Christianity. Hurtado notes that Paul regarded his own [[Christology|Christological views]] and those of his predecessors and that of the Jerusalem Church as essentially similar. According to Hurtado, this "work[s] against the claims by some scholars that Pauline Christianity represents a sharp departure from the religiousness of Judean 'Jesus movements'."{{sfn|Hurtado|2005|p=160}}

===Marcion===
{{Main|Marcion|Marcionites}}
Marcionism, regarded as heresy by contemporary mainstream Christianity, was an [[Early Christian]] [[Dualistic cosmology|dualist]] [[belief system]] that originated in the teachings of [[Marcion of Sinope]] at Rome around the year 144.{{refn|group=note|115 years and 6 months from the [[Crucifixion]], according to [[Tertullian]]'s reckoning in {{lang|la|Adversus Marcionem}}, xv}} Marcion asserted that Paul was the only [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostle]] who had rightly understood the new message of [[salvation]] as delivered by Christ.{{sfn|Mack|1995}}

Marcion believed Jesus was the savior sent by [[God in Christianity|God]], and Paul the Apostle was his chief apostle, but he rejected the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Yahweh|God of Israel]]. Marcionists believed that the [[Divine retribution|wrathful Hebrew God]] was a separate and lower entity than the [[Love of God|all-forgiving God]] of the New Testament.

===Augustine===
In his account of his conversion experience, [[Augustine of Hippo]] gave his life to Christ after reading [[Romans 13]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/romans-1/|title=Guzik|date=15 December 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Augustine|2019|pp=354–430}} Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}}

===Reformation===
{{Main|Reformation}}In his account of his conversion [[Martin Luther]] wrote about [[righteousness]] in [[Romans 1]] praising Romans as the perfect gospel, in which the Reformation was birthed.{{sfn|Herrmann|2016|pp=475–488}} Martin Luther's interpretation of [[Pauline epistles|Paul's writings]] influenced Luther's doctrine of ''[[sola fide]]''.

=== John Calvin ===
[[John Calvin]] said the Book of Romans opens to anyone an understanding of the whole Scripture.{{sfn|Parker|1993|p=}}

=== Modern theology ===
{{See also|Pauline Christianity|Jesuism}}
{{Quote box
 |quote = Visit any church service, [[Roman Catholic]], [[Protestant]] or [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]], and it is the apostle Paul and his ideas that are central – in the [[hymns]], the [[creeds]], the [[sermons]], the invocation and [[benediction]], and of course, the rituals of [[baptism]] and the [[Holy Communion]] or Mass. Whether birth, baptism, confirmation, marriage or death, it is predominantly Paul who is evoked to express meaning and significance.|source =Professor [[James D. Tabor]] for the ''[[Huffington Post]]''<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.huffingtonpost.com/james-d-tabor/christianity-before-paul_b_2200409.html|title=Christianity Before Paul|website=[[HuffPost]]|access-date=August 27, 2017|date=2012-11-29}}</ref>
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In his commentary ''[[The Epistle to the Romans (Barth)|The Epistle to the Romans]]'' ({{langx|de|Der Römerbrief}}; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922), [[Karl Barth]] argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions.

In addition to the many questions about the true origins of some of Paul's teachings posed by historical figures as noted above, some modern theologians also hold that the teachings of Paul differ markedly from those of Jesus as found in the Gospels.{{sfn|Maccoby|1998|p=14}} [[Barrie Wilson]] states that Paul differs from Jesus in terms of the origin of his message, his teachings and his practices.{{sfn|Wilson|2011|loc=chapters 9, 10, 12}} Some have even gone so far as to claim that, due to these apparent differences in teachings, that Paul was no less than the "second founder" of Christianity (Jesus being its first).{{sfn|Dwyer|1998|p=27}}{{sfn|Wrede|1907|p=179}}

As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=St Paul}}

==Views on Paul==
===In Judaism===
{{Main|Paul the Apostle and Judaism}}
{{See also|Messianic Judaism}}
[[File:Saint Paul with a Scroll and a Sword.jpg|thumb|upright=1|A statue of Paul holding a scroll, symbolising the [[Scripture]]s, and a sword, symbolising his martyrdom]]
Jewish interest in Paul is a recent phenomenon. Before the [[Judaism's view of Jesus#Positive historical re-evaluations|positive historical reevaluations of Jesus]] by some Jewish thinkers in the 18th and 19th centuries, he had hardly featured in the popular Jewish imagination, and little had been written about him by the religious leaders and scholars. Arguably, he is absent from the [[Talmud]] and rabbinical literature, although he makes an appearance in some variants of the medieval polemic [[Toledot Yeshu]] (as a particularly effective spy for the rabbis).<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=23–56}}</ref> The [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] scholar [[Jacob Qirqisani]] also believed that Paul created Christianity by introducing the doctrine of [[Trinity|Trinitarianism]].{{sfn|Adang|1996|pp=105–06}}

However, with Jesus no longer regarded as the paradigm of gentile Christianity, Paul's position became more important in Jewish historical reconstructions of their religion's relationship with Christianity. He has featured as the key to building barriers (e.g. [[Heinrich Graetz]] and [[Martin Buber]]) or bridges (e.g. [[Isaac Mayer Wise]] and [[Claude G. Montefiore]]) in interfaith relations,<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=57–96}}</ref> as part of an intra-Jewish debate about what constitutes Jewish authenticity (e.g. [[Joseph Klausner]] and Hans Joachim Schoeps),<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=97–153}}</ref> and on occasion as a dialogical partner (e.g. [[Richard L. Rubenstein]] and [[Daniel Boyarin]]).<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=154–76}}</ref> Boyarin in particular reads Paul as a 'Jewish thinker', one who 'lived and died convinced he was a Jew living out Judaism.'{{sfn|Boyarin|1994|p=4}}

He features in an oratorio (by [[Felix Mendelssohn]]), a painting (by [[Ludwig Meidner]]) and a play (by [[Franz Werfel]]),<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=178–209}}</ref> and there have been several novels about Paul (by [[Shalom Asch]] and Samuel Sandmel).<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=210–30}}</ref> Jewish philosophers (including [[Baruch Spinoza]], [[Leo Shestov]], and [[Jacob Taubes]])<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=234–62}}</ref> and Jewish psychoanalysts (including [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Hanns Sachs]])<ref>{{harvp|Langton|2010|pp=263–78}}</ref> have engaged with the apostle as one of the most influential figures in Western thought. Scholarly surveys of Jewish interest in Paul include those by {{harvnb|Hagner|1980|pp=143–65}}, {{harvnb|Meissner|1996}}, {{harvnb|Langton|2010}}, {{harvnb|Langton|2011a|pp=55–72}} and {{harvnb|Langton|2011b|pp=585–87}}.

===In Gnosticism===
{{See also|Gnosticism#Paul and Gnosticism}}
In the 2nd (and possibly late 1st) century, [[Gnosticism]] was a competing religious tradition to Christianity which shared some elements of theology.

[[Elaine Pagels]] concentrated on how the Gnostics interpreted Paul's letters and how evidence from gnostic sources may challenge the assumption that Paul wrote his letters to combat "gnostic opponents" and to repudiate their statement that they possess secret wisdom. In her reading, the Gnostics considered Paul as one of their own.{{sfn|Pagels|1992|pp=1-12,98}}

=== In Islam ===
Muslim views of Paul ({{langx|ar|بولس|translit=Būlus}}) have ranged from critical to interpretive across history. Early Muslim writers generally depicted him as a figure who altered the [[Injil|original revealed teachings]] of [[Isa ibn Maryam|Jesus]],{{sfn|De Young|2004|p=60}}{{sfn|Riddell|2001|p=235}} while later scholars developed these assessments into more structured theological and philosophical critiques. According to some perspectives, Paul is said to have introduced foreign elements into Christian doctrine—including [[pagan]] influences,{{sfn|Waardenburg|1999|p=276}}{{sfn|al-Faruqi|1983|p=21}}{{sfn|Abd al-Jabbar|2010|p=183}} the formulation of Christianity as a theology of [[atonement in Christianity|the cross]],{{sfn|Waardenburg|1999|p=255}}{{sfn|al-Faruqi|1967|p=203}} and the doctrines of [[original sin]] and [[Redemption (theology)#Christianity|vicarious redemption]]—all of which are viewed in Islamic theology as incompatible with the concept of pure monotheism ([[Tawhid|{{transliteration|ar|tawḥīd}}]]).{{sfn|De Young|2004|p=64}}{{sfn|al-Faruqi|1967|p=180}}

====  Early period ====
In early Islamic historiography, Paul is occasionally mentioned in relation to Christian history, though not recognized as a disciple. [[Ibn Ishaq]] (d. 767), as cited by [[al-Tabari]] and [[al-Qurtubi]], records a narrative in which Paul is sent alongside Peter to Rome, though he clarifies that Paul was not a disciple (''ḥawārī'') but a later follower.{{sfn|Guillaume|1998|p=653}} Some tafsīr literature, including works by [[Al-Baghawi]] and [[Ibn Kathir]], link Paul to verses such as [[Surah]] [[Ya-Sin]] [[People of Ya-Sin|36:14]], though these interpretations—derived from [[Isra'iliyyat]] traditions—are not universally accepted. [[Ali ibn Ibrahim al-Qummi]] (d. 919) listed Paul as a theological opponent of Jesus, grouping him with heretical figures like [[Marcion of Sinope|Marcion]] and Barzatiq, stating that each prophet had an adversary and that Paul was the one sent against Jesus.{{sfn|al-Qummi|2018|p=49}}

==== Classical period ====
In theological critique, [[al-Qadi Abd al-Jabbar]] (d. 1025) asserted that Paul altered the Gospel, abolished the Mosaic law, and promoted permissiveness, declaring circumcision and Sabbath observance no longer required and wine permissible.{{sfn|Abd al-Jabbar|2010|pp=153, 183}} [[Al-Shahrastani]] (d. 1153) accused Paul of distorting divine knowledge by mixing it with philosophical speculations, stating he corrupted Peter's message through Greek metaphysics.{{sfn|al-Shahrastani|Kaylānī|p=264}}

In polemical literature, Paul plays a role analogous to that of the later figure [[Abdullah ibn Saba']], who is alleged to have attempted to undermine Islam from within.{{sfn|Anthony|2011|p=68}}{{sfn|Brann|2010|pp=65–66}}{{sfn|Pall|2013|p=55}} Scholars such as [[Ibn Taymiyya]] (d. 1328) argued that while Paul succeeded in corrupting Christianity, Ibn Saba' failed in his efforts against Islam. He wrote that Paul "entered the religion of the Christians and corrupted it to mislead them."{{sfn|Ibn Taymiyya|1995|p=483}} [[Sayf ibn Umar]] (d. ±786–809) claimed that certain rabbis persuaded Paul to deliberately misguide early Christians by introducing what [[Ibn Hazm]] (d. 1064) viewed as objectionable doctrines into Christianity.{{sfn|Adang|1996|pp=105–06}}{{sfn|Anthony|2011|p=68}} Ibn Hazm repeated Sayf's claims and regarded Paul as the principal figure responsible for introducing theological innovations inconsistent with Islamic monotheism.{{sfn|Brann|2010|pp=65–66}} Ibn Hazm likewise claimed that the Jews even admitted to Paul's subversive role.

==== Modern era ====
In the modern era, Paul has been the subject of renewed criticism by a range of Muslim scholars. [[Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas]] argued that Paul was chiefly responsible for distorting the original message of Jesus by introducing foreign philosophical concepts and shifting the focus of the religion away from its Semitic, prophetic origins.{{sfn|Riddell|2001|p=235}}{{sfn|al-Attas|1993|p=28}} [[Rashid Rida]] accused Paul of introducing {{transliteration|ar|[[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]}} (polytheism) into Christianity.{{sfn|Waardenburg|1999|p=276}} [[Mohammad Ali Jouhar]] quoted [[Adolf von Harnack]]'s critical writings on Paul.{{sfn|Waardenburg|1999|p=255}} [[Reza Aslan]] wrote that Paul redefined Jesus into a new theological construct unrecognizable to Judaism: "Christ...seems almost wholly of his [Paul's] own making."{{sfn|Aslan|2013|p=118}}

[[Ismail al-Faruqi]] offered one of the most systematic Muslim critiques of Pauline theology. He argued that Paul introduced doctrines absent from Jesus’ original teachings, stating that "what Jesus did not furnish, Paul was ready to offer to Christianity," including the ideas of incarnation, crucifixion, and salvation through atonement.{{sfn|al-Faruqi|1967|p=203}} He identified Paul’s ambiguous formulations as the source of key dogmas such as original sin (''[[peccatism]]'') and vicarious redemption (''saviourism''), rather than anything traceable to Jesus himself.{{sfn|al-Faruqi|1967|p=180}} Al-Faruqi further noted that Pauline theology retained structural ties to Greco-Roman mystery religions, particularly in its use of sacramental and incarnational motifs, which he regarded as incompatible with the Islamic emphasis on divine transcendence.{{sfn|al-Faruqi|1983|p=21}}

By contrast, others have offered more charitable or literary appraisals. [[Shabbir Akhtar]], in his study of Paul’s epistles, described him as a "prophet ''manqué''"—a man of spiritual ambition who failed to attain true prophethood. Akhtar wrote: "If Muhammad was the last prophet, Paul was the lost prophet. That is the most charitable Islamic verdict on the man Muslims see as the founder of Christianity."{{sfn|Akhtar|2018|p=269}} [[Mustafa Akyol]], a Turkish journalist and public intellectual, likewise rejects polemical portrayals of Paul as a conspirator and instead offers a more historically grounded evaluation. He writes: "At the end of the day, it seems astonishing how the vision of Paul, a man who had never seen or heard Jesus with his earthly eyes and ears, defined the Christ to the world and built the foundation of the greatest religion that has ever existed." Akyol concludes: "If there can be any informed Islamic critique of Paul, it can be that he parted ways with Judaism too much."{{sfn|Akyol|2017|pp=56–57}}

===Other views===
Other critics of Paul the Apostle include United States president [[Thomas Jefferson]], a [[Deism|Deist]] who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."{{sfn|Jefferson|1854|p=}} [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]], [[Leo Tolstoy]] and [[Ammon Hennacy]], as well as German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] held similar views.<ref>{{harvnb|Tolstoy|1891|p=17}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hennacy|2010}}</ref>

Discussions in [[Baháʼí Faith|Bahá'í]] scholarship have focused on whether Paul changed the original message of Christ or delivered the true gospel, there being proponents of both positions.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Christianity from a Bahá'í Perspective|url=https://bahai-library.com/stockman_christianity_bahai_perspective&chapter=5|access-date=26 December 2021|website=bahai-library.com}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=24em}}
* [[Achaicus of Corinth]]
* [[Collegiate Parish Church of St Paul's Shipwreck]]
* [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle]]
* [[List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources]]
* [[New Perspective on Paul]]
* [[Old Testament#Christian views on Mosaic Law|Old Testament: Christian views of the Law]]
* ''[[Paul, Apostle of Christ]]'', 2018 film
* [[Pauline mysticism]]
* [[Pauline privilege]]
* [[Persecution of Christians in the New Testament]]
* [[Persecution of religion in ancient Rome]]
* ''[[Peter and Paul (film)|Peter and Paul]]'', 1981 miniseries
* [[Psychagogy]]
* [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
===Notes===
'''Language notes'''
{{notelist}}

'''General notes'''
{{reflist|group=note|35em}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name="pbs.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/peterandpaul/footsteps/footsteps_1_1.html |website=In the Footsteps of Paul|title=Saul of Tarsus: Rooted in Three Worlds|publisher= PBS|access-date= 19 November 2010|year=2003}}</ref>

<ref name="umc.org">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000823232149/http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/corinthians/paul.stm |title=Paul and His Influence in Early Christianity|website=United Methodist Church|url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/corinthians/paul.stm|archive-date=23 August 2000}}</ref>

<ref name="JewEnc:Saul of Tarsus">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Saul Of Tarsus (known as Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen) |encyclopedia=JewishEncyclopedia.com |year=2011 |access-date=12 February 2020 |url= http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11952-paul-of-tarsus |quote=His quotations from Scripture, which are all taken, directly or from memory, from the Greek version, betray no familiarity with the original Hebrew text (…) Nor is there any indication in Paul's writings or arguments that he had received the rabbinical training ascribed to him by Christian writers}}</ref>

<ref name=CathAns>{{cite web |title=Why did God change Saul's name to Paul? |url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/why-did-god-change-sauls-name-to-paul |website=Catholic Answers |access-date=31 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121030000303/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/why-did-god-change-sauls-name-to-paul |archive-date=30 October 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="Strong">Greek lexicon [http://studybible.info/strongs/G4569 G4569 Σαύλος (Saul)]<br />Greek lexicon [http://studybible.info/strongs/G3972 G3972 Παύλος (Paul)]<br />Hebrew lexicon [http://studybible.info/strongs/H7586 H7586 שׁאוּל (Shaul/Saul)]</ref>

<ref name=Lactantius>{{cite web|author=Lactantius|author-link=Lactantius|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.iii.v.ii.html |title=Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died, addressed to Donatus|website=ccel.org}}</ref>

<!-- <ref name="Antiquities">{{cite Josephus | PACEJ=1 | text=aj| bookno=20 | chap=9 | sec=4}}</ref> -->

<ref name="PulCom">{{cite web|title=Pulpit Commentary on Acts 18|url= http://biblehub.com/commentaries/pulpit/acts/18.htm| access-date= 4 October 2015|website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

<ref name="vatican.va">{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm#2357|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – Article 6: The sixth commandment|website=vatican.va|date=10 January 1951}}</ref>

<ref name="coptic.net">M. Mikhail. "[http://www.coptic.net/articles/OnHomosexuality.txt The Coptic Orthodox Church's View on Homosexuality]."</ref>

<ref name="carm.org">{{cite web|url=http://carm.org/christianity-and-homosexuality|title=Christianity and Homosexuality|publisher=CARM – The Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry|date=25 November 2008}}</ref>

<ref name=EcclHist_II.25>{{cite wikisource|author=Eusebius|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume I/Church History of Eusebius|chapter=Book II/Chapter 25|title=Church History  |date=1885}}</ref>
}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
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*{{cite book|last=Aageson|first=James W.|title=Paul, the Pastoral Epistles, and the Early Church|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CfYPAQAAIAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Hendrickson|isbn=978-1-59856-041-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Camilla |last=Adang|title=Muslim Writers on Judaism and the Hebrew Bible: From Ibn Rabban to Ibn Hazm|date=1996|publisher=Brill|isbn= 978-90-04-10034-3 |language=en}}
*{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|first=Cornelius|last=Aherne|volume=4|wstitle=Epistle to the Colossians}}
*{{cite book|last=Achtemeier|first=Paul J.|title=Harper's Bible dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4UERAQAAMAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=978-0-06-069862-1|via=Society of Biblical Literature}}
*{{cite book|last=Akhtar|first=Shabbir|title=The New Testament in Muslim Eyes: Paul's Letter to the Galatians |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=2018 |isbn=9781138213494 |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last=Akyol |first=Mustafa |title=The Islamic Jesus: How the King of the Jews Became a Prophet of the Muslims |publisher=St. Martin’s Press |location=New York |year=2017 |edition=First |isbn=9781250088697 |pages=56–57 |language=en}}
*{{cite book|last=al-Attas |first=Syed Muhammad Naquib |title=Islam and Secularism |location=Kuala Lumpur |publisher=International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC) |year=1993 |ref={{harvid|al-Attas|1993}} |oclc=954265072 |isbn=9789839962864 |language=en}}
*{{cite book|last=al-Faruqi |first=Ismaʿil Raji |title=[[Christian Ethics (book)|Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of its Dominant Ideas]] |publisher=McGill University Press |year=1967 |oclc=10015677879 |isbn=9780773592711 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1w0dc5d |language=en}}
*{{cite book|last=al-Faruqi |first=Ismaʿil Raji |title=Divine Transcendence and Its Expression |publisher=ABIM |year=1983 |oclc=843942856 |language=en}}
*{{cite book |last=al-Qummi |title=Tafsir al-Qummi |editor=Ṭayyib al-Mūsawī al-Jazāʾirī |location=Beirut |publisher=Dār al-Walāʾ |year=2018 |volume=1 |language=ar}}
* {{cite book |last=al-Shahrastani |title=Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal |editor=Muḥammad Sayyid Kaylānī |location=Beirut |publisher=Dār al-Maʿrifah |ref={{harvid|al-Shahrastani|Kaylānī}} |language=ar}}
*{{cite book|last=Andria|first=Solomon|title=Romans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TJoBTjneGCUC&pg=PA271|year=2012|publisher=Harpercollins Christian Pub|isbn=978-9966-003-06-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Anthony|first=Sean|title=The Caliph and the Heretic: Ibn Sabaʾ and the Origins of Shīʿism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jeYxAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68|date=2011|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-21606-8}}
*{{cite book|author=Augustine|editor=Thomas Williams|title=Confessions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oXvqvAEACAAJ|year=2019|publisher=Hackett|isbn=978-1-62466-782-4|oclc=1057245526}}
*[[Gustaf Aulén|Aulén, Gustaf]]. ''Christus Victor'' (SPCK 1931)
*{{cite book|last=Aune|first=David E.|title=The Blackwell Companion to The New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygcgn8h-jo4C|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-1894-4}}
*{{cite book |author=Abd al-Jabbar |title=Critique of Christian Origins: A Parallel Arabic-English Text |editor1-first=Gabriel Said |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor2-first=Samir Khalil |editor2-last=Samir |location=Provo, UT |publisher=Brigham Young University Press |year=2010 |ref={{harvid|Abd al-Jabbar|2010 |oclc=1391410436}} |language=en}}
*{{cite book|last=Aslan|first=Reza|title=Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth|url=https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/184|date=2013|publisher=Random House|isbn=9780812981483 |oclc=852257871 |language=en}}
<!-- B -->
*{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=Albert|title=Notes on the New Testament Explanatory and Practical|url=https://archive.org/details/notesexplanator16barngoog/page/n212/mode/2up|volume=VI. II. Corinthians and Galatians|year=1844|publisher=Blackie & Son|location=Glasgow}}
*{{cite book|last=Barnett|first=Paul|title=Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC|year=2002|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Barnett|first=Paul|title=The Birth of Christianity: The First Twenty Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C&pg=PA83|year=2005|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-2781-4}}
*{{cite book|first= C. K. |last=Barrett|title=The Pastoral Epistles|publisher= Clarendon Press|location= Oxford|date= 1963}}
*{{cite book|last=Barnstone|first=Willis|title=The Other Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtbYAAAAMAAJ|year=1984|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=978-0-06-250031-1}}
*{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|first=Florentine Stanislaus |last=Bechtel|volume=8|wstitle=Judaizers}}
*{{cite book|last=Bitner|first=Bradley J.|title=Paul's Political Strategy in 1 Corinthians 1-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a8rSCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA268|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-08848-1}}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Black |editor1-first=C. Clifton |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=D. Moody |editor3-last=Spivey |editor3-first=Robert A. |year=2019 |orig-date=1969 |title=Anatomy of the New Testament |chapter=Paul: Apostle to the Gentiles |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3MSHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |location=[[Minneapolis]] |publisher=[[Fortress Press]] |edition=8th |pages=187–226 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvcb5b9q.17 |isbn=978-1-5064-5711-6 |s2cid=242771713 |oclc=1082543536}}
*{{cite book |last=Boyarin |first=Daniel |title=A Radical Jew: Paul and the Politics of Identity |publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=1994|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=la8wDwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-520-21214-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Brann|first=Ross|title=Power in the Portrayal: Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Islamic Spain|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bbrCTfBSFaEC|year=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14673-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Bromiley|first=Geoffrey William|title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wo8csizDv0gC|volume=A-D|year=1979|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-3781-3}}
*[[F. F. Bruce|Bruce, F. F.]]. "Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?" ''Bulletin John Rylands Library'' 58 (1976) 283–305
*{{cite book|last=Bruce|first=Frederick Fyvie|title=Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kmWlKKB_iYgC|date=2000|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-4778-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Budge|first=E.A. Wallis|title=The Contendings of the Twelve Apostles: Being the Histories and the Lives and Martyrdomes and Deaths of the Twelve Apostles and Evangelists|volume=2. The English Translation|location=London|publisher=Henry Frowde|date=1901|url=https://archive.org/details/contendingsofapo02budguoft/page/526/mode/2up/search/pomegranate}}
*{{cite book|last=Burton|first=Ernest de Witt|title=A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b52QYgZg6W8C&pg=PR26|year=2000|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-05029-8}}
*{{cite book|url=http://www.bartleby.com/210/6/301.html|chapter=Saint Paul, the Apostle. June 30|first=Alban|last=Butler|date=1866|volume=VI: June|title=The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints. Compiled from Original Monuments and Authentic Records|via=bartleby.com|location=Dublin|publisher=James Duffy}}
*{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Raymond Edward|author-link1=Raymond Edward Brown|last2=Meier|first2=John P.|title=Antioch and Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_6H3XKLXGvYC&pg=PA124|year=1983|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-2532-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond Edward|title=The Churches the Apostles Left Behind|url=https://archive.org/details/churchesapostles00raym|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/churchesapostles00raym/page/48 48]|year=1984|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-2611-8}}
*{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Raymond Edward|last2=Fitzmyer|first2=Joseph A.|last3=Murphy|first3=Roland Edmund|title=The New Jerome Biblical Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P7UfMQAACAAJ|year=1990|publisher=G. Chapman|isbn=978-0-225-66640-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond Edward|title=An Introduction to the New Testament|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0|url-access=registration|year=1997|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-24767-2}}
<!-- C -->
*{{cite book|last=Calisi|first=Antonio|title=Paul Apostle of Christ: Call, Journeys, Epistles, Teachings, Martyrdom|date=February 2021|publisher=Amazon Digital Services LLC - KDP Print US|isbn=978-9-9189-5171-0}}
*{{cite book|last1=Capes|first1=David B.|last2=Reeves|first2=Rodney|last3=Richards|first3=E. Randolph|title=Rediscovering Paul: An Introduction to His World, Letters and Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BP_UCCr93N8C&pg=PA203|year=2011|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-3941-4}}
*{{cite book|last1=Carson|first1=D.A.|last2=Moo|first2=Douglas J.|title=An Introduction to the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AV5FXRZo5c4C|date=2009|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-53955-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Churchill|first=Timothy W.R.|title=Divine Initiative and the Christology of the Damascus Road Encounter|location=Eugene|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r3tMAwAAQBAJ&q=Divine+Initiative+and+the+Christology+of+the+Damascus+Road+Encounter.|publisher=Pickwick|date=2010|isbn=978-1-60899-325-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Cole|first=R. Alan|title=The Letter of Paul to the Galatians: An Introduction and Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHNs7L-rYQAC|year=1989|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-0478-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Collins|first=Raymond F.|title=1 & 2 Timothy and Titus: A Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kifCGDC1ur8C&pg=PA4|date=2002|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22247-5}}
*{{cite journal|last=Crease|first=Robert P.|date=18 March 2019|title=The rise and fall of scientific authority – and how to bring it back|journal=Nature|volume=567|issue=7748|pages=309–10|doi=10.1038/d41586-019-00872-w|quote=Hanging in the Louvre Museum in Paris is an imposing painting, The Preaching of St Paul at Ephesus. In this 1649 work by Eustache Le Sueur, the fiery apostle lifts his right hand as if scolding the audience, while clutching a book of scripture in his left. Among the rapt or fearful listeners are people busily throwing books into a fire. Look carefully, and you see geometric images on some of the pages.|bibcode=2019Natur.567..309C|s2cid=81987842|doi-access=free|issn=0028-0836}}
*{{Citation|editor1-last=Cross|editor1-first=F. L.|editor1-link=F. L. Cross|editor2-last=Livingstone|editor2-first=E. A.|editor2-link=Elizabeth Livingstone|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=3rd Revised|isbn=978-0-19-280290-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ}}
*[[Hans Conzelmann|Conzelmann, Hans]]. The Acts of the Apostles – A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress, 1987)
<!-- D -->
*{{cite book|last1=De Leonardis|first1=Serena|last2=Masi|first2=Stefano|title=Art and History: Rome and the Vatican|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owS4gojfggEC&pg=PA21|year=1999|publisher=Casa Editrice Bonechi|isbn=978-88-476-0178-9}}
*{{cite book|last=De Young|first=James|title=Terrorism, Islam, and Christian Hope: Reflections on 9-11 and Resurging Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=60JLAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|year=2004|publisher=Wipf and Stock|isbn=978-1-59752-005-8 |language=en}}
*{{cite book|last=Donaldson|first=Terence|editor=John Muddiman|editor2=John Barton|title=The Pauline Epistles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HyQUDAAAQBAJ|series=The Oxford Bible Commentary|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-958026-2|chapter=Ch. 3 Introduction to the Pauline Corpus |language=en}}
*{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|first= James F. |last=Driscoll|volume=10|wstitle=Nazarite}}
* {{cite journal| last =Dunn | first =James D. G. | year =1982 | title =The New Perspective on Paul|series= Manson Memorial Lecture, 4 November 1982|journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands Library  | volume =65 | issue =2 | pages =95–122 |doi=10.7227/BJRL.65.2.6}}
* {{Citation |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |author-link=James Dunn (theologian) |title=Jesus, Paul, and the Law: Studies in Mark and Galatians |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, KY |year=1990 |isbn=0-664-25095-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d76vmNlbuBwC&pg=PA1 }}
*{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=James|author-link=James Dunn (theologian)|editor1-first=Lee Martin|editor1-last=McDonald|editor2-first=James A.|editor2-last=Sanders|title=The Canon Debate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxW-AgAAQBAJ|year=2001|publisher=Baker|isbn=978-1-4412-4163-4}}
* {{Citation | editor-last =Dunn | editor-first =James D. G. | year =2003 | title =The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =0-521-78155-8 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=TNXPGiKx-mkC }}
* {{Citation | last =Dunn | first =James D. G. | year =2009 | title =Christianity in the Making Volume 2: Beginning from Jerusalem | publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans}}
*{{cite book|last=Dunn|first=J.D.G.|editor=John Muddiman|editor2=John Barton|title=The Pauline Epistles|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HyQUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|series=The Oxford Bible Commentary|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-958026-2|chapter=Ch. 8 Ephesians}}
* Dunn, James D. G., ''Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels'' (Grand Rapids, MI), Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011
*{{cite book|last=Dwyer|first=John C.|title=Church History: Twenty Centuries of Catholic Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FKvo3szVq_sC&pg=PA27|year=1998|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-3830-2}}
*{{cite book|editor1-first=James D. G.|editor1-last=Dunn|editor2-first=John William|editor2-last=Rogerson|title=Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA1274|year=2003|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-3711-0}}
<!-- E -->
*{{cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kF8RAQAAIAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-512639-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D|title=Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend|url=https://archive.org/details/peterpaulmarymag00ehrm_0|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/peterpaulmarymag00ehrm_0/page/98 98]|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-974113-7}}
*{{cite journal|last=Eisenman|first=Robert|title=Paul as Herodian|journal=Journal of Higher Criticism|volume=3|issue=1|year=1996|pages=110–22|url=http://depts.drew.edu/jhc/eisenman.html|access-date=13 February 2020}}
*{{cite book|first=Timo |last=Eskola|title=Messiah and the Throne: Jewish Merkabah Mysticism and Early Exaltation Discourse|location=Tubingen|publisher= Mohr Siebeck|date= 2001}}
<!-- F -->
*{{citation |last=Finlan |first=Stephen |year=2004 |title=The Background and Content of Paul's Cultic Atonement Metaphors |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature}}
*{{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Freeman (historian) |year=2010 |title=A New History of Early Christianity |chapter=What Did Paul Achieve? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_in-6VLgRoC&pg=PA45 |location=New Haven, CT / London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=45–65 |isbn=978-0-300-12581-8 |jstor=j.ctt1nq44w |lccn=2009012009 |s2cid=170124789 |doi=10.12987/9780300166583}}
<!-- G -->
*{{cite book |last=Guillaume |first=Alfred |title=The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |ref={{harvid|Guillaume|1998}} }}
*{{citation|last=Giguzzi|first=Giancarlo|title=Paolo, un apostolo contro le donne?|work=Credere Oggi: in dialogo con San Paolo e le sue lettere|issue=124|publisher=Edizioni Messaggero|location=Padova|year=2004|pages=95–107|url=http://www.credereoggi.it/upload/2004/articolo143_95.asp|access-date=21 November 2010|archive-date=31 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180331230925/http://www.credereoggi.it/upload/2004/articolo143_95.asp|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite journal|last=Gombis|first=Timothy|url=http://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/48/48-2/48-2-pp317-330_JETS.pdf|title=A Radically Different New Humanity: The Function of the ''Haustafel'' in Ephesians|journal=[[Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society]]|volume=48|issue=2|date=June 2005|pages=317–30|access-date=14 February 2013}}
<!-- H -->
*{{cite book|last1=Hagner|first1=Donald|editor1-last=Hagner|editor1-first=Donald|title=Paul in Modern Jewish Thought in Pauline Studies|date=1980|publisher=Paternoster Press|location=Exeter}}
* Hanson, Anthony T. ''Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology.'' Eerdmans, 1974. {{ISBN|0-8028-3452-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Stephen L.|author-link=Stephen L. Harris|title=Understanding the Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=13MbAQAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=978-0-7674-2916-0|oclc=436028175}}
*{{cite book|last=Hengel|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Hengel|title=Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PRIKVslqctkC&pg=PA43|date=1997|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-25736-1}}
*{{cite journal|first=Martin|last=Hengel|url=https://www.ibr-bbr.org/files/bbr/BBR_2002a_04_Hengel_PaulInArabia.pdf|title=Paul in Arabia|journal=[[Bulletin for Biblical Research]]|volume=12|issue=1|year=2002|pages=47–66|doi=10.2307/26422340|jstor=26422340|s2cid=53622634|access-date=31 July 2014|archive-date=27 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227023045/https://www.ibr-bbr.org/files/bbr/BBR_2002a_04_Hengel_PaulInArabia.pdf|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite book|last=Hennacy|first=Ammon|author-link=Ammon Hennacy|title=The Book of Ammon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HldMAwAAQBAJ|year=2010|publisher=Wipf and Stock|isbn=978-1-60899-053-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Herrmann |first=Erik H.|chapter=Preface to the Wittenberg Edition of Luther's German Writings, 1539|title=The Annotated Luther, Volume 4|year=2016|publisher=Augsburg Fortress|doi=10.2307/j.ctt19qgg0d.20|isbn=978-1-4514-6510-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Horrell|first=David G.|title=An Introduction to the Study of Paul|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQS6SDqDga4C&pg=PA30|year=2006|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-04083-1}}
* {{cite book | last =Hurtado |first=Larry | author-link=Larry Hurtado | year=2005 | title=Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity | publisher=Eerdmans | isbn=978-0-8028-3167-5 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=k32wZRMxltUC |language=en}}
<!-- I -->
* {{cite book |author=Ibn Taymiyya |title=Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā |volume=28 |editor=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Qāsim |location=Riyadh |publisher=al-Ri'āsah al-ʿĀmmah li-Dāʾirat al-Buḥūth al-ʿIlmiyyah wa-l-Iftāʾ |year=1995 |ref={{harvid|Ibn Taymiyya|1995}} |language=ar}}
* [[Irenaeus]], ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]''
<!-- J -->
*{{cite book|last=James|first=Montague Rhodes|author-link=M. R. James|title=The Apocryphal New Testament|chapter=The Acts of Paul|publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford|year=1924|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/JAMESApocryphalNewTestament1924/page/n295/mode/2up}}
*{{cite book|first=Thomas|last=Jefferson|title=The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other Writings, Official and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the Department of State, With Explanatory Notes, Tables of Contents, and a Copious Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the Whole|editor= H. A. Washington|volume= VII|publisher= Taylor Maury|location= Washington, D.C.|date=1854}}
<!-- K -->
*{{cite book|last=Kee|first=Howard Clark|title=Understanding the New Testament|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingnew0000keeh_l8f2|url-access=registration|year=1983|publisher=Prentice-Hall|isbn=978-0-13-936591-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Marie Noël|title=Priscilla and Aquila: Paul's Coworkers in Christ Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPXJmAEACAAJ|year=2010|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5284-8}}
* [[Yung Suk Kim|Kim, Yung Suk]]. ''A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters''. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-60899-793-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Kirk|first=J. R. Daniel|title=Jesus Have I Loved, but Paul?: A Narrative Approach to the Problem of Pauline Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSTnGu9InSYC|date=2012|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-1-4412-3625-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Koester|first=Helmut|title=History and Literature of Early Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thXUHM5udTcC&pg=107|year=2000|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-014970-8}}
*{{cite book|last1=Köstenberger|first1=Andreas J.|last2=Kellum|first2=Leonard Scott|last3=Quarles|first3=Charles L.|title=The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C&pg=PA400|year=2009|publisher=B&H|isbn=978-0-8054-4365-3}}
*{{cite book|last1=Kroeger|first1=Richard Clark|last2=Kroeger|first2=Catherine Clark|title=I Suffer Not a Woman: Rethinking I Timothy 2:11–15 in Light of Ancient Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k8kuxgEACAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Baker|isbn=978-0-8010-5250-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Kümmel|first=Werner Georg|author-link=Werner Georg Kümmel|title=Introduction to the New Testament|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00kum_u2q|url-access=registration|year=1975|publisher=Abingdon |isbn=978-0-687-19576-3}}
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*{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Epistle to the Ephesians|volume=5|first=Paulin |last=Ladeuze}}
*{{cite book |first=Kirsopp |last=Lake |url=https://archive.org/stream/earlierepistleso00lakeuoft#page/320/mode/2up |title=The earlier Epistles of St. Paul, their motive and origin |location=London |date=1911 }}
* {{cite book |last=Langton |first=Daniel R. | author-link = Daniel Langton |year=2010 |title=The Apostle Paul in the Jewish Imagination |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51740-9 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Langton|first1=Daniel|editor1-last=Westerholm|editor1-first=Stephen|title=Jewish Readings of Paul in Blackwell Companion to Paul|date=2011|ref={{sfnref|Langton|2011a}}|publisher=Blackwell}}
*{{cite book|last1=Langton|first1=Daniel|editor1-last=Levine|editor1-first=Amy-Jill|title=Paul in Jewish Thought in The Jewish Annotated New Testament|date=2011|ref={{sfnref|Langton|2011b}}|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{Citation |last=Lee |first=Michelle V. |year=2006 |title=Paul, the Stoics, and the Body of Christ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series |volume=137 |isbn=978-0-51-158454-1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511584541 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JLzErItyonUC }}
*{{cite book|editor1-first= Charlton T. |editor1-last=Lewis |editor2-first=Charles |editor2-last=Short|title=A Latin Dictionary|title-link=A Latin Dictionary|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=1879}}
*{{cite book| first=Joseph Barber| last=Lightfoot| title=The Apostolic Fathers: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations| publisher=Macmillan| year=1890| page=274| oclc=54248207| url=http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html| isbn=0-8010-5612-8}}
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* {{cite book|last=Maccoby|first=Hyam|author-link=Hyam Maccoby|title=The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=co_CxizRbTAC&pg=PA14|year=1998|publisher=Barnes & Noble|isbn=978-0-7607-0787-6 |language=en}}
* [[Dennis Ronald MacDonald|MacDonald, Dennis Ronald]], 1983. ''The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon'' Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983. {{ISBN|978-0664244644}}
*{{cite book|last1=MacDonald|first1=Margaret Y.|last2=Harrington|first2=Daniel J.|title=Colossians and Ephesians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8zy2Qr9lXOMC&pg=PA58|year=2000|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5819-2}}
*{{cite book|last=MacDonald|first=Margaret Y.|title=The Pauline Churches: A Socio-Historical Study of Institutionalization in the Pauline and Deutrero-Pauline Writings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1I04xHK4gW0C&pg=PA109|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-61605-8}}
* {{Citation | last =Mack | first =Burton L. | year =1995 | author-link =Burton L. Mack | title =Who wrote the New Testament? The making of the Christian myth | publisher =Harper San Francisco | isbn =978-0-06-065517-4 | url =https://archive.org/details/whowrotenewtesta00mack_0 }}
* {{Citation | last =Mack | first =Burton L. | year =1997 | orig-year =1995 | title =Wie schreven het Nieuwe Testament werkelijk? Feiten, mythen en motieven. (Who Wrote the New Testament? The Making of the Christian Myth) | publisher =Uitgeverij Ankh-Hermes bv}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Malherbe|first1=Abraham J.|title=A Physical Description of Paul|journal=Harvard Theological Review|volume=79|issue=1–3|year=1986|pages=170–175|issn=0017-8160|doi=10.1017/S0017816000020435|jstor=1509409|s2cid=162687215 }}
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*{{cite book|last=McDowell|first=Sean|title=The Fate of the Apostles: Examining the Martyrdom Accounts of the Closest Followers of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIm1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|year=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-03190-1}}
* {{cite book|last=McGrath|first=Alister E.|title=Christianity: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYN3Rowp8ZYC|year=2006|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-0901-7}}
* {{cite book |last=McRay |first=John |author-link=John McRay |year=2007 |title=Paul: His Life and Teaching |publisher=Baker Academic |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=978-1441205742 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GvgexcfnWC0C }}
*{{cite book|last1=Meissner|first1=Stefan|title=Die Heimholung des Ketzers|date=1996|publisher=Mohr|location=Tübingen}}
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*{{cite book|last=Montague|first= George T. |title=The Living Thought of St. Paul|location= Milwaukee|publisher= Bruce Publishing Co. |date=1966}}
*{{cite book |  first=Christopher | last=Mount | editor-last=Schellenberg | editor-first=Ryan S. | editor-last2=Wendt | editor-first2=Heidi | title=T&T Clark Handbook to the Historical Paul | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | series=T&T Clark Handbooks | year=2022 | isbn=978-0-567-69199-6 | chapter=Acts | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VW5sEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 | access-date=5 October 2024 | page=32}}
* {{cite book|last=Ogg|first= George|chapter=Chronology of the New Testament|editor-first= Matthew |editor-last=Black|title=Peake's Commentary on the Bible|title-link=Peake's Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Nelson|date= 1962|ol=5847288M}}
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*{{cite book|last=Pagels|first=Elaine|author-link=Elaine Pagels|title=The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ggWpAwAAQBAJ|year=1992|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=978-1-85539-591-6}}
*{{Cite book|last=Parker|first= Thomas Henry Louis.|title=Calvin's New Testament commentaries|date=1993|publisher=T. and T. Clark|isbn=0-567-29241-X|oclc=716774834}}
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*{{cite book|last =Polhill| first =John B.|title = Paul and His Letters  | publisher =Broadman & Holman | year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V_adrslNlSgC&dq=Paul+Rome+60+house+arrest&pg=PA80 |isbn=978-0-805-41097-6 }}
*{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Archdiocese of Durazzo|volume= 5 |first= Louis |last=Petit}}
*{{cite book|last=Powell|first=Mark Allan|author-link=Mark Allan Powell|title=Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey|url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe|url-access=registration|year=2009|publisher=Baker|isbn=978-0-8010-2868-7}}
*{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia |first=Ferdinand |last=Prat|wstitle=St. Paul |volume=11}}
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*{{cite book|last=Rhoads|first=David M.|title=The Challenge of Diversity: The Witness of Paul and the Gospels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgxiyTZZUQ0C&pg=PA39|year=1996|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-1-4514-0617-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Riddell|first=Peter G.|title=Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3x-JdCGn1UC|year=2001|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2473-0}}
*{{cite book|last=Rowland|first=Christopher|title=Christian Origins: An Account of the Setting and Character of the Most Important Messianic Sect of Judaism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZfYAAAAMAAJ|year=1985|publisher=SPCK|isbn=978-0-281-04110-7}}
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*{{cite book|first=W.|last=Sanday|date=n.d.|chapter=The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans|title=A Bible commentary for English readers|editor-last=Ellicott|editor-first=Charles John|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/biblecommentaryf07elliuoft/page/202/mode/2up|location=London|publisher=Cassell}}
* {{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E.P.|author-link=E. P. Sanders|title=Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwLYbNMZA50C|year=1977|publisher=Fortress|isbn=978-1-4514-0740-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Sanders|first=E.P.|title=Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DuAQ8VuUoxIC|year=1983|publisher=SCM Press|isbn=978-1-4514-0741-9}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last=Sanders|first=E.P.|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle|title=Saint Paul, the Apostle|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=27 December 2019|access-date=8 January 2013}}
*{{citation |last=Seifrid |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark A. Seifrid |title=Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme |journal=Novum Testamentum Supplements |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=1992 |isbn=90-04-09521-7 |issn=0167-9732 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdUkuOtOw68C}}
*{{cite book|last=Shillington|first=V. George|title=An Introduction to the Study of Luke-Acts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgDdKRKoZtwC&pg=PA18|date=2007|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-03053-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Spence-Jones|first=Henry|title=The Pulpit Commentary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=91xfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16|volume=8|year=2015|publisher=Delmarva Publications|id=GGKEY:EER24GEUYX4}}
* {{cite book |last=Spong |first=John Shelby |title=Rescuing the Bible From Fundamentalism |edition=Reprint |publisher=HarperCollins |location=New York |year=1992 |chapter=The Man From Tarsus |url=http://www.escapefromwatchtower.com/spong7%268.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806022207/http://www.escapefromwatchtower.com/spong7%268.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-08-06 |author-link=John Shelby Spong}}
*{{cite book|last1=Stagg|first1=Evelyn|author-link1=Evelyn Stagg|last2=Stagg|first2=Frank|author-link2=Frank Stagg (theologian)|title=Woman in the World of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGwRAQAAIAAJ|year=1978|publisher=Westminster Press|isbn=978-0-664-24195-7}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Stendahl|first1=Krister|title=The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West|journal=Harvard Theological Review|volume=56|issue=3|year=1963|pages=199–215|issn=0017-8160|doi=10.1017/S0017816000024779|s2cid=170331485|author-link=Krister Stendahl|url=http://www.dburnett.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/The-Apostle-Paul-and-the-Introspective-Conscience-of-the-West.pdf}}
*{{cite book|last=Stendahl|first=Krister|title=Paul Among Jews and Gentiles, and Other Essays|url=https://archive.org/details/paulamongjewsgen00sten|url-access=registration|year=1976|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-0-8006-1224-5}}
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*{{cite web|url= http://www.huffingtonpost.com/james-d-tabor/paul-the-jew-as-founder-o_b_3930630.html|title= Paul the Jew as Founder of Christianity?|website= [[HuffPost]]|access-date= 28 August 2017|date= 16 September 2013|first= James D.|last= Tabor}}
*{{cite book|last =Tajra| first =Harry W.| title =The Martyrdom of St. Paul:Historical and Judicial Context, Traditions, and Legends |publisher =[[Wipf and Stock]]|year=2010|orig-date=1994| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=MdlMAwAAQBAJ&dq=Paul+37th+year+after+the+Lord%27s+passion%2Bbeheaded&pg=PA188 |isbn=978-1-610-97006-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Tolstoy|first=Leo|author-link=Leo Tolstoy|title=Church and State and Other Essays: Including Money; Man and Woman: Their Respective Functions; The Mother; A Second Supplement to the Kreutzer Sonata|url=https://archive.org/details/churchandstatea00yarrgoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/churchandstatea00yarrgoog/page/n23 17]|year=1891|publisher=B. R. Tucker}}
*{{Cite book |last=Trebilco |first=Paul R. |chapter=The Reception of Paul in Ephesus from the Second to the Fifth Century CE |date=2023-06-15 |title=Paul, Christian Textuality, and the Hermeneutics of Late Antiquity |pages=351–378 |chapter-url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004680821/BP000026.xml |access-date=2025-06-26 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004680821_017 |isbn=978-90-04-68082-1}}
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*{{cite book|last=Waardenburg|first=Jacques|title=Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A Historical Survey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eLDPuc4SL_cC|date=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535576-5}}
*{{cite journal |first=Stephen |last=Westerholm |year=2015 |url=http://www.directionjournal.org/44/1/new-perspective-on-paul-in-review.html |title=The New Perspective on Paul in Review |journal=Direction |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=4–15}}
*{{cite book |last=White |first=L. Michael | author-link = L. Michael White |year=2007 |title=From Jesus to Christianity |publisher=HarperCollins |location=San Francisco, CA |isbn=978-0-06-081610-0 }}
*{{cite book|last=Wiley|first=Tatha|title=Original Sin: Origins, Developments, Contemporary Meanings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eUVrj1R8f2oC&pg=PA21|year=2002|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-4128-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert Louis |year=2013 |title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity |chapter=Ephesus, Rome, and Edessa: The Spread of Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA17 |location=New Haven, CT / London |publisher=Yale University Press |pages=17–27 |isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 |jstor=j.ctt32bd7m.6 |lccn=2012021755 |s2cid=160590164}}
*{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Charles Stephan Conway|title=A Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n6Q9AAAAYAAJ|year=1957|publisher=Harper}}
*{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Barrie|author-link=Barrie Wilson|title=How Jesus Became Christian: The Early Christians And The Transformation Of A Jewish Teacher Into The Son Of God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPjQ3lVFTYC|year=2011|publisher=Orion|isbn=978-1-78022-206-6}}
*{{cite book|author-link=William Wrede|last=Wrede|first=William|title=Paul|translator=Edward Lummis|location=London|publisher=Philip Green|date=1907|url=https://archive.org/details/Paulpaulus/page/n193/mode/2up}}
*{{cite book|last=Wright|first= G. Ernest|title=Great People of the Bible and How They Lived|location=Pleasantville, NY|publisher= The Reader's Digest Association, Inc.|date=1974}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=N. T.|title=Paul, Arabia, and Elijah (Galatians 1:17)|journal=Journal of Biblical Literature|volume=115|issue=4|year=1996|pages=683–92|issn=0021-9231|doi=10.2307/3266349|jstor=3266349|url=https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/jbl/1996-4_683.pdf}}
*{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=N.T.|title=The Biblical Basis for Women's Service in the Church|journal=Priscilla Papers|volume=20|issue=4|url=https://www.cbeinternational.org/sites/default/files/v20n4p1.pdf|year=2006|access-date=13 February 2020|archive-date=13 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213073958/https://www.cbeinternational.org/sites/default/files/v20n4p1.pdf|url-status=dead}}
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*{{cite book|last=Pall|first=Zoltan|title=Lebanese Salafis Between the Gulf and Europe: Development, Fractionalization and Transnational Networks of Salafism in Lebanon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-t3RAysVJkC|year=2013|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-8964-451-0}}
{{refend}}

=== Further reading ===
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book|last=Agosto|first=Efrain |title=Servant Leadership: Jesus and Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nw7Yp2WFBmMC&pg=PA201|year=2012|publisher=Chalice Press|isbn=978-0-8272-3506-9}}
* [[Ernle Bradford|Bradford, Ernle]]. ''Paul the Traveller: Saint Paul and his World''. Allen Lane, 1974. 
* [[W. D. Davies|Davies, W. D.]] ''Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology''. S.P.C.K., 3rd ed., 1970. {{ISBN|0-281-02449-9}}.
* Davies, W. D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in [[Matthew Black]] (ed.), ''Peake's Commentary on the Bible''. London: T. Nelson, 1962. {{ISBN|0-8407-5019-6}}.
*{{cite book |last=Fredriksen |first=Paula |title=When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NW9yDwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-300-24074-0}}.
* [[Hans-Joachim Schoeps]]. ''Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (Library of Theological Translations)''; 34 pages, Lutterworth Press (July 2002); {{ISBN|978-0-227-17013-7}}.
* Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kündereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus Paulus im lukan. Doppelwerk, in: Jesus als Bote d. Heils. Stuttgart 2008, 166–72.
* [[Jerome Murphy-O'Connor|Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome]]. ''Jesus and Paul: Parallel Lives'' (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2007) {{ISBN|0-8146-5173-9}}.
* Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. ''Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills'' (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995) {{ISBN|0-8146-5845-8}}.
* Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. ''Paul: A Critical Life'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) {{ISBN|0-19-826749-5}}.
* [[Pinchas Lapide]]; [[Peter Stuhlmacher]]. ''Paul: Rabbi and Apostle''; 77 pages, Augsburg Publishing House; (December 1984).
* Pinchas Lapide, [[Leonard Swidler]], [[Jürgen Moltmann]]. ''Jewish Monotheism and Christian Trinitarian Doctrine''; 94 pages, Wipf & Stock Publishers (2002).
* Reece, Steve. ''Paul's Large Letters: Pauline Subscriptions in the Light of Ancient Epistolary Conventions''. London: T&T Clark, 2016.
* [[Hastings Rashdall|Rashdall, Hastings]] (1919), ''The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology''.
* Ruef, John, ''Paul's First Letter to Corinth'' (Penguin 1971)
* [[Alan F. Segal|Segal, Alan F.]] ''Paul, the Convert'', (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) {{ISBN|0-300-04527-1}}.
* Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in ''Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World'' (Harvard University Press, 1986) {{ISBN|978-0674750760}}.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Paul of Tarsus}}
{{commons|Paul of Tarsus}}
{{wikisource|works=or}}
{{wiktionary|Pauline conversion}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Paul the Apostle.ogg|date=23 February 2019}}
* {{In Our Time|St Paul|b00kjk8z|St_Paul}}
* [http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2013/10/17/paul-of-tarsus-the-origins-of-christianity-in-jewish-context/ Lecture on Paul of Tarsus] s by [[Henry Abramson|Dr. Henry Abramson]]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11567b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'': Paul of Tarsus]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012170617/http://zenit.org/rssenglish-20538 Documentary film on Apostle Paul]
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Paul, the Apostle |first=James Vernon |last=Bartlet |volume=20 |pages=938–55 |short=1}}
* [http://www.catholic.net/index.php?option=dedestaca&id=703 Novena to Saint Paul Apostle]
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/missions.html Paul's mission and letters] From PBS ''Frontline'' series on the earliest Christians.
* [http://www.cattoliciromani.com/forum/showthread.php/iconografia_paolo_tarso-18221.html Representations of Saint Paul] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033913/http://www.cattoliciromani.com/forum/showthread.php/iconografia_paolo_tarso-18221.html |date=1 December 2017 }}
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/447019/Saint-Paul-the-Apostle "Saint Paul, the Apostle".] ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online. 2009.
* [http://spindleworks.com/library/rfaber/aratus.htm The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus] Dr. Riemer Faber
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150217101909/http://www.parsagard.com/shipwreck.htm The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120831023851/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=37&Issue=1&ArticleID=10 Why Paul Went West: The Differences Between the Jewish Diaspora] ''Biblical Archaeology Review''
* [http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/20400 Santiebeati: Saint Paul]
* [http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=91 Catholic Online: Saint Paul]
* [https://www.christiantours.com.my/footsteps-of-st-paul-greece/ Footsteps of St. Paul] by [https://www.christiantours.com.my/ Christian Tours]
* [https://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?query=any,contains,paul%20map&sortby=lso01&vid=NLI&mfacet=topic,include,Paul,%20the%20Apostle,%20Saint,1&lang=en_US&came_from=sort Old maps showing the travels of Paul] from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, [[National Library of Israel]]

{{Journeys of Paul of Tarsus}}
{{Acts of the Apostles}}
{{New Testament people|collapsed}}
{{Apostles}}
{{History of Catholic theology}}
{{Christian virtue ethics}}
{{Catholic saints}}
{{Coptic saints}}
{{History of Christianity}}
{{Portal bar|Ancient Rome|Saints|Bible|Christianity|Biography}}

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[[Category:Paul the Apostle| ]]
[[Category:1st-century Christian theologians]]
[[Category:1st-century writers]]
[[Category:Christian saints from the New Testament]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism]]
[[Category:Early Jewish Christians]]
[[Category:Christian miracle workers]]
[[Category:National symbols of Malta]]
[[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:People from Tarsus, Mersin]]
[[Category:Saints from Roman Anatolia]]
[[Category:Shipwreck survivors]]
[[Category:Pharisees]]
[[Category:Tribe of Benjamin]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]
[[Category:Anti-LGBTQ and Christianity]]