View source for Pythia

{{short description|Priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi}}
{{distinguish|Python (mythology)}}

{{Anthropology of religion|Basic|image=[[File:Eugène Delacroix - Lycurgus Consulting the Pythia - Google Art Project.jpg|frameless|upright=1.2|center]]|caption=''Lycurgus Consulting the Pythia'' (1835/1845), as imagined by [[Eugène Delacroix]]}}

'''Pythia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|θ|i|ə}};<ref>{{cite web|title='Pythia main entry ''Random House Dictionary'' (American), further down '' Dictionary'' (British)|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pythia?s=t|publisher=Dictionary.com|access-date=2015-02-23|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110235/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pythia?s=t|url-status=live}}</ref> {{langx|grc|Πυθία}} {{IPA|grc|pyːˈtʰíaː|}}) was the title of the [[high priest]]ess of the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] at [[Delphi]]. She specifically served as its [[oracle]] and was known as the '''Oracle of Delphi'''. Her title was also historically glossed in English as the '''Pythoness'''.<ref>[[wiktionary:Pythoness]]</ref>

The Pythia was established at the latest in the 8th century BC<ref>Morgan, C. (1990). ''Athletes and Oracles: The Transformation of Olympia and Delphi in the Eighth Century BC''. p. 148.</ref> (though some estimates date the shrine to as early as 1400 BC),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/7_p1.html#:~:text=Dating+back+to+1400+BC,literally+navel)+of+the+world|title=The Greeks - The Oracle at Delphi|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2021-05-24|archive-date=2021-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626232222/https://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/7_p1.html#:~:text=Dating+back+to+1400+BC,literally+navel)+of+the+world|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livescience.com/4277-theory-oracle-delphi-high.html|title=New Theory on What Got the Oracle of Delphi High|first=Heather Whipps 31|last=October 2006|website=livescience.com|date=31 October 2006|access-date=15 September 2020|archive-date=16 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916200941/https://www.livescience.com/4277-theory-oracle-delphi-high.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/greece-delphi-oracle-gas-vapors-science|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308232639/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/greece-delphi-oracle-gas-vapors-science|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 8, 2021|title=Delphic Oracle's Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors|date=August 14, 2001|website=Science}}</ref> and was widely credited for her [[prophecy|prophecies]] uttered under divine possession ([[enthusiasm]]os) by [[Apollo]]. The Pythian priestess emerged pre-eminent by the end of the 7th century BC and continued to be consulted until the late 4th century AD.<ref>Michael Scott. ''Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World''. Princeton University Press, p. 30.</ref> During this period, the Delphic Oracle was the most prestigious and authoritative oracle among the Greeks, and she was among the most powerful women of the classical world. The oracle is one of the best-documented religious institutions of the classical Greeks. Authors who mention the oracle include [[Aeschylus]], [[Aristotle]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Diodorus]], [[Diogenes of Sinope|Diogenes]], [[Euripides]], [[Herodotus]], [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], [[Justin (historian)|Justin]], [[Livy]], [[Lucan]], [[Cornelius Nepos|Nepos]], [[Ovid]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], [[Pindar]], [[Plato]], [[Plutarch]], [[Sophocles]], [[Strabo]], [[Thucydides]], and [[Xenophon]].

Nevertheless, details of how the Pythia operated are scarce, missing, or non-existent, as authors from the classical period (6th to 4th centuries BC) treat the process as common knowledge with no need to explain. Those who discussed the oracle in any detail are from 1st century BC to 4th century AD and give conflicting stories.<ref>Michael Scott. ''Delphi: A History of the Center of the Ancient World''. Princeton University Press, p. 11.</ref> One of the main stories claimed that the Pythia delivered oracles in a frenzied state induced by vapours rising from a chasm in the rock, and that she spoke gibberish which priests interpreted as the enigmatic prophecies and turned them into poetic [[dactylic hexameter]]s preserved in Greek literature.<ref>For an example, see Lewis Farnell, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ewIIU_JNarIC ''The Cults of the Greek States''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620102022/https://books.google.com/books?id=ewIIU_JNarIC |date=2023-06-20 }}, 1907, vol. IV, p. 189. "But all this came to be merely considered as an accessory, leading up to the great moment when the Pythoness ascended into the tripod, and, filled with the divine afflatus which at least the latter ages believed to ascend in vapour from a fissure in the ground, burst forth into wild utterance, which was probably some kind of articulate speech, and which the Ὅσιοι [Osioi], 'the holy ones', who, with the prophet, sat around the tripod, knew well how to interpret. ... What was essential to Delphic divination, then, was the frenzy of the Pythoness and the sounds which she uttered in this state which were interpreted by the Ὅσιοι [Osioi] and the 'prophet' according to some conventional code of their own."</ref> This idea, however, has been challenged by scholars such as [[Joseph Fontenrose]] and Lisa Maurizio, who argue that the ancient sources uniformly represent the Pythia speaking intelligibly, and giving prophecies in her own voice.{{snf|Fontenrose|1978|pp=196–227}}{{sfn|Maurizio|2001a|pp=38–54}} [[Herodotus]], writing in the fifth century BC, describes the Pythia speaking in dactylic hexameters.<ref>Mikalson, Jon D. ''Herodotus and Religion in the Persian Wars''. Univ of North Carolina Press, 2003. {{ISBN|9780807827987}}. p. 55.</ref><ref>Herodotus. ''The Histories''. Godley, A. D., translator.  Harvard University Press. 1920. Book one, chapter 65. (1922)</ref>

== Name ==
The name ''Pythia'' is derived from "''pythia [[hiereia]]''" ({{langx|el|πυθία ἱέρεια}}), meaning {{Gloss|priestess of the Pythian Apollo}}; it is related to ''Pythios'' ({{lang|el|Πύθιος}}), an epithet of [[Apollo]], itself deriving from ''Pytho'', which in myth was the original name of [[Delphi]].<ref>{{OEtymD|Pythia}}</ref> As such, the word is likely related to [[Python (mythology)|Python]], the name of the mythical snake that was slain by Apollo near Delphi.<ref>{{OEtymD|python}}</ref> Etymologically, the Greeks derived this place name from the verb {{lang|grc|πύθειν}} ({{grc-transl|πύθειν}}) 'to rot',<ref>{{OEtymD|python}}</ref> which refers to the sickly sweet smell from the decomposing body of the monstrous Python after it was slain by Apollo.<ref>''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'' 363–369.</ref>

==Origins==
[[File:Temple of Apollo at Delphi (15491374857).jpg|thumb|235x235px|The [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]]]
The Delphic [[oracle]] may have been present in some form from 1400 BC, in the middle period of [[Mycenaean Greece]] (1750–1050 BC).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dietrich |first=Bernard C. |date=1992-01-01 |title=Divine Madness and Conflict at Delphi |journal=Kernos - Revue internationale et pluridisciplinaire de religion grecque antique [Kernos - International and multidisciplinary review of ancient Greek religion] |volume=5 |language=en |issue=5 |doi=10.4000/kernos.1047 |issn=0776-3824 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There is evidence that Apollo supposedly took over the shrine with the arrival of priests from [[Delos]] in the 8th century, from an earlier dedication to [[Gaia]].<ref>Fontenrose, Joseph (1959). "Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins". New York, Biblio & Tannen.</ref> The 8th-century reformulation of the Oracle at Delphi as a shrine to Apollo seems associated with the rise in importance of the city of [[Corinth]] and the importance of sites in the [[Gulf of Corinth|Corinthian Gulf]].<ref>Forrest, W.G. (1957), "Colonisation and the Rise of Delphi" (Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte Bd. 6, H. 2 (Apr., 1957), pp. 160–175)</ref>

The earliest account of the origin of the Delphic oracle is provided in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to Delphic Apollo, which recent scholarship dates within a narrow range, c. 580–570 BC.<ref>Martin L. West, ''Homeric Hymns'', pp 9–12, gives a summary for this dating, at or soon after the inauguration of chariot-racing at the [[Pythian Games]], 582 BC; M. Chappell, "Delphi and the ''Homeric Hymn to Apollo''", ''Classical Quarterly'' '''56''' (2006:331-48)</ref> It describes in detail how Apollo chose his first priests, whom he selected in their "swift ship"; they were "[[Cretans]] from [[Minos]]' city of [[Knossos]]" who were voyaging to sandy [[Pylos]]. But Apollo, who had {{Lang|grc-latn|Delphinios}} as one of his cult epithets,<ref name="autogenerated1">As Robin Lane Fox observes in discussing this origin of the Delphic priesthood, in ''Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer'', 2008:341ff.</ref> leapt into the ship in the form of a dolphin ({{Lang|grc-latn|delphys}}, gen. {{Lang|grc-latn|delphinos}}). Dolphin-Apollo revealed himself to the terrified Cretans and bade them follow him up to the "place where you will have rich offerings". The Cretans "danced in time and followed, singing {{Lang|grc-latn|Iē Paiēon}}, like the [[paean]]s of the Cretans in whose breasts the divine Muse has placed "honey-voiced singing".<ref name="autogenerated1"/> ''"Paean"'' seems to have been the name by which Apollo was known in [[Mycenae]]an times.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

[[File:Omphalos museum.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[omphalos]] in the museum of [[Delphi]]]]

G. L. Huxley observes: "If the hymn to (Delphic) Apollo conveys a historical message, it is above all that there were once Cretan priests at Delphi."<ref>Huxley, "Cretan ''Paiawones''". ''Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies'' '''16''' (1975:119-24) p. 122, noted by Fox 2008:343.</ref> [[Robin Lane Fox]] notes that Cretan bronzes are found at Delphi from the eighth century onwards, and Cretan sculptures are dedicated as late as c. 620–600 BC: "Dedications at the site cannot establish the identity of its priesthood, but for once we have an explicit text to set beside the archaeological evidence."<ref>Fox 2008:342.</ref> An early visitor to these "dells of [[Parnassus]]", at the end of the eighth century, was [[Hesiod]], who was shown the ''[[omphalos]]''.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

There are many later stories of the origins of the Delphic Oracle. One late explanation, which is first related by the 1st century BC writer [[Diodorus Siculus]], tells of a [[goatherd|goat herder]] named Coretas, who noticed one day that one of his goats, who fell into a crack in the earth, was behaving strangely. On entering the chasm, he found himself filled with a divine presence and the ability to see outside of the present, into the past and the future. Excited by his discovery, he shared it with nearby villagers. Many started visiting the site to experience the convulsions and inspirational trances, though some were said to disappear into the cleft due to their frenzied state.<ref>[[Diodorus Siculus]] 16.26.1–4.</ref> A shrine was erected at the site, where people began worshipping in the [[late Bronze Age]], by 1600 BC. After the deaths of a number of men, the villagers chose a single young woman as the liaison for the divine inspirations. Eventually, she came to speak on behalf of the gods.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=21}}<ref>It was also said that the young woman was given a tripod on which to be seated, which kept her from falling during her frenzied states.</ref>

According to earlier myths,<ref>Smith's ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'' notes on this point Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' i. 321, iv. 642; Apollonius Rhodius, ''Argonautica'' iv. 800; Servius, commentary on the ''Aeneid'' iv. 246; pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheke'' i. 4. § 1; Pausanias x. 5. § 3; Aeschylus, ''The Eumenides'' opening lines; see excerpts in translation at [https://web.archive.org/web/20051120211952/http://theoi.com/Titan/TitanisThemis.html Theoi Project: Themis].</ref> the office of the oracle was initially possessed by the goddesses [[Themis]] and [[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]], and the site was initially sacred to [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. Subsequently, it was believed to be sacred to [[Poseidon]], the god of earthquakes. During the [[Greek Dark Age]], from the 11th to the 9th century BC,<ref>D. S. Robertson, "The Delphian Succession in the Opening of the Eumenides" ''The Classical Review'' '''55'''. 2 (September 1941, pp. 69–70) p. 69, reasoning that in the three great allotments of oracular powers at Delphi, corresponding to the three generations of the gods, "Ouranos, as was fitting, gave the oracle to his wife Gaia and Kronos appropriately allotted it to his sister Themis." In Zeus' turn to make the gift, however, Aeschylus could not report that the oracle was given directly to Apollo, who had not yet been born, Robertson notes, and thus Phoebe was interposed. However, the usual modern reconstruction of the sacred site's pre-Olympian history does not indicate dedications to these earlier gods.</ref> a new god of prophecy, Apollo, was said to have seized the temple and expelled the twin guardian serpents of Gaia, whose bodies he wrapped around the [[caduceus]]. Later myths stated that Phoebe or Themis had "given" the site to Apollo, rendering its seizure by priests of the new god justified, but presumably having to retain the priestesses of the original oracle because of the long tradition. It is possible that the myths portray Poseidon as mollified by the gift of a new site in [[Troizen]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

[[Diodorus]] explained how, initially, the Pythia was an appropriately clad young [[virgin]], for great emphasis was placed on the Oracle's [[chastity]] and purity to be reserved for union with the god Apollo.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=30-31}} But he reports one story as follows:<ref>Diod. Sic. 16.26.6</ref>

{{quotation|[[Echecrates of Thessaly|Echecrates the Thessalian]], having arrived at the shrine and beheld the virgin who uttered the oracle, became enamoured of her because of her beauty, carried her away and [[rape|violated]] her; and that the Delphians because of this deplorable occurrence passed a law that in the future a virgin should no longer prophesy but that an elderly woman of fifty would declare the Oracles and that she would be dressed in the costume of a virgin, as a sort of reminder of the prophetess of olden times.}}

The scholar [[Martin Litchfield West]] writes that the Pythia shows many traits of [[Shamanism|shamanistic]] practices, likely inherited or influenced from [[Central Asia]]n practices, although there is no evidence of any such association at this time. He cites the Pythia sitting in a cauldron on a tripod, while making her prophecies in an ecstatic trance state, like [[Shamanism|shamans]], and her utterings unintelligible.<ref>[[Martin Litchfield West]], ''The Orphic Poems'', p.147. "The Pythia resembles a shamaness at least to the extent that she communicates with her [deity] while in a state of trance, and conveys as much to those present by uttering unintelligible words. [cf. Spirit Language, Mircea Eliade].

It is particularly striking that she sits on a cauldron supported by a tripod, reiterating the triad of the great goddess. This eccentric perch can hardly be explained except as a symbolic boiling, and, as such, it looks very much like a reminiscence of the initiatory boiling of the shaman translated from hallucinatory experience into concrete visual terms. It was in this same cauldron, probably, that the Titans boiled Dionysus in the version of the story known to Callimachus and Euphorion, and his remains were interred close by".</ref>

According to William Godwin, the tripod was perforated with holes, and as she inhaled the vapors, her figure would seem to enlarge, her hair stood on end, her complexion changed, her heart panted, her bosom swelled, and her voice became seemingly more than human.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog|title=Lives of the Necromancers|author=William Godwin|year=1876|page=[https://archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog/page/n169 11]|publisher=London, F. J. Mason|ref={{sfnref|Godwin|1876}}}}</ref>

==Organization of the Oracle==

===Priestess===
{{See also|Hiereia}}
[[File:The Oracle of Delphi Entranced.jpg|thumb|230x230px|''The Oracle of Delphi Entranced'' by [[Heinrich Leutemann]]]]
Since the first operation of the oracle of the Temple of Delphi, it was believed that the god lived within a laurel (his holy plant) and gave oracles for the future with the rustling of the leaves. It was also said that the art of divination had been taught to the god by the three winged sisters of Parnassus, the Thriae, at the time when Apollo was grazing his cattle there. The Thriae used to have a {{Lang|grc-latn|Kliromanteion}} (oracle by lot) in that area in the past and it is possible that such was the first oracle of Delphi, i.e. using the lot (throwing lots in a container and pulling a lot, the color and shape of which were of particular importance).

Three oracles had successively operated in Delphi – the {{Lang|grc-latn|chthonion}} using {{Lang|grc-latn|egkoimisi}} (a procedure that involved sleeping in the holy place, so as to experience a revealing dream), the {{Lang|grc-latn|Kliromanteion}} and finally the Apollonian, with the laurel. But ever since the introduction of the cult of Dionysus at Delphi, the god that brought his followers into ecstasy and madness, the Delphic god gave oracles through Pythia, who also fell into a trance under the influence of vapors and fumes coming from the opening, the inner sanctum of the Oracle. Pythia sat on top of a tall gilded tripod that stood above the opening. In the old days, Pythia was a virgin, young girl, but after [[Echecrates of Thessaly]] kidnapped and violated a young and beautiful Pythia in the late 3rd century BC, a woman older than fifty years old was chosen, who dressed and wore jewelry to resemble a young maiden girl. According to tradition, [[Phemonoe]] was the first Pythia.<ref>Πάνος Βαλαβάνης, Ιερά και Αγώνες στην Αρχαία Ελλάδα – Νέμεα – Αθήνα, Αθήνα, 2004, 176.</ref><ref>Γιάννης Λάμψας, Λεξικό του Αρχαίου Κόσμου, τ. Α', Αθήνα, εκδόσεις Δομή, 1984, 758.</ref>

Though little is known of how the priestess was chosen, the Pythia was probably selected, at the death of her predecessor, from amongst a guild of priestesses of the temple. These women were all natives of Delphi and were required to have had a sober life and be of good character.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=31-32}}<ref>Herbert W Parke, ''History of the Delphic Oracle'' and H.W. Parke and D.E.W. Wormell ''The Delphic oracle'', 1956 Volume 1: The history attempt the complicated reconstruction of the oracle's institutions; a recent comparison of the process of select at Delphi with Near Eastern oracles is part of Herbert B. Huffman, "The Oracular Process: Delphi and the Near East" ''[[Vetus Testamentum]]'' '''57'''.4, (2007:449–60).</ref> Although some were married, upon assuming their role as the Pythia, the priestesses ceased all family responsibilities, marital relations, and individual identity. In the heyday of the oracle, the Pythia may have been a woman chosen from an influential family, well educated in geography, politics, history, philosophy, and the arts. During later periods, however, uneducated peasant women were chosen for the role, which may explain why the poetic [[pentameter]] or [[hexameter]] prophecies of the early period were later made only in [[prose]]. Often, the priestess's answers to questions would be put into hexameter by a priest.{{sfn|Godwin|1876|p=11}} The archaeologist [[John R. Hale (archaeologist)|John Hale]] reports that:

{{quotation|the Pythia was (on occasion) a noble of aristocratic family, sometimes a peasant, sometimes rich, sometimes poor, sometimes old, sometimes young, sometimes a very lettered and educated woman to whom somebody like the high priest and the philosopher Plutarch would dedicate essays, other times who could not write her own name. So it seems to have been aptitude rather than any ascribed status that made these women eligible to be Pythias and speak for the god.<ref>quoted in an interview on the radio program "The Ark", [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/relig/ark/stories/s1266794.htm transcript available] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602183338/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/relig/ark/stories/s1266794.htm |date=2007-06-02 }}.</ref>}}

The job of a priestess, especially the Pythia, was a respectable career for Greek women. Priestesses enjoyed many liberties and rewards for their social position, such as freedom from taxation, the right to own property and attend public events, a salary and housing provided by the state, a wide range of duties depending on their affiliation, and often gold crowns.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=32}}

During the main period of the oracle's popularity, as many as three women served as Pythia, another vestige of the triad, with two taking turns in giving prophecy and another kept in reserve.<ref>Plutarch ''Moralia'' 414b.</ref> Only one day of the month could the priestess be consulted.{{sfn|Godwin|1876|p=11}}

Plutarch said<ref>{{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/De_defectu_oraculorum*.html |title=Plutarch • On the Failure of Oracles |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=2012-03-19 |archive-date=2024-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213030019/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/De_defectu_oraculorum%2A.html |url-status=live }}</ref> that the Pythia's life was shortened through the service of Apollo. The sessions were said to be exhausting. At the end of each period the Pythia would be like a runner after a race or a dancer after an ecstatic dance, which may have had a physical effect on the health of the Pythia.

===Other officiants===
Several other [[officiant]]s served the oracle in addition to the Pythia.<ref>On the temple personnel, see Roux 1976, pp. 54–63.</ref> After 200 BC, at any given time, there were two priests of Apollo, who were in charge of the entire sanctuary; Plutarch, who served as a priest during the late first century and early second century AD, gives us the most information about the organization of the oracle at that time. Before 200 BC, while the temple was dedicated to Apollo, there was probably only one priest of Apollo. Priests were chosen from among the main citizens of Delphi, and were appointed for life. In addition to overseeing the oracle, priests would also conduct sacrifices at other festivals of Apollo, and had charge of the [[Pythian Games]]. Earlier arrangements, before the temple became dedicated to Apollo, are not documented.

The other officiants associated with the oracle are less well known. These are the '''{{Lang|grc-latn|hosioi}}''' ({{Lang|grc|ὅσιοι}}, 'holy ones') and the '''{{Lang|grc|prophētai}}''' ({{Lang|grc|προφῆται}}, singular {{Lang|grc-latn|prophētēs}}). {{Lang|grc-latn|Prophētēs}} is the origin of the English word ''prophet'', with the meaning 'one who forespeaks, one who foretells'. The {{Lang|grc-latn|prophetai}} are referred to in literary sources, but their function is unclear; it has been suggested that they interpreted the Pythia's prophecies, or even reformatted her utterances into verse, but it has also been argued that the term ''{{Lang|grc-latn|prophētēs}}'' is a generic reference to any cult officials of the sanctuary, including the Pythia.<ref>Bowden 2005, pp. 15–16; see also [[Herodotus]] 8.36, [[Euripides]] ''Ion'' 413–416.</ref> There were five {{Lang|grc-latn|hosioi}}, whose responsibilities are unknown, but may have been involved in some manner with the operation of the oracle.

===Oracular procedure===
In the traditions associated with Apollo, the oracle gave prophecies during the nine warmest months of each year. During winter months, Apollo was said to have deserted his temple, his place being taken by his divine half-brother [[Dionysus]], whose tomb was also within the temple. It is not known whether the Oracle participated with the Dionysian rites of the [[Maenads]] or Thyades in the Korykion cave on Mount Parnassos, although [[Plutarch]]<ref>Plutarch, op cit</ref> informs us that his friend Clea was both a Priestess to Apollo and to the secret rites of Dionysus. The male priests seem to have had their own ceremonies to the dying and resurrecting god. Apollo was said to return at the beginning of spring, on the seventh day of the month of Bysios, his birthday. This would reiterate the absences of the great goddess [[Demeter]] in winter also, which would have been a part of the earliest traditions.

Once a month, thereafter, the oracle would undergo purification rites, including fasting, to ceremonially prepare the Pythia for communications with the divine. On the seventh day of each month, she would be led by two attended oracular priests, with her face veiled in purple.<ref>Vandenberg, Phillip, (2007) "Mysteries of the Oracles (Tauris Parke Publications)</ref> A priest would then declaim:

<blockquote><poem>Servant of the Delphian Apollo
Go to the Castallian Spring
Wash in its silvery eddies,
And return cleansed to the temple.
Guard your lips from offence
To those who ask for oracles.
Let the God's answer come
Pure from all private fault.</poem></blockquote>

The Pythia would then bathe naked in the [[Castalian Spring]], then drink the holier waters of the [[Cassotis]], which flowed closer to the temple, where a [[naiad]] possessing magical powers was said to live. Euripides described this ritual purification ceremony, starting first with the priest Ion dancing on the highest point of Mount Parnassus, going about his duties within the temple, and sprinkling the temple floor with holy water. The purification ceremonies always were performed on the seventh day of the month, which was sacred to and associated with the god Apollo.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=34-36}} Then, escorted by the {{Lang|grc-latn|hosioi}}, an aristocratic council of five, with a crowd of oracular servants, they would arrive at the temple. Consultants, carrying laurel branches sacred to Apollo, approached the temple along the winding upward course of the Sacred Way, bringing a young goat for sacrifice in the forecourt of the temple, and a monetary fee.

Inscribed on a column in the [[pronaos]] (forecourt) of the temple were an enigmatic "E" and three maxims:<ref>[[Plato]] ''[[Charmides (dialogue)|Charmides]]'' 165</ref><ref>Allyson Szabo ''Longing For Wisdom: The Message Of The Maxims'' 2008 {{ISBN|1438239769}} p8</ref>

# [[Know thyself]]
# Nothing to excess
# Surety brings ruin, or "make a pledge and mischief is nigh" ({{Lang|grc|ἐγγύα πάρα δ'ἄτα}})<ref>Eliza G. Wilkins (April 1927). [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/360881 "ΕΓΓΥΑ, ΠΑΡΑ ΔΑΤΗ in Literature"].{{subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213025929/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/360881 |date=2024-02-13 }} ''Classical Philology'' Volume 22, Number 2, p. 121. {{doi|10.1086/360881}}. {{JSTOR|263511}}.</ref>

These seem to have played an important part in the temple ritual. According to Plutarch's essay on the meaning of the "E at Delphi" (the only literary source for the E inscription), there have been various interpretations of this letter.<ref>Hodge, A. Trevor. "The Mystery of Apollo's E at Delphi", ''American Journal of Archaeology'', Vol. 85, No. 1. (January 1981), pp. 83–84.</ref> In ancient times, the origin of these phrases was attributed to one or more of the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>[[Plato]], ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'' 343a–b.</ref>

Pythia would then remove her purple veil. She would wear a short plain white dress. At the temple fire to [[Hestia]], a goat would be set in front of the altar and be sprinkled with water. If the goat shook off the water it was considered a good omen for the oracle, but if it did not, the enquirer was considered to have been rejected by the god and the consultation was terminated.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jon D. |title=Ancient Greek Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0Xa5uL8ZOEC&pg=PA99|date= 2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-5819-3|page=99}}</ref> If it were a good omen, however, the goat would subsequently be sacrificed to Apollo. In turn, the animal's organs, particularly its liver, [[Haruspex#Haruspicy in Ancient Greece|were examined to ensure the signs were favorable]], and then burned outside on the altar of [[Chios]]. The rising smoke was a signal that the oracle was open. The Oracle then descended into the ''[[adyton]]'' (Greek for 'inaccessible') and mounted her tripod seat, holding laurel leaves and a dish of Kassotis spring water into which she gazed. Nearby was the ''[[omphalos]]'' (Greek for 'navel'), which was flanked by two solid gold eagles representing the authority of [[Zeus]], and the cleft from which emerged the sacred [[pneuma]].

Petitioners drew lots to determine the order of admission, but representatives of a city-state or those who brought larger donations to Apollo were secured a higher place in line. Each person approaching the oracle was accompanied with a {{Lang|grc-latn|proxenos}} specific to the state of the petitioner, whose job was to identify the citizen of their {{Lang|grc-latn|polis}}. This service, too, was paid for.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

Plutarch describes the events of one session in which the omens were ill-favored, but the Oracle was consulted nonetheless. The priests proceeded to receive the prophecy, but the result was a hysterical uncontrollable reaction from the priestess that resulted in her death a few days later.

At times when the Pythia was not available, consultants could obtain guidance by asking simple yes-or-no questions to the priests. A response was returned through the tossing of colored beans, one color designating "yes", another "no". Little else is known of this practice.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=38-40}}

Between 535 and 615 of the Oracles (statements) of Delphi are known to have survived since classical times, of which over half are said to be accurate historically (see [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]] for examples).<ref>Fontenrose, op cit</ref>

Cicero noted no expedition was undertaken, no colony sent out, and no affair of any distinguished individuals went on without the sanction of the oracle.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The early fathers of the Christian church believed demons were allowed to assist them to spread idolatry, so that the need for a savior would be more evident.{{sfn|Godwin|1876|p=12}}

===Experience of supplicants===
[[File:Claude Lorrain 027.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|''View of Delphi with Sacrificial Procession'' by [[Claude Lorrain]]]]

In antiquity, the people who went to the Oracle to ask for advice were known as "consultants", literally, "those who seek counsel".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wisecounselresearch.com/research/portrait-gallery/delphic-oracle |title=The Delphic Oracle &#124; Wise Counsel Research Associates |access-date=2013-05-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131226095012/http://www.wisecounselresearch.com/research/portrait-gallery/delphic-oracle |archive-date=2013-12-26 }} sighted 14/5/2013</ref> It would appear that the supplicant to the oracle would undergo a four-stage process, typical of [[shaman]]ic journeys.

* Step 1: '''Journey to Delphi'''—Supplicants were motivated by some need to undertake the long and sometimes arduous journey to Delphi in order to consult the oracle. This journey was motivated by an awareness of the existence of the oracle, the growing motivation on the part of the individual or group to undertake the journey, and the gathering of information about the oracle as providing answers to important questions.
* Step 2: '''Preparation of the supplicant'''—Supplicants were interviewed in preparation of their presentation to the Oracle, by the priests in attendance. The genuine cases were sorted and the supplicant had to go through rituals involving the framing of their questions, the presentation of gifts to the Oracle and a procession along the Sacred Way carrying laurel leaves to visit the temple, symbolic of the journey they had made.
* Step 3: '''Visit to the Oracle'''—The supplicant would then be led into the temple to visit the ''[[adyton]]'', put his question to the Pythia, receive his answer and depart. The degree of preparation already undergone would mean that the supplicant was already in a very aroused and meditative state, similar to the shamanic journey elaborated on in the article.
* Step 4: '''Return home'''—Oracles were meant to give advice to shape future action, which was meant to be implemented by the supplicant, or by those that had sponsored the supplicant to visit the Oracle. The validity of the Oracular utterance was confirmed by the consequences of the application of the oracle to the lives of those people who sought Oracular guidance.<ref>Fontenrose, Joseph (1981), "Delphic Oracle: Its Responses and Operations". (University of California Press)</ref>

===The Role of Consultants===
The relationship between the Pythia, Delphic officials, and consultants who sought advice at the temple is shown in contemporary research on the Delphic Oracle. Individuals, city-states, and political officials were among the advisors. Additionally, they have actively contributed to the influence of the Pythia's oracular pronouncements. This interpretation challenges earlier views that considered the Delphic Oracle as a centralized political force that helps to exert a unilateral influence across the Greek and Mediterranean region. Instead, the production and interpretation of oracles emerge as collaborative processes involving multiple stakeholders. 

The idea that Delphi’s prominence as a religious and cultural center was strengthened by its reputation as the “navel of the world” (omphalos). The Pythia was seen as providing a channel and connect between the divine and human realms, her words imbued with the authority of Apollo. Scholars such as Simon Hornblower suggest that the Delphic Oracle’s influence extended beyond religion, serving as a mechanism for conflict resolution, interstate diplomacy, and political legitimation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hornblower |first1=Simon |title=Pindar's poetry, patrons, and festivals: from Archaic Greece to the Roman Empire |last2=Morgan |first2=Catherine |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-929672-9 |location=Oxford}}</ref> However, this view often considered as overestimating the power of the Pythia and her attendant priests. Hence reducing the level of influence of the consultants to passive recipients of divine messages. Recent studies challenge this assumption by highlighting the role of consultants played in framing questions, interpreting responses, and implementing decisions during the process. 

In modern theories, consultants shaped the form and content of oracles through their own political, social, and personal contexts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite thesis |last=Dobyns |first=Norita Dalene |title=Power, performance and the Pythia: the political use of Delphic oracles |date=2005 |publisher=The Ohio State University |url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/etd/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=osu1302718588 |language=en}}</ref> This dynamic undermines the notion of the oracle as an independent political force, instead stressing the shared agency between Delphic officials and those who sought the god’s counsel.

===The collaboration during Oracular Productions===
In order to provide an oracle, procedures that focused on cooperation between consultants and the Delphic priest will be carried out. Before posing their queries to the Pythia, consultants would engage in a purification and sacrifice ritual. These questions were carefully adjusted, often with guidance from the priests (prophētai), to align with the expectations of Apollo’s wisdom. The Pythia that induced by divine possession or inhale sacred fumes will enter a trance state, hence delivered responses that were often ambiguous or cryptic.{{snf|Fontenrose|1978}}  

Scholars argues that the Pythia’s utterances were not unintelligible gibberish, as traditionally believed, but meaningful statements requiring collaborative decoding.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Maurizio |first=Lisa |date=2001b |title=The Voice At The Center Of The World: The Pythias' Ambiguity And Authority |chapter=The Voice at the Center of the World |chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv36zqbc.8 |access-date=2025-03-27 |website=JSTOR|pages=38–54 |publisher=Princeton University Press |jstor=j.ctv36zqbc.8 }}</ref> The interpretation of these responses was shaped by the consultants’ framing under the guidance of the priests. And hence to impact in sociopolitical context. The process helps to build connection between human and the divine, hence reducing the gap between people and gods. 

The oracular text was not only a fixed and authoritative pronouncement. It was also subject to negotiation and reinterpretation. A well-documented example is the oracle granted to King Croesus of Lydia, which stated, "If you cross the Halys, you will destroy a great empire." The king misinterpreted the statement, and Croesus started a catastrophic war that resulted in the collapse of his own empire after mistaking the words for a promise of triumph.<ref>{{Citation |last=Herodotus |editor-first1=Robin |editor-first2=Carolyn |editor-last1=Waterfield |editor-last2=Dewald |title=Histories |date=1998-03-05 |work=Oxford World's Classics: Herodotus: The Histories |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/oseo/instance.00271233 |access-date=2025-03-27 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oseo/instance.00271233 |isbn=978-0-19-953566-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This episode illustrates the ambiguity inherent in many oracles, which consultants often interpreted in ways that fulfills their desires or expectations. The text might be falsely interpreted for one's sake. 

Consultants were instrumental in shaping oracles by framing questions and selectively interpreting responses. This tackle questions conventional views of oracles as unilateral declarations of divine will, presenting them instead as dialogical and context dependent.<ref name=":1" />

===Modern Interpretations of the Pythia===
Modern interpretations of the Pythia emphasize her symbolic and ritualistic importance but sometimes neglect her direct involvement in political decision-making. Catherine Morgan notes that the Pythia’s role was deeply embedded in the religious and cultural fabric of Greek society, serving as both a mediator of divine will and a symbol of Apollo’s authority.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199296729.001.0001 |title=Pindar's Poetry, Patrons, and Festivals |date=2007-02-07 |publisher=Oxford University PressOxford |doi=10.1093/oso/9780199296729.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-929672-9 |editor-last=Hornblower |editor-first=Simon |editor-last2=Morgan |editor-first2=Catherine}}</ref> 

This shift reflects a deeper understanding of ancient Greek religion, recognizing the complexity of the Pythia’s role as both a channel for Apollo’s voice and an active participant in oracular practices.

==Temple of Apollo==
[[File:A Delphi magic mist.JPG|thumb|Modern photograph of the ruins of the [[Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]]]

The ruins of the [[Temple of Delphi]] visible today date from the 4th century&nbsp; BC, and are of a [[peripteral]] [[Doric order|Doric]] building. It was erected on the remains of an earlier temple, dated to the 6th century BC, which itself was erected on the site of a 7th-century-BC construction attributed to the architects Trophonios and Agamedes.<ref name="b">[http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/delphi-temple-of-apollo.html Temple of Apollo at Delphi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116190113/http://ancient-greece.org/architecture/delphi-temple-of-apollo.html |date=2010-11-16 }}, Ancient-Greece.org</ref>

The 6th-century BC temple was named the "Temple of [[Alcmaeonidae]]" in tribute to the Athenian family who funded its reconstruction following a fire, which had destroyed the original structure. The new building was a Doric [[hexastyle]] temple of 6&nbsp;by&nbsp;15 columns. This temple was destroyed in 373&nbsp; BC by an earthquake. The [[pediment]] sculptures are a tribute to [[Praxias and Androsthenes]] of [[Athens]]. Of a similar proportion to the second temple it retained the 6&nbsp;by&nbsp;15 column pattern around the [[stylobate]].<ref name="b"/> Inside was the [[adyton]], the centre of the Delphic oracle and seat of Pythia. The temple had the statement "[[Know thyself]]", one of the [[Delphic maxims]], carved into it (and some modern Greek writers say the rest were carved into it), and the maxims were attributed to Apollo and given through the Oracle and/or the [[Seven Sages of Greece]] ("know thyself" perhaps also being attributed to other famous philosophers).

The temple survived until AD 390, when the Roman emperor [[Theodosius I]] silenced the oracle by destroying the temple and most statues and works of art to remove all traces of paganism.<ref name="Ringp185">Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Bod, ''International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe''; Page 185; [https://books.google.com/books?id=74JI2UlcU8AC&dq=Temple+of+Apollo+delphi++theodosius&pg=PA185] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513210336/https://books.google.com/books?id=74JI2UlcU8AC&dq=Temple+of+Apollo+delphi++theodosius&pg=PA185|date=2023-05-13}}</ref>

===Comparative Oracular Traditions===
The characteristic of collaboration of oracular practices at Delphi were found to be similar with other ancient traditions. For example, at Dodona, oracles were delivered through the rustling of oak leaves. Then priests will be required to interpret the signs. Similarly, the oracle at Didyma involved the interpretation of cryptic utterances by the priestess. This demonstrate that oracles across the ancient world relied on a interaction between divine inspiration which are signs from god, priestly mediation, and human interpretation.{{sfn|Broad|2007}}

By situating the Delphic Oracle within this broader context, scholars highlight its unique features while acknowledging its shared characteristics with other oracular traditions.

==Scientific explanations==

===Fumes and vapors===
[[File:John Collier - Priestess of Delphi.jpg|thumb|''Priestess of Delphi'' (1891) by [[John Collier (Pre-Raphaelite painter)|John Collier]], showing the Pythia sitting on a tripod with vapor rising from a crack in the earth beneath her]]

There have been many attempts to find a [[scientific]] explanation for the Pythia's inspiration. Most commonly,<ref name=":0">J.Z. De Boer, and J. R. Hale. "The Geological Origins of the Oracle of Delphi, Greece", in W. G. McGuire, D. R. Griffiths, P Hancock, and I. S. Stewart, eds. ''The Archaeology of Geological Catastrophes''. (Geological Society of London) 2000. Popular accounts in A&E Television Networks. History Channel documentary Oracle at Delphi, Secrets Revealed, 2003, and in William J. Broad,  ''The Oracle: The Lost Secrets and Hidden Message of Ancient Delphi''. (New York: Penguin) 2006.</ref> these refer to an observation made by [[Plutarch]], who presided as high [[priest]] at Delphi for several years, who stated that the oracular powers of the sybil appeared to be associated with vapors from the Kerna [[Spring (hydrosphere)|spring waters]] that flowed under the temple. It has often been suggested that these vapors may have been [[hallucinogen]]ic gases.{{CN|date=June 2023}}

Recent geological investigations have suggested that gas emissions from a geologic chasm in the earth could have inspired the Delphic Oracle to "connect with the divine". Some researchers suggest the possibility that [[ethylene]] gas caused the Pythia's state of inspiration, based on the matching symptoms, ethylene's use as an anesthetic, and the smell of the chamber, as described by Plutarch.<ref name=":0" /> Traces of ethylene have been found in the waters of the Castallian spring, which is now largely diverted for the town water supply of the town of modern [[Delphi]]. However, Lehoux argues<ref>Lehoux, 2007 ''[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17357391 The delphic oracle and the ethylene-intoxication hypothesis.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125135007/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17357391 |date=2018-01-25 }}'' Retrieved 4 December 2017.</ref> that ethylene is "impossible" and benzene is "crucially underdetermined". Others argue instead that [[methane]] might have been the gas emitted from the chasm, or {{chem|C|O|2}} and {{chem|H|2|S}}, arguing that the chasm itself might have been a seismic ground rupture.<ref>Piccardi, 2000; Spiller et al., 2000; de Boer, et al., 2001; Hale et al. 2003; Etiope et al., 2006; Piccardi et al., 2008.</ref><ref>Mason, Betsy. ''[http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2006/1002/2 The Prophet of Gases] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208095700/http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2006/1002/2 |date=2008-12-08 }}'' in ScienceNow Daily News 2 October 2006. Retrieved 11 October 2006.</ref>

[[Nerium|Oleander]], in contemporary toxicological literature, has also been considered responsible for contributing symptoms similar to those of the Pythia. The Pythia used oleander as a complement during the oracular procedure, chewing its leaves and inhaling their smoke. The toxic substances of oleander results in symptoms similar to those of epilepsy, the "sacred disease", which could have amounted to the possession of the Pythia by the spirit of Apollo, rendering Pythia his spokesperson and prophetess. The oleander fumes (the "spirit of Apollo") could have originated in a brazier located in an underground chamber (the antron) and have escaped through an opening (the "chasm") in the temple's floor. This hypothesis fits the findings of the archaeological excavations that revealed an underground space under the temple. This explanation sheds light on the alleged spirit and chasm of Delphi, that have been the subject of intense debate and interdisciplinary research for the last hundred years.<ref name="Harissis 2015">Harissis 2015</ref>

Regardless of which fumes existed in the chasm, winter months would bring cooler weather, decreasing release of gases in the chamber. This offers a plausible explanation for the absence of summer deities in winter months. A toxic gas also explains the reason why the Pythia could only venture into her oracular chamber once a month, both to coincide with the correct concentration of gases,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stadter |first=Phillip A. |title=Plutarch and his Roman Readers |date=18 December 2014 |chapter=Plutarch and Apollo of Delphi |pages=82–97 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198718338.003.0006 |isbn=978-0-19-871833-8 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/26287/chapter/194529059 |access-date=8 December 2022 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208024431/https://academic.oup.com/book/26287/chapter/194529059 |url-status=live }}</ref> and to prolong the already-short lifespan of the Pythia by limiting her exposure to such fumes.

===Excavations===
Beginning during 1892, a team of French archaeologists directed by [[Théophile Homolle]] of the [[Collège de France]] excavated the site at Delphi. Contrary to ancient literature, they found no fissure and no possible means for the production of fumes.

Adolphe [[Paul Oppé]] published an influential article<ref name=adv>[http://www.odysseyadventures.ca/articles/delphi/articleDelphi02.html# Delphi, the Oracle of Apollo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402131354/http://www.odysseyadventures.ca/articles/delphi/articleDelphi02.html |date=2012-04-02 }} from Adventures in Archaeology</ref> in 1904, which made three crucial claims: No chasm or vapor ever existed; no natural gas could create prophetic visions; and the recorded incidents of a priestess undergoing violent and often deadly reactions was inconsistent with the more customary reports. Oppé explained away all the ancient testimony as being reports of gullible travelers fooled by wily local guides who, Oppé believed, invented the details of a chasm and a vapor in the first place.<ref name=med>[http://medbherenn.com/oracle-at-delphi.html The Oracle at Delphi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402131330/http://medbherenn.com/oracle-at-delphi.html |date=2012-04-02 }} ''Medb hErren''</ref>

In accordance with this definitive statement, such scholars as Frederick Poulson, E. R. Dodds, Joseph Fontenrose, and Saul Levin all stated that there were no vapors and no chasm. For the decades to follow, scientists and scholars believed the ancient descriptions of a sacred, inspiring pneuma to be fallacious. During 1950, the French [[Hellenic studies|hellenist]] [[Pierre Amandry]], who had worked at Delphi and later directed the French excavations there, concurred with Oppé's pronouncements, claiming that gaseous emissions were not even possible in a volcanic zone such as Delphi. Neither Oppé nor Amandry were geologists, though, and no geologists had been involved in the debate up to that point.<ref name=adv />

Subsequent re-examination of the French excavations, however, has shown that this consensus may have been mistaken. Broad (2007) demonstrates that a French photograph of the excavated interior of the temple clearly depicts a springlike pool as well as a number of small vertical fissures, indicating numerous pathways by which vapors could enter the base of the temple.<ref>{{Harvnb|Broad|2007|p=146-147}}: "[A] French photo of the temple's interior showed not only a spring-like pool but fissures... in the bedrock, suggesting a specific pathway by which intoxicating gases could have risen into the oracle's sanctum... What delighted de Boer so much was not the verification of the spring-like pool at the heart of the chasm, as the revelation of the bedrock's composition... there right above the waterline, the photograph clearly showed vertical fissures running through the bedrock.  No denial could hide that fact, no scholarly disclaimer could deny the reality.... [The] cracks ...[showed] evidence of tectonic jolts and protracted flows of mineralized water."</ref>

During the 1980s, the interdisciplinary team of geologist Jelle Zeilinga de Boer,<ref>[http://www.wesleyan.edu/ees/people/emeritus.html Jelle Zeilinga de Boer] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060506231049/http://www.wesleyan.edu/ees/people/emeritus.html |date=2006-05-06 }} – Retrieved on 2006-10-01.</ref> archaeologist John R. Hale,<ref>[http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/lbst/staff/jhale.html John R. Hale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060714234412/http://www.louisville.edu/a-s/lbst/staff/jhale.html |date=2006-07-14 }} – Retrieved on 2006-10-01.</ref> forensic chemist Jeffrey P. Chanton,<ref>[http://www.leopoldleadership.org/content/fellows/search-detail.jsp?id=106 Jeffrey P. Chanton] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20050407231545/http://www.leopoldleadership.org/content/fellows/search-detail.jsp?id=106 |date=2005-04-07 }} – Retrieved on 2006-10-01.</ref> and toxicologist Henry R. Spiller<ref>[http://www.krpc.com/index.html Henry R. Spiller] – Retrieved on 2006-10-01. [https://archive.today/20060512104245/http://www.krpc.com/index.html Dead link Archived]</ref> investigated the site at Delphi using this photograph and other sources as evidence, as part of a United Nations survey of all active [[Fault (geology)|faults]] in Greece.<ref name=med />

Jelle Zeilinga de Boer saw evidence of a fault line in Delphi that lay under the ruined temple.
During several expeditions, they discovered two major fault lines, one lying north–south, the Kerna fault, and the other lying east–west, the Delphic fault, which parallels the shore of the [[Corinthian Gulf]]. The [[rift]] of the Gulf of Corinth is one of the most geologically active sites on Earth; shifts there impose immense strains on nearby fault lines, such as those below Delphi. The two faults cross one another, and they intersect right below where the {{Lang|grc-latn|adyton}} was probably located. (The actual, original oracle chamber had been destroyed by the moving faults, but there is strong structural evidence that indicates where it was most likely located.){{sfn|Broad|2007|p=155-157}}

They also found evidence for underground passages and chambers, and drains for spring water. Additionally, they discovered at the site formations of [[travertine]], a form of calcite created when water flows through limestone and dissolves [[calcium carbonate]], which is later redeposited. Further investigation revealed that deep beneath the Delphi region lies a [[bitumen|bituminous]] deposit, rich in [[hydrocarbons]] and full of pitch, that has a petrochemical content as high as 20%. Friction created by earthquakes heat the bituminous layers resulting in vaporization of the hydrocarbons which rise to the surface through small fissures in the rock.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=155-157}}

=== Illusions in the ''{{Lang|grc-latn|adyton}}'' ===
It has been disputed as to how the ''[[adyton]]'' was organized, but it appears clear that this temple was unlike any other in [[ancient Greece]]. The small chamber was located below the main floor of the temple and offset to one side, perhaps constructed specifically over the crossing faults.<ref>In the French excavation report on the temple, [[Fernand Courby]] shows that the ''adyton'' was unlike those found in other temples as it was not central, but on the southwestern side, interrupting the normal symmetry of the Doric temple.  It was divided into two areas, one small area 9 by 16 feet for the oracle, one for the supplicant.  Modern research reported by Broad (p. 37) suggests that both the supplicant and the Pythia descended a flight of five steps into a small room within the temple with its own low ceiling.

Walter Miller has argued that the stone block of 3.5–4 feet that Courby described as being part of the floor was in fact the site where the oracle sat. It showed a square 6-inch hole, widening to 9 inches, immediately under the triangular grooves for the tripod.  Strange channels, possibly to carry water from the spring, surrounded the tripodal grooves. That these had in fact carried waters for long periods was confirmed by the layers of travertine that encrusted it.  Nothing like this has been found at any other Greek temple. Holland (1933) argues that these channels and the hollow nature of the ''omphalos'' found by the French would channel the vapors of intoxicant gases.</ref> The intimate chamber allowed the escaping vapors to be contained in quarters close enough to provoke intoxicating effects. Plutarch reports that the temple was filled with a sweet smell when the "deity" was present:

{{quotation|Not often nor regularly, but occasionally and fortuitously, the room in which they seat the god's consultants is filled with a fragrance and breeze, as if the ''adyton'' were sending forth the essences of the sweetest and most expensive perfumes from a spring|[[Plutarch]], ''Moralia'' 437c).}}

De Boer's research caused him to propose [[ethylene]] as a gas known to possess this sweet odor.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=172}} Toxicologist Henry R. Spiller stated that inhalation of even a small amount of ethylene can cause both benign trances and euphoric psychedelic experiences. Other effects include physical detachment, loss of inhibitions, the relieving of pain, and rapidly changing moods without dulling consciousness. He also noted that excessive doses can cause confusion, agitation, delirium, and loss of muscle coordination.{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=212-214}}

[[Anesthesiologist]] [[Isabella Coler Herb]] found that a dose of ethylene gas up to 20% induced a trance in which subjects could sit up, hear questions and answer them logically, though with altered speech patterns, and they might lose some awareness and sensitivity in their hands and feet. After recovery, they had no recollection of what had happened. With a dose higher than 20%, the patients lost control over their limbs and might thrash wildly, groaning and staggering. All these hallucinogenic symptoms match Plutarch's description of the Pythia, whom he had witnessed many times.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/relig/ark/stories/s1266794.htm Interview with John R. Hale on the Delphic Oracle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602183338/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/relig/ark/stories/s1266794.htm |date=2007-06-02 }}, ABC News, Australia – (Retrieved on 2006-04-20)</ref>

During 2001, water samples from the Kerna spring, uphill from the temple and now diverted to the nearby town of Delphi, yielded evidence of 0.3 parts per million of ethylene.<ref>{{Harvnb|Broad|2007|p=198}}. Methane (15.3 parts per million) and [[ethane]] (0.2 ppm) were also detected in the Kerna sample. However, the intoxicating effects of ethylene are more powerful than those of [[methane]] or ethane.</ref> It is likely that in ancient times, higher concentrations of ethylene or other gases emerged in the temple from these springs.<ref>"the Kerna spring, once alive but now vanished since Greek engineers had re-routed its waters to supply the town of Delphi"  Tests from nearby sites showed that the concentration of ethylene at Kerna was ten times that at other nearby springs.  In an interview reported in Broad (2006, p. 152), de Boer stated that "the Kerna sample, because of the spring's rerouting, had to be drawn from a city's holding tank... letting some of the gas escape as it sat... and lessened the water concentrations.  If so the actual levels of the [[methane]], [[ethane]] and [[ethylene]] that came out of the ground would have been higher".</ref>{{sfn|Broad|2007|p=194-195}} While likely in the context of the ethylene gas theory, there is no evidence to support the diminishing ethylene concentration statement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=Jay |last2=Lehoux |first2=Daryn |date=January 2008 |title=A mighty wind |journal=Clinical Toxicology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=10 |pages=1098–1099 |doi=10.1080/15563650802334028 |pmid=18821146 |issn=1556-3650|doi-access= }}</ref>

Frequent [[earthquake]]s produced by Greece's location at the clashing intersection of three [[tectonic plates]] could have caused the observed cracking of the limestone, and the opening of new channels for hydrocarbons entering the flowing waters of the Kassotis. This would cause the admixture of ethylene to fluctuate, increasing and decreasing the potency of the drug. It has been suggested that the waning of the Oracle after the era of Roman Emperor [[Hadrian]] was due in part to a long period without earthquakes in the area.

===Political and Diplomatic Role of the Oracle===
For the oracle, the shrine’s pan-Hellenic reputation relied on its perceived neutrality, which it maintained by avoiding overt favoritism toward specific city-states or factions.  The oracle's statements tended to be ambiguous in an attempt to maintain neutrality. Such prophecies allowed for different interpretations or even possible misreadings. For example, during the Persian Wars, the Delphic Oracle initially advised submission to the Persians. It is a stance reflecting the pro-Persian sentiments of some Delphic officials. However, the Athenian leaders reinterpreted subsequent oracles to rally Greek resistance.{{snf|Fontenrose|1978}}

This adaptability shows Delphic Oracle’s role as a mediator rather than a direct political force. Consultants’ interpretations often shaped the oracle’s political impact, correlating its ambiguous messages with their agendas.

Modern scholarship continues to debate the Pythia’s role in ancient Greek society. The discovery of geological explanations for her trance states has provided a scientific explanation for ancient myths in modern understanding.

This evolving interpretation of the Pythia reflects the growing understanding towards ancient religion, helping people to understand the complexity of the relations between God and people in ancient times. By re-evaluating the Pythia’s role, they can be seen both a sacred symbol and an active participant in the oracular process.

==See also==
* The [[Apollonian and Dionysian]], concept of human [[Dualistic cosmology|dichotomy]]
* The [[Delphian Club]], named for the Oracle of Delphi
* [[Delphic maxims]]
* [[Hiereiai]]
* [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]]
* [[Theia mania]], Pythia's divine inspiration in Plato's {{circa|370&nbsp;BC}} dialogue ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]''
* [[Xenoclea]]

== Citations ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== General and cited references ==
===Ancient sources===
* [[Herodotus]], ''[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126 The Histories]'', at the [[Perseus Project]]
* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0138:hymn=3:line=1 Homeric Hymn to Apollo], at the [[Perseus Project]]
* [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'', (ed. and translated with commentary by [[James Frazer|Sir James Frazer]]), 1913 edition. Cf. v.5
* [[Plutarch]], ''De defectu oraculorum'' ("On the Decline of Oracles"), ''De Pythiae Oraculis'' ("On the Oracles of the Pythia"), and ''De E apud Delphos'' ("On the E at Delphi") in ''Moralia'', vol. 5 (Loeb Library, Harvard University Press)

===Modern sources===
{{cols|colwidth=26em}}
* {{cite book |last=Bouché-Leclercq |first=Auguste |author-link=Auguste Bouché-Leclercq |year=1879–1882 |title=Histoire de la divination dans l'Antiquité |location=Paris |publisher=Ernest Leroux}} Volume I-IV.
* {{cite book |first=Hugh |last=Bowden |year =2005 |title=Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-53081-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalathensd0000bowd| url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Broad |first=William J. |author-link=William Broad |year=2007 |title=The Oracle: Ancient Delphi and the Science Behind Its Lost Secrets |location=New York |publisher=Penguin Press |isbn=978-0-14-303859-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Burkert |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Burkert |year=1985 |title=Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=0-674-36280 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/greekreligion0000burk/page/23/mode/2up}} Orig. in German (1977).
* {{cite book |last=Connelly |first=Joan Breton |author-link=Joan Breton Connelly |year=2007 |title=Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece |location=New Jersey |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12746-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/portraitofpriest00conn}}
* {{cite book |last=Courby |first=Fernand |year=1927 |title=Feuilles de Delphi: Tome 2, Topographie et Architecture, La Terrace du Temple |location=Paris |publisher=E. de Boccard}}
* {{cite journal |last1=de Boer |first1=Jelle Zeilinga |last2=Hale |first2=John Rigby |last3=Chaton |first3=Jeffrey P. |year=2001 |title=New Evidence for the Geological Origins of the Ancient Delphic Oracle |journal=Geology |volume=29 |issue=8  |pages=707–711 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0707:NEFTGO>2.0.CO;2}}
* {{cite book |last=Dempsey |first=T. |year=1918 |title=The Delphic oracle, its early history, influence and fall |location=Oxford |publisher=B.H. Blackwell}}
* {{cite book |last=Dodds |first=E. R. |author-link=E. R. Dodds |year=1963 |title=The Greeks and the Irrational |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press}}
* Etiope, G., D. Christodoulou, M. Geraga, P. Favali, & G. Papatheodorou, "The geological links of the ancient Delphic Oracle (Greece): a reappraisal of natural gas occurrence and origin", ''Geology'', 34, 821–824 (2006)
*{{cite book |last=Farnell |first=Lewis Richard |author-link=Lewis Richard Farnell |year=1896–1909 |title=The Cults of the Greek States |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press}} Cf. especially, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ewIIU_JNarIC volume IV] on the Pythoness and Delphi.
* {{cite book |last=Fontenrose |first=Joseph Eddy |author-link=Joseph Fontenrose |year=1980 |orig-year=1959 |title=Python: a study of Delphic myth and its origins |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-04091-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Fontenrose |first=Joseph Eddy |year=1978 |title=The Delphic oracle, its responses and operations, with a catalogue of responses |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-03360-4}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=J. |last2=Lehoux |first2=D. |year=2007 |title=The Delphic Oracle and the ethylene-intoxication hypothesis |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=45 |issue=1 |page=85-89 |doi=10.1080/15563650601120800}}
* [[William Golding|Golding, William]], ''The Double Tongue'', London, Faber (1995). Posthumous, fictional novel by the [[Nobel Prize|Nobel prize]] winner about a Pythia in the 1st century BCE.
* Goodrich, Norma Lorre, ''Priestesses'', New York : F. Watts, {{ISBN|0-531-15113-1}} (1989); Harper Collins, Perennial, {{ISBN|0-06-097316-1}} (1990)
* [[W. K. C. Guthrie|Guthrie, William Keith Chambers]], ''The Greeks and Their Gods'' (1950)
* {{cite journal |last1=Hale |first1=John R. |last2=de Boer |first2=Jelle Zeilinga |last3=Chanton |first3=Jeffrey P. |last4=Spiller |first4=Henry A. |year=2003 |title=Questioning the Delphic Oracle |journal=Scientific American |volume=289 |issue=2}}
* [[Manly Palmer Hall|Hall, Manly Palmer]], ''The Secret Teachings of All Ages'', cf. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/sta14.htm Chapter 14], (1928)
* {{cite journal |last=Harissis |first=Haralampos V. |year=2014 |title=A Bittersweet Story: The True Nature of the Laurel of the Oracle of Delphi |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |volume=57 |issue=3 |page=351-360 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2014.0032}}
* Holland, Leicester B., "The Mantic Mechanism at Delphi", ''[[American Journal of Archaeology]]'' 37 pp.&nbsp;201–214 (1933)
* {{cite journal |last=Lehoux |first=Daryn |year=2007 |title=Drugs and the Delphic Oracle |journal=Classical World |volume=101 |issue=1 |page=41-56}}
* Maass, E., ''De Sibyllarum Indicibus'', Berlin (1879)
* {{cite book |year=2001a |last=Maurizio |first=Lisa |chapter=The Voice at the Centre of the World: The Pythia's Ambiguity and Authority |pages=46–50 |editor-last1=Lardinois |editor-first1=Andre |editor-last2=McClure |editor-first2=Laura |title=Making Silence Speak: Women's Voices in Greek Literature and Society |location=New Jersey |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Mikalson |first=Jon D. |year=2022 |title=Ancient Greek Religion |edition=3rd |location=Hoboken |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-119-56562-8}} 
* Miller, Water, ''Daedalus and Thespis'' Vol 1, (1929)
* [[William Mitford|Mitford, William]], ''The History of Greece'' (1784); cf. v.1, Chapter III, Section 2, p.&nbsp;177, "Origin and Progress of the Oracles"
* Morgan, Catherine. ''Athletes and Oracles'', Cambridge (1990)
* {{cite book |last=Nilsson |first=Martin P. |year=1972 |title=Cults, Myths, Oracles, and Politics in Ancient Greece. With Two Appendices: The Ionian Phylae, the Phratries |location=New York |publisher=Cooper Square Publishers}} 
* {{cite book |last=Parke |first=Herbert William |year=1939 |title=A History of the Delphic Oracle |location=Oxford |publisher=Basil Blackwell |asin=B002NZWT0Y}}
* {{cite book |last=Parke |first=Herbert William |year=1992 |orig-year=1988 |title=Sibyls and Sibylline Prophecy in Classical Antiquity |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-07638-8}}
* Piccardi, Luigi, "Active faulting at Delphi: seismotectonic remarks and a hypothesis for the geological environment of a myth", ''Geology'', 28, 651–654 (2000)
* Piccardi L.,  C. Monti, F. Tassi O. Vaselli, D. Papanastassiou & K. Gaki-Papanastassiou,  "Scent of a myth: tectonics, geochemistry and geomythology at Delphi (Greece)", ''[[Geological Society of London#Publications|Journal of the Geological Society]]'', London, 165, 5–18 (2008)
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=David Stone |year=1990 |title=Prophecy and history in the crisis of the Roman Empire: a Historical Commentary on the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press}} Cf. Chapter 3
* Poulson, Frederick. ''Dephi'' Gleydenhall, London (1920)
* [[Erwin Rohde|Rohde, Erwin]], ''Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality among the Greeks'', trans. from the 8th edn. by W. B. Hillis, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, (1925); reprinted by Routledge (2000); [https://books.google.com/books?id=EsVTr_6c7E0C full text in English]
* {{cite journal |last1=Spiller |first1=Henry A. |last2=Hale |first2=John R. |last3=De Boer |first3=Jelle Z. |year=2002 |title=The Delphic Oracle: A Multidisciplinary Defense of the Gaseous Vent Theory |journal=Clinical Toxicology |volume=40 |issue=2 |page=189-196 |doi=10.1081/CLT-120004410}}
* {{cite book |last=West |first=Martin Litchfield |author-link=Martin Litchfield West |year=1983 |title=The Orphic Poems |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-814854-2}}
{{colend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010924070805/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/08/0814_delphioracle.html "Delphic Oracle's Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors"]. ''[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]''. August 14, 2001.
* [https://culturaltravelexplorer.com/the-oracle-of-delphi/ "The Oracle of Delphi: Ancient Greece’s Enigmatic Prophetic Site by Ed Santos"]. March 1, 2025.

{{Greek religion}}
{{Delphi|state=collapsed}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:390 disestablishments]]
[[Category:390s disestablishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:8th-century BC establishments in Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Delphi]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek priestesses]]
[[Category:Classical oracles]]
[[Category:Mythological Greek seers]]
[[Category:Sibyls]]

[[es:Oráculo de Delfos#Pitia o Pitonisa]]