View source for Saint Peter

{{Short description|Christian apostle}}
{{Other uses|Saint Peter (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = Pope
| honorific-prefix = [[Pope Saint]]
| name = Peter the Apostle
| title = {{Ubl|[[Bishop of Rome]]|[[Bishop of Antioch]]}}
| image = Saint Peter-Sinai (6th Century) Crop.jpg
| caption = {{Interlanguage link|Saint Peter (Sinai)|lt=''Saint Peter''|4=it|5=San Pietro (Monastero di Santa Caterina in Egitto)|6=ru|7=Апостол Пётр (икона из Синайского монастыря)}}, an early 6th-century [[Byzantine icon]] in [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] depicting Peter in robes, holding the [[Keys of Heaven]] and a martyr's cross
| see = First [[bishop of Rome]] and first [[bishop of Antioch]], according to [[Catholic tradition|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Christian]] tradition
| ordination = {{circa|AD 30}}
| term_start = {{circa|AD 30|lk=no}}<ref name="newadvent">{{Cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm |title=Catholic Encyclopedia - St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles |website=newadvent.org}}</ref>
| term_end = Between 64 and 68 AD<ref name="newadvent"/>
| successor = {{plainlist|
* Bishop of [[Diocese of Rome|Rome]] (according to tradition): [[Pope Linus|Linus]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Papacy - An Encyclopedia |volume=1 |page=947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JTj4wAEACAAJ |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=0415922283}}
</ref>
* Bishop of [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]] (according to tradition): [[Evodius]]
}}
| ordained_by = [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]
| birth_name = Shimon Bar Yonah
| birth_date = {{circa|1 BC|lk=no}}
| birth_place = [[Bethsaida]], [[Golan Heights]], [[Roman Empire]]
| death_date = Between 64 and 68 AD (aged 63–68)
| death_place = [[Vatican Hill]], [[Rome]], [[Roman Italy|Italia]], Roman Empire<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dIm1CwAAQBAJ&q=it+is+likely+that+the+apostle+peter+died+in+rome&pg=PA57 |page=57 |title=The Fate of the Apostles- Examining the Martyrdom Accounts of the Closest Followers of Jesus |date=2016 |last=McDowell |first=Sean |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-03190-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Papacy and the Orthodox - Sources and History of a Debate |date=2017 |last=Siecienski |first=A. Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8DXDQAAQBAJ&q=scholarship+largely+came+to+accept+Peter%27s+death+in+Rome+%E2%80%9Cas+a+fact+which+is&pg=PT50 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-065092-6 |quote=scholarship largely came to accept Peter's death in Rome "as a fact which is relatively, although not absolutely, assured". While a select few were willing to make this judgment definitive}}</ref>
| parents = Jonah (or Jona; John)
| spouse = Name unknown
| occupation = [[Fisherman]], [[clergy]]man
| feast_day = {{plainlist|
* Main feast: [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]] (with [[Paul the Apostle]]) 29 June ([[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]])
* 18 January: Confession of Saint Peter (Anglicanism, Lutheranism)
* 22 February: [[Chair of Saint Peter]] (Catholic Church)}}
| venerated = All [[Christian denomination]]s that venerate [[saint]]s
| canonized_date = Pre-[[Congregation for the Causes of Saints|Congregation]]
| attributes = [[Keys of Heaven]], [[Red Martyr]], [[pallium]], [[Papal regalia and insignia|papal vestments]], rooster, man crucified upside down, vested as an Apostle, holding a book or scroll, [[Cross of Saint Peter]]
| patronage = [[#Patronage|Patronage list]]
| shrine = [[St. Peter's Basilica]] [[Church of St. Peter]]
}}

'''Saint Peter'''{{refn|group=note|{{langx|he|שמעון בר יונה|Šīmʿōn bar Yōnā}}; {{langx|syc|ܫܸܡܥܘܿܢ ܟܹ݁ܐܦ݂ܵܐ|Šemʿōn Kēp̄ā}}; {{langx|ar|سِمعَان بُطرُس|translit=Simʿān Buṭrus}}; {{langx|grc|Πέτρος|Petros|[[Rock (geology)|Rock]]}}; {{langx|cop|Ⲡⲉⲧⲣⲟⲥ|Petros}}; {{langx|la|Petrus}}; {{langx|ar|شمعون الصفـا|Shamʿūn aṣ-Ṣafá|Simon the Pure}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cn1gwQXfgkC&pg=PA53 |title=Syria - Society, Culture, and Polity |isbn=978-0-7914-0713-4 |author1=Richard T. Antoun |author2=Donald Quataert |chapter=The Alawis of Syria Religious Ideology and Organization |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cn1gwQXfgkC&pg=PA53 |date=1991 |series=Suny Series in Judaica |via=books.google.com |page=53 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]]}}</ref>}} (born '''Shimon Bar Yonah'''; 1 BC – AD 64/68),<ref name="newadvent" /> also known as '''Peter the Apostle''', '''Simon Peter''', '''Simeon''', '''Simon''', or '''Cephas''', was one of the [[Twelve Apostles]] of [[Jesus]] and one of the first leaders of the [[Jewish Christian#Jerusalem ekklēsia|early Christian Church]]. He appears repeatedly and prominently in [[Gospel#Canonical gospels|all four New Testament gospels]], as well as the [[Acts of the Apostles]]. [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] tradition treats Peter as the first [[bishop of Rome]] – or [[List of popes|pope]] – and also as the first [[bishop of Antioch]].

Peter's [[History of the papacy|leadership of the early believers]] is estimated to have spanned from AD 30 or 33 to his death; these dates suggest that he could have been the [[longest-reigning pope]], for anywhere from 31 to 38 years; however, this has never been verified.<ref name="newadvent" /> According to [[Apostolic Age|Christian tradition]], Peter was [[crucified]] in [[Rome]] under Emperor [[Nero]]. 

The ancient Christian churches all [[venerate]] Peter as a major [[saint]] and the founder of the [[Church of Antioch]] and the [[Diocese of Rome|Church of Rome]],<ref name="newadvent" /> but they differ in their attitudes regarding the [[papal primacy|authority of his successors]]. According to [[Catholic theology|Catholic teaching]], Jesus promised Peter a [[Primacy of Peter|special position]] in the Church.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|16:18}}</ref> In the [[New Testament]], the name "Simon Peter" is found 19 times. He is the brother of [[Andrew the Apostle|Andrew]], and they both were [[fishermen]]. The [[Gospel of Mark]], in particular, is traditionally thought to show the influence of Peter's preaching and eyewitness memories. He is also mentioned, under either the name Peter or Cephas, in [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s [[First Letter to the Corinthians]] and the [[Epistle to the Galatians]]. The New Testament also includes two [[general epistles]], [[First Peter]] and [[Second Peter]], which are traditionally attributed to him, but [[Authorship of the Petrine epistles|modern scholarship]] generally rejects the Petrine authorship of both.<ref name="Martin 2009">[[Dale Martin (scholar)|Dale Martin]] 2009 (lecture). {{YouTube|XJ9Gt_R5a-k|"24. Apocalyptic and Accommodation"}}. [[Yale University]]. Accessed 22 July 2013. [http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/apocalyptic-and-accommodation-6817/ Lecture 24 (transcript)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906132019/http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/apocalyptic-and-accommodation-6817/ |date=6 September 2014}}.</ref>

[[Irenaeus]] ({{circa|130|202 AD}}) explains the Apostle Peter, his [[Holy See|See]], and his successors in book III of ''[[Against Heresies (Irenaeus)|Adversus Haereses]]'' (Against [[Heresies]]).<ref>{{Cite book |author=Saint Irenaeus of Lyons |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXO1wgEACAAJ&q=against+heresies+book+3 |title=The Third Book of St. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, Against Heresies |date=13 November 2018 |publisher=Creative Media Partners |isbn=978-0-353-54233-4 |chapter=4.1}}</ref> In the book, Irenaeus wrote that Peter and Paul founded and organised the Church in Rome.<ref name="3.2">{{Cite book |last=of Lyons |first=Saint Irenaeus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SXO1wgEACAAJ&q=against+heresies+book+3 |title=The Third Book of St. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, Against Heresies |date=13 November 2018 |publisher=Creative Media Partners |isbn=978-0-353-54233-4 |chapter=3.2}}</ref>

Sources suggest that, at first, the terms ''episcopos'' and ''presbyteros'' were used interchangeably,<ref>''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', 1997 edition revised 2005, page 211</ref> with the consensus among scholars being that, by the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters, whose duties of office overlapped or were indistinguishable from one another.<ref>''Cambridge History of Christianity'', volume 1, 2006</ref> [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and secular historians generally agree that there was probably "no single 'monarchical' bishop in Rome before the middle of the 2nd century ... and likely later".<ref>''Cambridge History of Christianity'', volume 1, 2006, page 418.</ref> Outside of the New Testament, several [[New Testament apocrypha|apocryphal]] books were later attributed to him, in particular the [[Acts of Peter]], [[Gospel of Peter]], the [[Clementine literature|Preaching of Peter]], [[Apocalypse of Peter]], and [[Judgment of Peter]], although scholars believe these works to be [[pseudepigrapha]].<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Fathers of the Church|author=Chapman, Henry Palmer}}</ref><ref>Thomas Patrick Halton, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uqzY1zBtKg0C&q=%22I+simon+Peter%22+%22Ones+who+are+scattered%22&pg=PA5 ''On Illustrious Men''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162604/https://books.google.com/books?id=uqzY1zBtKg0C&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q=%22I%20simon%20Peter%22%20%22Ones%20who%20are%20scattered%22&f=false |date=22 December 2022 }}, v. 100, CUA Press, 1999, pp. 5–7 {{ISBN|0-8132-0100-4}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm "The Early Church Fathers"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109104125/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm |date=9 November 2017}}, Chapter 1, New Advent.</ref>

== Names and etymologies ==
[[File:St Peter (Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn) - Nationalmuseum - 18352.tif|thumb|254x254px|left|''St Peter'', portrait by [[Rembrandt]] (1632)]]
The New Testament presents Peter's original name as Simon ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|aɪ|m|ə|n|audio=Pope Peter Pronunciation.ogg}}; {{langx|grc|Σίμων|Simōn|label=none}} in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]). In only two passages,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|15:14}}, {{bibleverse|2 Peter|1:1}}</ref> his name is instead spelled "[[Simeon]]" ({{lang|grc|Συμεών}} in Greek). The variation possibly reflects "the well-known custom among Jews at the time of giving the name of a famous patriarch or personage of the [[Old Testament]] to a male child [i.e., [[Simeon (son of Jacob)|Simeon]]], along with a similar-sounding Greek/Roman name [in this case, Simon]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Robert McLachlan |title=Text and Interpretation - Studies in the New Testament Presented to Matthew Black |date=1979 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-22021-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDg8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA122}}</ref>

He was later given by [[Jesus]] the name ''Cephas'' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|iː|f|ə|s}}<ref>John Hayes, ''Who was who in the Bible'', Thomas Nelson, 1999, p. 70: "CEPHAS [SEE fuhs]".</ref>), from the [[Aramaic]] {{langx|arc|כֵּיפָא|Kepha|rock/stone|label=none}}. In translations of the Bible from the original [[Koine Greek|Greek]], his name is maintained as ''Cephas'' in nine occurrences in the [[New Testament]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm |title=Strong's Greek: 2786. Κηφᾶς (Képhas) – "a rock", Cephas, a name given to the apostle Peter |website=biblehub.com}}</ref> whereas in the vast majority of mentions (156 occurrences in the New Testament), he is called {{langx|grc|Πέτρος|Petros|label=none}}, from the Greek and Latin word for a rock or stone ({{lang|la|petra}}),<ref>{{cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 4073. πέτρα (petra) – a (large mass of) rock |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/4073.htm |website=biblehub.com |access-date=1 September 2021}}</ref> to which the masculine ending was added, rendered into English as ''Peter''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/4074.htm |title=Strong's Greek: 4074. Πέτρος (Petros) – "a stone" or "a boulder", Peter, one of the twelve apostles |website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

The precise meaning of the Aramaic word is disputed, some saying that its usual meaning is "rock" or "crag", others saying that it means rather "stone" and, particularly in its application by Jesus to Simon, like a "jewel", but most scholars agree that as a proper name, it denotes a rough or tough character.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8DXDQAAQBAJ&q=%22american+nickname+rocky'&pg=PT36 |title=The Papacy and the Orthodox - Sources and History of a Debate |first=A. Edward |last=Siecienski |date=12 January 2017 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-19-065092-6}}</ref> Both meanings, "stone" (jewel or hewn stone) and "rock", are indicated in dictionaries of Aramaic<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoftarg01jastuoft/page/634/mode/2up |title=A dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli, and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic literature |first=Marcus |last=Jastrow |date=20 February 1903 |publisher=London: Luzac |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> and [[Syriac language|Syriac]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/adictionarydial00maclgoog |title=A Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac - As Spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan ... |date=20 February 1901 |publisher=Clarendon |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

Catholic theologian [[Rudolf Pesch]] argues that the Aramaic word would mean "precious stone" to designate a distinguishing person.<ref>Rudolf Pesch: Simon Petrus. Geschichte und geschichtliche Bedeutung des ersten Jüngers Jesu Christi. Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1980, S. 25–34.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gibson |first1=Jack J. |title=Peter Between Jerusalem and Antioch - Peter, James, and the Gentiles |date=2013 |publisher=[[Mohr Siebeck]] |isbn=978-3-16-151889-8 |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEObx1sUjdwC&pg=PA26 |access-date=8 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This cannot be sufficiently proven from Aramaic, however, since the use of the Aramaic root {{transliteration|arc|kp}} as a personal name has not been proven, and there are hardly any known examples of the word being used to mean "precious stone".<ref>John P. Meier - Petrine Ministry in the New Testament and in the Early Patristic Traditions. In: James F. Puglisi et al.: How Can the Petrine Ministry be a Service to the Unity of the Universal Church? Cambridge 2010, S. 17 f.</ref>

The combined name {{lang|grc|Σίμων Πέτρος}} (''Símon Pétros'', Simon Peter) appears 19 times in the New Testament. In some [[Syriac language|Syriac]] documents, he is called, in English translation, Simon Cephas.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=518BdgLmXN4C&dq=%22teaching+of+simon+cephas%22&pg=PA673 The Teaching of Simon Cephas in the City of Rome]''; ''[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_IX/The_Diatessaron_of_Tatian/The_Diatessaron/Section_LIV The Diatessaron] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033350/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_IX/The_Diatessaron_of_Tatian/The_Diatessaron/Section_LIV |date=1 December 2017}}''</ref>

== Biographical information ==
[[File: Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (Milan 1571-Port' Ercole 1610) - The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew - RCIN 402824 - Hampton Court Palace.jpg|thumb|''[[The Calling of Saints Peter and Andrew]]'', 1603–1606, [[Caravaggio]]]]

=== Sources ===
The sources used to reconstruct the life of Peter can be divided in three groups:

* the New Testament writings, such as the [[Pauline epistles|Pauline Epistles]] (where [[Paul the Apostle]] calls him "Cephas" and "Peter"), the [[Petrine epistles|Petrine Epistles]] (traditionally attributed to him, but their authorship is disputed), the [[Canonical gospels|Canonical Gospels]] and the [[Acts of the Apostles]];
* the [[New Testament apocrypha]] attributed to him, such as the [[Gospel of Peter]], the [[Preaching of Peter]], the [[Acts of Peter]], the [[Acts of Peter and Andrew]], the [[Acts of Peter and the Twelve]], the [[Acts of Peter and Paul]], the [[Letter of Peter to Philip]], the Letter of Peter to James the Just, the [[Apocalypse of Peter]] and the [[Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter|Coptic Apocalypse of Peter]]. Scholars agree that these are late [[pseudepigrapha]] with little historical value, though they may contain some historical kernel;
* the writing of the Apostolic Fathers and the Church Fathers, such as [[Papias of Hierapolis]], [[Pope Clement I]], [[Polycarp]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[Irenaeus|Ireneus]].

In the New Testament, he is among the first{{refn|group=note|The narrative of Jesus' calling of his first disciples varies throughout all four gospels. In Mark 1:16,<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:16|NRSV}}</ref> "Simon and his brother Andrew" are the first to be called; in Matthew 4:18,<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|4:18|NRSV}}</ref> "Simon, who is called Peter, and Andrew his brother" are also the first to be called; and in Luke 5:1–11,<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|5:1–11|NRSV}}</ref> Simon Peter, alongside "James and John, sons of Zebedee, who were partners with Simon", are the first to be called. The narrative in the Gospel of John deviates from the narrative in the three Synoptic Gospels; in John 1:40–42,<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:40–42|NRSV}}</ref> Andrew is the first disciple, and later brings Simon to Jesus, who names him Cephas (translated as Peter).}} of the disciples called during Jesus' ministry. Peter became the first listed [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostle]] ordained by Jesus in the early Church.<ref name="ODCC Peter">"Peter, St" by F. L. Cross, ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2005</ref>

=== Accounts ===
[[File:Ancient capernum is.JPG|thumb|[[St. Peter's Church, Capernaum]] on the north side of the [[Sea of Galilee]]; a Franciscan church is built upon the traditional site of Apostle Peter's house.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2000/3/Capernaum-%20The%20Church%20of%20the%20House%20of%20Peter |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507211858/https://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2000/3/Capernaum-%20The%20Church%20of%20the%20House%20of%20Peter |archive-date=7 May 2009 |title=The Church of the House of Peter |website=mfa.gov.il}}</ref>]]

Peter was a Jewish fisherman born in [[Bethsaida]].<ref name="newadvent" /> He was named Simon, the son of a man named Jonah or John.{{refn|group=note|His father's name is given as "Jonah"<ref name="bibleverse|John|1:42">{{bibleverse|John|1:42}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|16:17}}</ref> although some manuscripts of John give his father's name as "John".}} The three [[synoptic gospels|Synoptic Gospels]] recount how Peter's mother-in-law [[Healing the mother of Peter's wife|was healed by Jesus]] at their home in [[Capernaum]];<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|8:14–17}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:29–31}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|4:38}}</ref> these passages depict Peter as being married or widowed. [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|First Corinthians]] 9:5<ref>{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|9:5}}</ref> has also been taken to imply that he was married.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JwZWAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Peter's+wife%22+Corinthians&pg=PA92 |title=Accompanied by a Believing Wife - Ministry and Celibacy in the Earliest Christian Communities |first=Raymond F. |last=Collins |date=22 November 2013 |publisher=[[Saint John's Abbey, Collegeville|Liturgical Press]] |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-8146-8238-8}}</ref>

In the synoptic gospels, Peter (then Simon) was a fisherman along with his brother [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]] and the sons of [[Zebedee]], [[James the Great|James]] and [[John the Apostle|John]]. The [[Gospel of John]] also depicts Peter fishing, even after the resurrection of Jesus, in the story of the [[Miraculous Draught of Fish|catch of 153 fish]]. In Matthew and Mark, Jesus called Simon and his brother Andrew to be "[[fishers of men]]".<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|4:18–19}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|1:16–17}}</ref>

[[File:Duccio di Buoninsegna 036.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|left|''The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew'' (from the ''Maestà''), {{circa|1308|1311}}]]

In the [[Confession of Peter]], he proclaims Jesus to be the [[Christ]] ([[Jewish Messiah]]), as described in the three synoptic gospels.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|16:13–20}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|8:27–30}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|9:18–21}}</ref> It is there, in the area of [[Caesarea Philippi]], that he receives from Jesus the name Cephas (Aramaic {{transliteration|arc|Kepha}}), or Peter (Greek {{transliteration|grc|Petros}}).

In [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], Simon Peter owns the [[Boat of Saint Peter|boat]] that Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who are pressing on him at the shore of [[Sea of Galilee|Lake Gennesaret]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|5:3}}</ref> Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions, James and John (Andrew is not mentioned) by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish. Immediately after this, they follow him.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|5:4–11}}</ref> The [[Gospel of John]] gives a comparable account of "The First Disciples."<ref>{{bibleverse|John|1:35–42}}</ref> In John, the readers are told that it was two disciples of [[John the Baptist]] (Andrew and an unnamed disciple) who heard John the Baptist announce Jesus as the "[[Lamb of God]]" and then followed Jesus. Andrew then goes to his brother Simon, saying, "We have found the [[Messiah]]", and then brings Simon to Jesus, who immediately names him as "Cephas".<ref name="bibleverse|John|1:42"/>

Three of the four Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and John – recount the story of [[Jesus walking on water]]. Matthew additionally describes Peter walking on water for a moment but beginning to sink when his faith wavers.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|14:28–31}}</ref>

At the beginning of the [[Last Supper]], Jesus washed his disciples' feet. Peter initially refused to let Jesus wash his feet, but when Jesus told him: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me", Peter replied: "Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my head".<ref>{{bibleverse|John|13:2–11}}</ref> The [[Maundy (foot washing)|washing of feet]] is often repeated in the [[Church service|service of worship]] on [[Maundy Thursday]] by some [[Christian denominations]].

[[File:Cavalier d'Arpino - Christ Taken Prisoner - WGA04690.jpg|thumb|Apostle Peter striking the [[High Priest of Israel|High Priest]]s' servant [[Malchus]] with a sword in the [[Garden of Gethsemane]], by [[Giuseppe Cesari]], {{circa|1597}}]]

The three [[synoptic gospels]] all mention that, when Jesus was arrested, one of his companions cut off the ear of a servant of the [[High Priest of Israel]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|26:51}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|14:47}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|22:50}}</ref> The Gospel of John also includes this event and names Peter as the swordsman and [[Malchus]] as the victim.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|18:10}}</ref> Luke adds that Jesus touched the ear and miraculously healed it.<ref>{{bibleverse|Luke|22:49–51}}</ref> This healing of the servant's ear is the last of the [[Miracles of Jesus|37 miracles attributed to Jesus]] in the Bible.

Simon Peter was twice [[arraigned]], along with John, before the [[Sanhedrin]] and directly defied them.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts of the Apostles|4:7–22}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Acts of the Apostles|5:18–42}}</ref> Peter took a missionary journey to [[Lod|Lydda]], [[Jaffa, Israel|Joppa]], and [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts of the Apostles|9:32–10:2}}</ref> At Joppa, Peter had a [[Peter's vision of a sheet with animals|vision]] given to him from God which allowed the eating of previously unclean animals, leading the early believers to the decision to evangelise the [[Gentile]]s.<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts of the Apostles|10}}</ref> Simon Peter applied the message of the vision on clean animals to the gentiles and follows his meeting with [[Cornelius the Centurion]] by claiming that "God shows no partiality".

According to the [[Acts of the Apostles]], Peter and John were sent from Jerusalem to [[Samaria]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts of the Apostles|8:14}}</ref> Peter/Cephas is mentioned briefly in the opening chapter of one of the [[Pauline epistles]], [[Epistle to the Galatians]], which mentions a trip by [[Paul the Apostle]] to [[Jerusalem]] where he meets Peter.<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|1:18}}</ref> Peter features again in Galatians, fourteen years later, when Paul (now with [[Barnabas]] and [[Saint Titus|Titus]]) returned to Jerusalem.<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|2:7–9}}</ref> When Peter came to [[Antioch]], Paul opposed Peter to his face "because he [Peter] was in the wrong".<ref>{{bibleverse|Galatians|2:11}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|See [[Incident at Antioch]]; see also the section below headed "Road to Rome: Antioch and Corinth".}}

[[File:15 Jacopo di Cione Polyptych San Pier Maggiore, detail of predella. 1370-71 Philadelphia (PA) , Philadelphia Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Liberation of Saint Peter (Jacopo di Cione)|The Liberation of Saint Peter from Prison]]'', [[Jacopo di Cione]], 1370–1371 ([[Philadelphia Museum of Art]])]]

[[Acts 12]] narrates how Peter, who was in Jerusalem, was put into prison by [[Herod Agrippa]] (reigned AD 42–44) but was [[liberation of Saint Peter|rescued by an angel]]. After his liberation Peter left Jerusalem to go to "another place".<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts of the Apostles|12:1–18}}</ref> Concerning Peter's subsequent activity there is no further connected information from the extant sources, although there are short notices of certain individual episodes of his later life.<ref name="newadvent"/>

=== Peter's wife ===
The synoptic gospels mention that Peter had a mother-in-law at the time he joined Jesus and that Jesus healed Peter's mother-in-law.<ref>Luke 4:38-40</ref> However, the gospels give no information about his wife. [[Clement of Alexandria]] claimed that Peter's wife was executed for her faith by the Roman authorities but he did not specify any date or location.<ref>Stromata, book 7, ch. 11. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (eds.), ''Ante-Nicene Christian Library - Translations of the Writings of the Fathers down to AD 325'', vol. 12, p. 451</ref> Another opinion states that Peter's wife was no longer alive at the time he met Jesus, so he was a widower.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.catholic.com/qa/what-was-up-with-st-peters-wife |title=What Was Up with St. Peter's Wife? |website=Catholic Answers}}</ref>

== First leader of the early Church ==
{{Main|Jewish Christian|Early Christianity}}

The Gospels and Acts portray Peter as the most prominent apostle, though he denied Jesus three times during the events of the crucifixion. According to the Christian tradition, Peter was the first disciple to whom Jesus appeared, balancing Peter's denial and restoring his position. Peter is regarded as the first leader of the early Church,{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=45}}{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|p=116}} though he was soon eclipsed in this leadership by [[James the Just|James the Just, "the brother of the Lord"]].{{sfn|Pagels|2005|pp=45–46}}{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|pp=116–117}} Because Peter was the first to whom Jesus appeared, the leadership of Peter forms the basis of the Apostolic succession and the institutional power of orthodoxy, as the heirs of Peter,{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=43}} and he is described as "the rock" on which the church will be built.{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=45}}

=== Position among the apostles ===
[[File:JanStyka-SaintPeter.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''St. Peter Preaching the Gospel in the Catacombs'' by [[Jan Styka]]]]

Peter is always listed first among the [[Twelve Apostles]] in the [[Gospel]]s<ref>{{Bibleverse|Matt.|10:2–4}}, {{Bibleverse|Mk.|3:16–19}}, {{Bibleverse|Lk.|6:14–16}}</ref> and in the [[Book of Acts]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|1:13|KJV}}</ref> Along with [[James, son of Zebedee|James the Elder]] and [[John the Apostle|John]] he formed an informal [[triumvirate]] within the Twelve Apostles. Jesus allowed them to be the only apostles present at three particular occasions during his public ministry, the [[Raising of Jairus' daughter]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark|5:37}}</ref> [[Transfiguration of Jesus]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|17:1}}</ref> and [[Agony in the Garden|Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|26:37}}</ref> Peter often confesses his faith in Jesus as the Messiah.

Peter is often depicted in the gospels as spokesman of all the Apostles.<ref>{{bibleverse|Matthew|15:15|KJV}}; {{bibleverse-nb|Matthew|19:27|KJV}}; {{bibleverse|Luke|12:41|KJV}}; {{bibleverse|John|6:67–68|KJV}}</ref> [[John Vidmar]], a Catholic scholar, writes: "Catholic scholars agree that Peter had an authority that superseded that of the other apostles. Peter is their spokesman at several events, he conducts the election of Matthias, his opinion in the debate over converting Gentiles was crucial, etc".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zENJHwQqSy0C |title=The Catholic Church through the ages - a history |pages=39–40 |date=2005 |access-date=12 September 2010 |isbn=978-0-8091-4234-7 |last1=Vidmar |first1=John |publisher=[[Paulist Fathers|Paulist Press]]}}</ref>

The author of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] portrays Peter as the central figure within the early Christian community.{{refn|group=note|Peter delivering a significant [[Open-air preaching|open-air sermon]] during [[Pentecost]]. According to the same book, Peter took the lead in selecting a replacement for [[Judas Iscariot]].<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|1:15}}</ref> Following this appointment, we see Peter establish the conditions for being an apostle as those who have spent time with Jesus.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|1|NRSV|Acts 1 (NRSV)}}</ref>

Peter's authority lent to his role as an adjudicator in conflicts and moral matters. He takes on this role in the case of Ananias and Sapphira and holds them accountable for lying about their alms-giving. Peter passes judgement upon them and they are individually struck dead over the infraction.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|5|NRSV|Acts 5 (NRSV)}}</ref>

Peter's role wasn't always leadership, since he also employed his gifts for taking care of those in need. We see Peter establish these trends by reaching out to the sick and lame. Peter heals two individuals who cannot walk or are paralysed<ref>{{Bibleverse|Acts|3|NRSV|Acts 3 (NRSV)}}</ref><ref name="Acts9">{{Bibleverse|Acts|9|NRSV|Acts 9 (NRSV)}}</ref> as well as raising Tabitha from the dead.<ref name="Acts9" /> While these acts were miracles of compassion, they also contributed to the number of believers in the early Church.}}

=== Denial of Jesus by Peter ===
[[File:El Greco - Las lágrimas de San Pedro.jpg|thumb|''The tears of Saint Peter'', by [[El Greco]], late 16th century]]
{{Main|Denial of Peter}}
[[File:The Denial of Saint Peter-Caravaggio (1610).jpg|thumb|''The Denial of Saint Peter'', by [[Caravaggio]], {{circa|1610}}]]

All four canonical gospels recount that, during the [[Last Supper]], Jesus foretold that Peter would deny him three times before the following cockcrow ("before the cock crows twice" in Mark's account). The three Synoptics and John describe the three denials as follows:
# A denial when a female servant of the high priest spots Simon Peter, saying that he had been with Jesus. According to Mark (but not in all manuscripts), "the rooster crowed". Only Luke and John mention a fire by which Peter was warming himself among other people: according to Luke, Peter was "sitting"; according to John, he was "standing";
# A denial when Simon Peter had gone out to the gateway, away from the firelight, but the same servant girl (per ''Mark'') or another servant girl (per ''Matthew'') or a man (per ''Luke'' and also ''John'', for whom, though, this is the third denial) told the bystanders he was a follower of Jesus. According to John, "the rooster crowed". The Gospel of John places the second denial while Peter was still warming himself at the fire and gives as the occasion of the third denial a claim by someone to have seen him in the garden of [[Gethsemane]] when [[arrest of Jesus|Jesus was arrested]];
# A denial came when Peter's Galilean accent was taken as proof that he was indeed a disciple of Jesus. According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, "the rooster crowed". Matthew adds that it was his [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]] that gave him away as coming from Galilee. Luke deviates slightly from this by stating that, rather than a crowd accusing Simon Peter, it was a third individual. John does not mention the Galilean accent.

In the Gospel of Luke is a record of Christ telling Peter: "Simon, Simon, behold, Satan hath desired to have you, that he may sift you as wheat: but I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not: and when thou art converted, strengthen thy brethren". In a reminiscent<ref name="May Metzger">May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger, The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, 1977.</ref> scene in John's epilogue, Peter affirms three times that he loves Jesus.

=== Resurrection appearances ===
[[File:Church peters primacy.jpg|thumb|left|Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the [[Sea of Galilee]]]]

Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]<ref>{{Bibleverse|1Cor|15}}</ref> contains a list of [[resurrection appearances of Jesus]], the first of which is an appearance to Peter.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1Cor|15:3–7}}</ref> Here, Paul apparently follows an early tradition that Peter was the first to see the risen Christ,<ref name="ODCC Peter" /> which, however, did not seem to have survived to the time when the gospels were written.<ref>See {{Bibleverse|Matthew|28:8–10}}, {{Bibleverse|John|20:16}} and {{Bibleverse|Luke|24:13–16}}.</ref>

In John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the [[empty tomb]], although the women and the [[beloved disciple]] see it before him.<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|20:1–9}}</ref> In Luke's account, the women's report of the empty tomb is dismissed by the apostles, and Peter is the only one who goes to check for himself, running to the tomb. After seeing the graveclothes, he goes home, apparently without informing the other disciples.<ref>{{bibleverse|Lk.|24:1–12}}</ref>

In the [[John 21|final chapter]] of the Gospel of John, Peter, in one of the resurrection appearances of Jesus, [[Restoration of Peter|three times affirmed his love for Jesus]], balancing his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirmed Peter's position. The Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the [[Sea of Galilee]] is seen as the traditional site where Jesus Christ appeared to his disciples after his resurrection and, according to Catholic tradition, established Peter's supreme jurisdiction over the Christian church.

=== Leader of the early Church ===
[[File:Liberation of Saint Peter by Giovanni Lanfranco-BMA.jpg|thumb|left|''The Liberation of St. Peter'' from prison by an angel, by [[Giovanni Lanfranco]], 1620–1621]]

Peter was considered along with [[James the Just]] and [[John the Apostle]] as the three  [[Pillars of the Church]].<ref>Galatians 2:9</ref> Legitimised by Jesus' appearance, Peter assumed leadership of the group of early followers, forming the Jerusalem ''ekklēsia'' mentioned by Paul.{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=45}}{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|p=116}} He was soon eclipsed in this leadership by James the Just, "the Brother of the Lord".{{sfn|Pagels|2005|pp=45–46}}{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|pp=116–117}} According to Lüdemann, this was due to the discussions about the [[Paul and Judaism|strictness of adherence]] to the Jewish Law, when the more conservative faction of James the Just<ref>{{Cite journal |title=James the Just in History and Tradition - Perspectives of Past and Present Scholarship (Part I) |journal=Currents in Research |volume=5 |pages=73–122 |last=Myllykoski |first=Matti |publisher=Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, Finland |quote=James the Just, the brother of Jesus, is known from the New Testament as the chief apostle of the Torah-obedient Christians. |doi=10.1177/1476993X06068700 |date=2006 |s2cid=162513014}}</ref> took the overhand over the more liberal position of Peter, who soon lost influence.{{sfn|Lüdemann|Özen|1996|pp=116–117}}{{refn|group=note|At the [[Council of Jerusalem]] ({{circa|50}}), the early Church, Paul and the leaders of the Jerusalem church met and decided to embrace Gentile converts. Acts portrays Peter and other leaders as successfully opposing the Christian Pharisees who insisted on [[circumcision]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |author-link=Stephen L Harris |title=Understanding the Bible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-yAQQAACAAJ |edition=8th |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2010 |page=420 |isbn=978-0-07-340744-9|quote=Christian Pharisees demand that the entire Torah be kept, but Peter reportedly opposes this ([Acts] 15:10) and&nbsp;... silences the Judaizers.}}</ref>}} According to Methodist historian [[James D. G. Dunn]], this was not a "usurpation of power", but a consequence of Peter's involvement in missionary activities.{{sfn|Bockmuehl|2010|p=52}} The early Church historian Eusebius ({{circa|325}}) records [[Clement of Alexandria]] ({{circa|190}}) as saying:
{{blockquote|For they say that Peter and [[James, son of Zebedee|James]] (the Greater) and [[John the Apostle|John]] after the ascension of our Saviour, as if also preferred by our Lord, strove not after honor, but chose [[James the Just]] bishop of Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm |title=Church History Book II, Chapter I, quoting Clement of Alexandria's Sixth book of Hypotyposes |publisher=Newadvent.org |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref>}}

Dunn proposes that Peter was a "bridge-man" between the opposing views of Paul and [[James the Just]] [italics original]:
{{blockquote|For ''Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man'' (pontifex maximus!) ''who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of [[Apostolic Age|first-century Christianity]]''. James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum.|source={{harvnb|Dunn|2001|p=577|loc=Ch. 32}}}}

Paul affirms that Peter had the special charge of being apostle to the Jews, just as he, Paul, was apostle to the Gentiles. Some argue [[James the Just]] was [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|bishop of Jerusalem]] whilst Peter was [[bishop of Rome]] and that this position at times gave James privilege in some (but not all) situations.

=== {{anchor|Rock}}"Rock" dialogue ===<!-- [[Rock of the faith]] redirects here -->
[[File:San Pedro en lágrimas - Murillo.jpg|thumb|''Saint Peter in Tears'' by [[Bartolomé Esteban Murillo]] (1617–1682)]]

In a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples ({{bibleverse||Matthew|16:13–19|NIV}}), Jesus asks, "Who do people say that the [[Son of Man]] is?" The disciples give various answers. When he asks, "Who do ''you'' say that I am?", Simon Peter answers, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God". Jesus then declares:
{{blockquote|Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Cephas (Peter) (''Petros''), and on this rock (''petra'') I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.}}

A common view of Peter is provided by Jesuit Father [[Daniel J. Harrington]], who suggests that Peter was an unlikely symbol of stability. While he was one of the first disciples called and was the spokesman for the group, Peter is also the exemplar of "little faith". In {{Bibleverse|Matthew|14}}, Peter will soon have Jesus say to him, "O you of little faith, why did you doubt?", and he will eventually deny Jesus three times. Thus, in light of the Easter event, Peter became an exemplar of the forgiven sinner.<ref>[[Daniel J. Harrington|Harrington, Daniel J.]], "Peter the Rock", ''America'', 18–25 August 2008, accessed 9 October 2009, p. 30.</ref> Outside the Catholic Church, opinions vary as to the interpretation of this passage with respect to what authority and responsibility, if any, Jesus was giving to Peter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What did Jesus mean when he said, "Upon this rock I will build my church"? |url=https://bible.org/question/what-did-jesus-mean-when-he-said-%E2%80%9Cupon-rock-i-will-build-my-church%E2%80%9D |website=bible.org |access-date=10 February 2015}}</ref>

In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] this passage is interpreted as not implying a special prominence to the person of Peter, but to Peter's position as representative of the Apostles. The word used for "rock" (''petra'') grammatically refers to "a small detachment of the massive ledge",<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rienecker |first1=Fritz |last2=Rogers |first2=Cleon |title=Linguistic key to the Greek New Testament |publisher=Regency Reference Library ([[Zondervan Publishing House]]) |date=1976 |page=49 |isbn=978-0-310-32050-0}}</ref> not to a massive boulder. Thus, Orthodox [[Sacred Tradition]] understands Jesus' words as referring to the apostolic faith.

''Petros'' had not previously been used as a name, but in the Greek-speaking world it became a popular Christian name after the tradition of Peter's prominence in the early Christian church had been established.

=== Apostolic succession ===
{{Main|Apostolic succession}}

The leadership of Peter forms the basis of the Apostolic succession and the institutional power of orthodoxy, as the heirs of Peter,{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=43}} and is described as "the rock" on which the church will be built.{{sfn|Pagels|2005|p=45}}
Catholics refer to him as chief of the Apostles,<ref name=CE>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf212.ii.v.xlii.html |title=Sermon by Leo the Great (440–461) |publisher=ccel.org |date=13 July 2005 |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> as do the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greekorthodox.org.au/downloads/files/english/voo/2005/11VOO05E |title=Archbishop Stylianos of Australia |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-date=7 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107000949/http://www.greekorthodox.org.au/downloads/files/english/voo/2005/11VOO05E}}</ref> and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.syrianchurch.org/PZakka/Jubilee.htm |title=Patriarch H.H. Ignatius Zakka I Iwas |publisher=Syrianchurch.org |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-date=11 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011205211/http://www.syrianchurch.org/pzakka/Jubilee.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://syrianorthodoxchurch.com/pa_identity.htm |title=Syriac Orthodox Church in Canada - Identity of the Church |website=syrianorthodoxchurch.com}}</ref> In Coptic Orthodox Church liturgy, he is once referred to as "prominent" or "head" among the Apostles, a title shared with Paul in the text (''The Fraction of Fast and Feast of the Apostles Peter and Paul in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria''). Some, including the Orthodox Churches, believe this is not the same as saying that the other Apostles were under Peter's orders.

== Antioch and Corinth ==
=== Antioch ===
{{Main|Incident at Antioch}}

According to the Epistle to the Galatians ({{bibleverse-nb|Galatians|2:11}}), Peter went to Antioch where Paul rebuked him for following the conservative line regarding the conversion of Gentiles, having meals separate from Gentiles.{{refn|group=note|Galatians is accepted as authentic by almost all scholars. These may be the earliest mentions of Peter to be written. Eusebius of Caesarea, in his "[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiastica]] (I,12:2)" while naming some of the Seventy Disciples of Jesus, says: "This is the account of Clement, in the fifth book of ''Hypotyposes'' (AD&nbsp;190); in which he also says that Cephas was one of the seventy disciples, a man who bore the same name as the apostle Peter, and the one concerning whom Paul says, [When Cephas came to Antioch I withstood him to his face.]"<ref>{{Cite web |author=Eusebius |title=Church History Book I, Chapter 12:2 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250101.htm |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>
:(ἡ δ᾿ ἱστορία παρὰ Κλήμεντι κατὰ τὴν πέμπτην τῶν Ὑποτυπώσεων· ἐν ᾗ καὶ Κηφᾶν, περὶ οὗ φησιν ὁ Παῦλος· "ὅτε δὲ ἦλθεν Κηφᾶς εἰς Ἀντιόχειαν, κατὰ πρόσωπον αὐτῷ ἀντέστην", ἕνα φησὶ γεγονέναι τῶν ἑβδομήκοντα μαθητῶν, ὁμώνυμον Πέτρῳ τυγχάνοντα τῷ ἀποστόλῳ.)}} Subsequent tradition held that Peter had been the first [[Patriarch of Antioch]]. According to the writings of Origen<ref name="ReferenceC">Origen's homilies on Luke VI, 4. [[Patrologia Graeca]] 13:1814</ref> and Eusebius in his ''Church History (III, 36)'' Peter had founded the church of Antioch.<ref name="Eusebius">{{Cite web |author=Eusebius |title=Church History Book III, Chapter 36 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>

Later accounts expand on the brief biblical mention of his visit to [[Antioch]]. The ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'' (9th century) mentions Peter as having served as bishop of Antioch for seven years and having potentially left his family in the Greek city before his journey to Rome.<ref>Louise Ropes Loomis, The Book of Popes (Liber Pontificalis), Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing, {{ISBN|1-889758-86-8}} (Reprint of the 1916 edition).</ref> Claims of direct blood lineage from Simon Peter among the old population of Antioch existed in the 1st century and continue to exist today, notably by certain [[Semaan]] families of modern-day Syria and Lebanon. Historians have furnished other evidence of Peter's sojourn in Antioch.{{refn|group=note|This is provided in Downey, ''A History of Antioch'', pp. 583–586. This evidence is accepted by M. Lapidge, among others, see Bischoff and Lapidge, ''Biblical Commentaries from the Canterbury School'' (Cambridge, 1994) p. 16. Lastly, see Finegan, ''The Archaeology of the New Testament'', pp. 63–71.}}

The ''[[Clementine literature]]'', a group of related works written in the fourth century but believed to contain materials from earlier centuries, relates information about Peter that may come from earlier traditions. One is that Peter had a group of 12 to 16 followers, whom the Clementine writings name.<ref>''Homilies'', 2.1; ''Recognitions'', 2.1</ref> Another is that it provides an itinerary of Peter's route from [[Caesarea Maritima]] to Antioch, where he debated his adversary [[Simon Magus]]; during this journey he ordained [[Zacchaeus]] as the first bishop of Caesarea and Maro as the first bishop of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripolis]]. Historian Fred Lapham suggests the route recorded in the Clementine writings may have been taken from an earlier document mentioned by [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] in his ''[[Panarion]]'' called "The Itinerary of Peter".<ref>Lapham, ''An Introduction to the New Testament Apocrypha'' (London: T&T Clark International, 2003), p. 76</ref>

=== Corinth ===
Peter may have visited [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], and maybe there existed a party of "Cephas".<ref name="ODCC Peter" /> [[First Corinthians]] suggests that perhaps Peter visited the city of Corinth, located in Greece, during their missions.<ref>{{bibleverse|1Cor.|1:12}}</ref>

[[Dionysius, bishop of Corinth]], in his Epistle to the Roman Church under [[Pope Soter]] (AD&nbsp;165–174), declares that Peter and Paul founded the Church of Rome and the Church of Corinth, and they have lived in Corinth for some time, and finally in Italy where they found death:
{{blockquote|You have thus by such an admonition bound together the planting of Peter and of Paul at Rome and Corinth. For both of them planted and likewise taught us in our Corinth. And they taught together in like manner in Italy, and suffered martyrdom at the same time.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=of Corinth |first1=Dionysius |title=Fragments from a Letter to the Roman Church Chapter III |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/dionysius.html |publisher=earlychristianwritings.com |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>}}

== Connection to Rome ==
[[File:Pope-peter pprubens.jpg|thumb|''Saint Peter'' in papal vestments, by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]]

=== Papacy ===
{{Main|Primacy of Peter}}
[[File:Peter as Pope.png|thumb|upright=0.81|Saint Peter portrayed as a pope in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'']]

The Catholic Church speaks of the pope, the bishop of Rome, as the successor of Saint Peter. This is often interpreted to imply that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. However, it is also said that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/was-peter-in-rome |title=Was Peter in Rome? |date=10 August 2004 |publisher=Catholic Answers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207211426/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/was-peter-in-rome |archive-date=7 December 2013 |access-date=9 November 2014 |quote=If Peter never made it to the capital, he still could have been the first pope, since one of his successors could have been the first holder of that office to settle in Rome. After all, if the papacy exists, it was established by Christ during his lifetime, long before Peter is said to have reached Rome. There must have been a period of some years in which the papacy did not yet have its connection to Rome.}}</ref>

According to book III, chapter 3 of ''[[Against Heresies (Irenaeus)|Against Heresies]]'' (180 AD) by [[Irenaeus|Irenaeus of Lyons]], [[Pope Linus|Linus]] was named as Peter's successor and is recognised by the Catholic church as the second Bishop of Rome (pope), followed by [[Pope Anacletus|Anacletus]], [[Clement of Rome]], [[Pope Evaristus|Evaristus]], [[Pope Alexander I|Alexander]], [[Pope Sixtus I|Sixtus]], [[Pope Telesphorus|Telesphorus]], [[Pope Hyginus|Hyginus]], [[Pope Pius I|Pius]], [[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]], [[Pope Soter|Soter]] and [[Pope Eleutherius|Eleutherius]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=of Lyons |first=Irenaeus |title=CHURCH FATHERS - Against Heresies, III.3 (St. Irenaeus) |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm |access-date=16 January 2023 |website=[[New Advent]]}}</ref>

In his book ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'', [[Eusebius]] notes that Linus succeeded Peter as the bishop of the Church in Rome:<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Roberts |first1=Alexander |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_II/Volume_I/Church_History_of_Eusebius/Book_III/Chapter_4 |title=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II |last2=Donaldson |first2=James |date=1885 |edition=1st |volume=I |at=Church History of Eusebius, Book III, Chapter IV, 10 |language=En |author-link=Alexander Roberts}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=As to the rest of his followers, Paul testifies that Crescens was sent to Gaul; but Linus, whom he mentions in the Second Epistle to Timothy as his companion at Rome, was Peter's successor in the episcopate of the church there, as has already been shown.|author=Eusebius of Caesarea|title=Church History|source=Book III, Chapter 4}}

According to [[Tertullian]]'s book ''Prescription against Heretics'', it is stated that Clement was ordained by Peter as the bishop of Rome:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tertullian |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_III/Anti-Marcion/The_Prescription_Against_Heretics/Chapter_XXXII |title=Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol. III, Anti-Marcion, The Prescription Against Heretics |volume=III}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=...as also the church of Rome, which makes Clement to have been ordained in like manner by Peter.|author=Tertullian|title=Prescription against Heretics|source=Chapter 32}}

[[Pope Clement I|St. Clement]] of Rome identifies Peter and Paul as the outstanding heroes of the faith.<ref name="ODCC Peter" />

=== Coming to Rome ===
==== New Testament accounts ====
There is no obvious biblical evidence that Peter was ever in Rome, but the first epistle of Peter does mention that "The church that is at Babylon, elected together with you, saluteth you; and so doth Marcus my son."<ref name="bibleverse|1 Peter|5:13">{{bibleverse|1 Peter|5:13}}</ref> Most scholars agree that the city alluded to in this verse is Rome, for which Babylon was a common nickname in Jewish and Christian literature at the time, albeit mostly after the destruction of the Temple in 70 AD (after Peter's death).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Talking God in Society - Multidisciplinary (Re)constructions of Ancient (Con)texts. Festschrift for Peter Lampe. Vol. 1: Theories and Applications |last=Cook |first=John G. |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |date=2021 |isbn=978-3-647-57317-5 |editor-last=Eisen |editor-first=Ute E. |page=741 |chapter=The Tradition of Peter's Crucifixion |editor-last2=Mader |editor-first2=Heidrun Elisabeth |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqTkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA741}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=1 Peter: A Commentary |last=Keener |first=Craig S. |publisher=Baker Academic |date=2021 |isbn=978-1-4934-2931-8 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5YwEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP61}}</ref><ref name="HoWi">{{Cite book |title=1 Peter: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary: Volume 1: Chapters 1-2 |last1=Horrell |first1=David G. |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |date=2023 |isbn=978-0-567-70998-1 |pages=192–194 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3bWmEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA192 |last2=Williams |first2=Travis B.}}</ref>

Paul's [[Epistle to the Romans]], written about AD 57,<ref name="Franzen, p.26">Franzen, ''A Concise History of the Church''. p. 16</ref> greets some fifty people in Rome by name,<ref name="bibleverse||Romans|16">{{bibleverse||Romans|16}}</ref> but not Peter [[Incident at Antioch|whom he knew]]. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in Acts 28, about AD 60–62. With regards to the latter, Acts 28 does not specifically mention any of Paul's visitors.

==== Church Fathers ====
The writings of the 1st century Church Father [[Ignatius of Antioch]] ({{circa|35|107}}) refer to Peter and Paul giving admonitions to the Romans, indicating Peter's presence in Rome.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Ignatius of Antioch |title=The Epistle of Ignatius to the Romans |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0107.htm |website=newadvent.org |access-date=15 August 2016}}</ref>

[[Irenaeus|Irenaeus of Lyons]] ({{circa|130|202}}) wrote in the [[Christianity in the 2nd century|2nd century]] that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed [[Pope Linus|Linus]] as succeeding bishop.<ref name="3.2" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html |title=Philip Schaff: ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus - Christian Classics Ethereal Library |website=ccel.org}}</ref>

[[Clement of Alexandria]] ({{circa|150|215}}) states that "Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome ''(AD&nbsp;190)''".<ref name="CL">{{Cite web |author=Eusebius of Caesarea |title=Church History Book VI, Chapter 14:6 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>

According to [[Origen]] (184–253)<ref name="ReferenceC"/> and [[Eusebius]],<ref name="Eusebius"/> Peter "after having first founded the church at Antioch, went away to Rome preaching the Gospel, and he also, after [presiding over] the church in Antioch, presided over that of Rome until his death".<ref>Eusebius, in his Chronicle (AD&nbsp;303) ''[Chronicle, 44&nbsp;AD [[Patrologia Graeca]] 19:539]''.</ref> After presiding over the church in Antioch for a while, Peter would have been succeeded by [[Evodius]]<ref>{{Cite web |author=Eusebius |title=Church History Book III Chapter 36:2 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm |publisher=newadvent.org |access-date=5 June 2015}}</ref> and thereafter by [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]], who was a disciple of [[John the Apostle]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=Eusebius |title=Church History Book III Chapter 22 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm |publisher=newadvent.org |access-date=5 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Lactantius]], in his book called ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died'', written around 318, noted that "and while Nero reigned, the Apostle Peter came to Rome, and, through the power of God committed unto him, wrought certain miracles, and, by turning many to the true religion, built up a faithful and stedfast temple unto the Lord."<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lucius Caecilius Firmianus |first1=Lactantius |title=Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died Chapter 2 |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.iii.v.ii.html |publisher=ccel.org |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>

==== Simon Magus ====
[[Eusebius]] of Caesarea (260/265 – 339/340) relates that when Peter confronts [[Simon Magus]] at Judea (mentioned in Acts 8), Simon Magus flees to Rome, where the Romans began to regard him as a god. According to Eusebius, his luck did not last long, since God sent Peter to Rome, and Simon was quenched and immediately destroyed.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Eusebius |title=Church History Book II, Chapter 14–15 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>

According to [[Jerome]] (327–420): "Peter went to Rome in the second year of Claudius to overthrow Simon Magus, and held the sacerdotal chair there for twenty-five years until the last, that is the fourteenth, year of Nero."<ref name="Jerome1" />

An apocryphal work, the ''Actus Vercellenses'' (7th century), a Latin text preserved in only one manuscript copy published widely in translation under the title Acts of Peter, sets Peter's confrontation with Simon Magus in Rome.<ref>Lapham, ''Introduction'', p. 72</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspeter.html |title=The Acts of Peter |website=earlychristianwritings.com}}</ref>

=== Death and burial ===
==== Crucifixion at Rome ====
[[File:Domine, quo vadis.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Domine quo vadis?]]'' (1602) by [[Annibale Carracci]]]]
[[File:Crucifixion of Saint Peter-Caravaggio (c.1600).jpg|thumb|upright|left|''[[Crucifixion of Saint Peter (Caravaggio)|The Crucifixion of Saint Peter]]'' (1601) by [[Caravaggio]]]]

In the epilogue<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |author-link=Stephen L. Harris |title=Understanding the Bible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-yAQQAACAAJ |edition=8th |publisher=McGraw-Hill |date=2010 |page=381 |isbn=978-0-07-340744-9 |quote=[John's] Gospel is commonly divided into a prologue (1:1–51); a Book of Signs [...] (2:1–11:57); the Book of Glory [...] (12:1–20:31); and an epilogue (21:1–25).}}</ref> of the Gospel of John, Jesus is presented as hinting at Peter's death: "But when you grow old, you will stretch out your hands, and someone else will fasten a belt around you and take you where you do not wish to go."<ref>{{bibleverse|Jn.|21:18–19}}</ref> This is interpreted by some as a reference to Peter's crucifixion.<ref name="May Metzger" /> Unitarian theologian Donald Fay Robinson has suggested that the incident in [[Acts 12]]:1–17,<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|12:1–17|NKJV}}</ref> where Peter is "released by an angel" and goes to "another place", really represents an idealised account of his death, which may have occurred in a Jerusalem prison as early as AD 44.<ref>Robinson, D. F., 'Where and When did Peter die?', ''[[Journal of Biblical Literature]]'' Vol. 64 (1945), supported by Smaltz, W. M., Did Peter die in Jerusalem?, ''[[Journal of Biblical Literature]]'' Vol. 71, No. 4 (December 1952), pp. 211–216. Accessed 31 August 2015.</ref>

Early Church tradition says that Peter died by [[crucifixion]] (with arms outstretched) at the time of the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in the year 64. This probably took place three months after the disastrous fire that destroyed Rome for which the emperor [[Nero]] wished to blame the Christians. This "{{lang|la|dies imperii}}" (regnal day anniversary) was an important one, exactly ten years after Nero ascended to the throne, and it was "as usual" accompanied by much bloodshed. Traditionally, [[Roman Empire|Roman]] authorities sentenced him to death by [[crucifixion]] at [[Vatican Hill]].<ref name="newadvent"/> In accordance with the [[apocryphal]] [[Acts of Peter]], he was [[Cross of Saint Peter|crucified head down]].<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspeter.html Apocryphal ''Acts of Peter Chapter 37''] {{Webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20200108220758/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspeter.html |date=8 January 2020}}.</ref> Tradition also locates his burial place where the [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica of Saint Peter]] was later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar.

[[Pope Clement I]] (d. 99), in his ''Letter to the Corinthians'' (Chapter 5), written {{circa|80–98}}, speaks of Peter's martyrdom in the following terms: "Let us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted and came even unto death. [...] Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him".<ref>{{Cite web |author=Clement of Rome |title=The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-hoole.html |publisher=earlychristianwritings.com |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>

The apocryphal Acts of Peter (2nd cent.) ([[Vercelli manuscript|Vercelli]] Acts XXXV)<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspeter.html The Acts of Peter] {{Webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20200108220758/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspeter.html |date=8 January 2020}}, by M. R. James</ref> is the source for the tradition about the famous Latin phrase "[[Quo vadis?|Quo vadis, Domine?]]" (in Greek: {{Lang|grc|Κύριε, ποῦ ὑπάγεις "Kyrie, pou hypageis?"}}), which means "Where are you going, Lord?". According to the story, Peter, fleeing Rome to avoid execution meets the risen Jesus. In the Latin translation, Peter asks Jesus, "Quo vadis?" He replies, "''Romam eo iterum crucifigi"'' ("I am going to Rome to be crucified again"). Peter then gains the courage to continue his ministry and returns to the city, where he is martyred. This story is commemorated in an [[Annibale Carracci]] painting. The [[Quo Vadis (church)|Church of Quo Vadis]], near the [[Catacombs]] of [[Pope Callistus I|Saint Callistus]], contains a stone in which Jesus' footprints from this event are supposedly preserved, though this was apparently an ''[[ex-voto]]'' from a [[pilgrim]], and indeed a copy of the original housed in the [[San Sebastiano fuori le mura|Basilica of St Sebastian]].

The death of Peter is attested to by [[Tertullian]] ({{circa|155|240}}) at the end of the 2nd century in his ''Prescription Against Heretics'', noting that Peter endured a passion like his Lord's: "How happy is that church [...] where Peter endured a passion like that of the Lord, where Paul was crowned in a death like John's".<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Quintus Septimius Florens |first1=Tertullian |title=Prescription Against Heretics Chapter XXXVI |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.iii.xxxvi.html |publisher=ccel.org |access-date=1 June 2015 |quote=Since, moreover, you are close upon Italy, you have '''Rome''', from which there comes even into our own hands the very authority (of apostles themselves). How happy is its church, on which apostles poured forth all their doctrine along with their blood; '''where Peter endures a passion like his Lord's'''; where Paul wins his crown in a death like John's [the Baptist]; where the Apostle John was first plunged, unhurt, into boiling oil, and thence remitted to his island-exile.}}</ref> The statement implies that Peter was killed like Jesus (by crucifixion) and Paul was killed like John (by beheading). It gives the impression that Peter also died in Rome since Paul also died there.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Was Peter in Rome? |url=https://www.catholic.com/tract/was-peter-in-rome |access-date=14 January 2023 |website=Catholic Answers}}</ref> In his work ''Scorpiace 15'', he also speaks of Peter's crucifixion: "The budding faith Nero first made bloody in Rome. There Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the cross."<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Quintus Septimius Florens |first1=Tertullian |title=Scorpiace Chapter 15 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0318.htm |publisher=newadvent.org |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Origen]] (184–253) in his ''Commentary on the Book of Genesis III'', quoted by [[Eusebius]] in his ''[[Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]] (III, 1)'', said: "Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=of Caesarea |first1=Eusebius |title=Church History, Book III Chapter 1 (Eusebius) |publisher=newadvent.org |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm |access-date=9 May 2022}}</ref> The [[Cross of St. Peter]] inverts the [[Crux immissa|Latin cross]] based on this refusal, and on his claim of being unworthy to die the same way as his Saviour.<ref>Granger Ryan & Helmut Ripperger, ''The Golden Legend Of Jacobus De Voragine Part One'', 1941.</ref>

[[Pope Peter I of Alexandria|Peter of Alexandria]] (d. 311), who was [[bishop of Alexandria]] and died around AD 311, wrote an epistle ''on Penance'', in which he says: "Peter, the first of the apostles, having been often apprehended and thrown into prison, and treated with ignominy, was last of all crucified at Rome."<ref>{{Cite web |last1=of Alexandria |first1=Peter |title=Canonical Epistle on Penitence Canon 9 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0620.htm |publisher=newadvent.org |access-date=3 June 2015}}</ref>

[[Jerome]] (327–420) wrote that "at Nero's hands Peter received the crown of martyrdom being nailed to the cross with his head towards the ground and his feet raised on high, asserting that he was unworthy to be crucified in the same manner as his Lord".<ref name="Jerome1" />

According to Jerome and Eusebius, Peter died in the year AD 67–68, twenty-five years after his arrival in Rome in AD 42.<ref name="Jerome1" /><ref>[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Chronicon]], [https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm AD 42, AD 68]. "Peter the Apostle, by nation a Galilean, first high priest of the Christians, after he had been the first to found a church at Antioch, proceeded to Rome, where as bishop of the same city he remains, preaching the gospel for 25 years".</ref> Some modern scholars argue for a date between the years AD 64–68.<ref name="newadvent" /> The [[Liber Pontificalis]] also gives him a tenure of 25 years, and adds that he died in the 38th year after the death of Jesus, which, reckoning from AD 30, also gives AD 67–68. However, it also explicitly states that [[Pope Linus]] succeeded him in the year AD 56, which is the result of mixing two contradictory traditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/liberpontificalis1.html |title=Liber Pontificalis |website=thelatinlibrary.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Loomis |first=Louise Ropes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1KMTRsvPGUC&pg=PA6 |title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis) |date=2006 |publisher=Arx Publishing |isbn=978-1-889758-86-2 |pages=4–6 |orig-date=1917}}</ref>

In a 2025 paper, one scholar suggests that Paul and Peter's deaths may have been due to intra-community violence.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/2222582X.2024.2366764?needAccess=true |title=Murder Among Brothers: The Deaths of Peter and Paul Reconsidered |last=Hansen |first=Chrissy M. |journal=Journal of Early Christian History |date=2024 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=78–94 |doi=10.1080/2222582X.2024.2366764|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Burial ====
[[File:SaintPeterRelic.jpg|thumb|Looking down into the ''[[crypt|confessio]]'' near the tomb of Apostle Peter, [[St. Peter's Basilica]], [[Rome]]]]
[[File:PonteSantAngeloRom.jpg|thumb|[[St. Peter's Basilica]], believed to be the [[Saint Peter's tomb|burial site of St. Peter]], seen from the [[River Tiber]]]]

Catholic tradition holds that Peter's inverted crucifixion occurred in the gardens of Nero, with the burial in [[Saint Peter's tomb]] nearby.<ref>{{Cite video |people=Vatican Cardinal Angelo Comastri (interviewee) |date=2011 |title=Secret Access - The Vatican |medium=Video |language=en, it |publisher=A&E Studio Entertainment |location=Vatican City, Rome, Italy |time=94 minutes |quote=This is the holiest site in the Basilica, where the Apostle Peter was crucified and his blood shed to the ground}}</ref>

[[Caius (presbyter)|Caius]] in his ''Disputation Against Proclus'' (AD&nbsp;198), preserved in part by Eusebius, relates this of the places in which the remains of the apostles Peter and Paul were deposited: "I can point out the trophies of the apostles. For if you are willing to go to the ''[[Vatican Hill|Vatican]]'' or to the [[Via Ostiensis|Ostian Way]], you will find the trophies of those who founded this Church."<ref>{{Cite web |last1=presbyter |first1=Caius (Gaius) |title=Dialogue or Disputation Against Proclus (AD&nbsp;198) in Eusebius, Church History Book II Chapter 25:6–7 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm |publisher=newadvent.org |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref>

According to [[Jerome]], in his work ''[[De Viris Illustribus (Jerome)|De Viris Illustribus]]'' (AD&nbsp;392), "Peter was buried at Rome in the Vatican near the triumphal way where he is venerated by the whole world."<ref name="Jerome1">{{Cite web |last1=Saint |first1=Jerome |title=De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men) Chapter 1 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm |publisher=newadvent.org |access-date=5 June 2015}}</ref> The [[Liber Pontificalis]] states that he was buried on 29 June<ref name=":0" /> (the corrupted [[Liberian Catalogue]] gives it as the date of his death).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chronography_of_354_13_bishops_of_rome.htm |title=The Chronography of 354 AD - Part 13: Bishops of Rome (The Liberian Catalogue), MGH Chronica Minora I (1892), pp. 73-76 |website=tertullian.org}}</ref> Some authors have argued that the date was deliberately chosen to replace an old Roman festival, but this seems unlikely.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eastman |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NswF2j8IISMC&pg=PA23 |title=Paul the Martyr - The Cult of the Apostle in the Latin West |date=2011 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-515-3 |page=23 |quote=Scholars generally viewed June 29 as a purely liturgical date.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Eastman |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ENqUDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 |title=The Many Deaths of Peter and Paul |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-107993-1 |page=69}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Salzman |first1=Michele Renee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LtnECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA332 |title=Pagans and Christians in Late Antique Rome |last2=Sághy |first2=Marianne |last3=Testa |first3=Rita Lizzi |date=2016 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-11030-4 |pages=330–335}}</ref>

In the early 4th century, the [[Emperor Constantine I]] decided to honour Peter with [[Old St. Peter's Basilica|a large basilica]].<ref name=CathEncy>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13374a.htm |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA - Tomb of St. Peter |website=newadvent.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pope/hd_pope.htm |title=The Papacy and the Vatican Palace &#124; Essay &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |first=Authors: Department of European |last=Paintings |website=The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History|date=October 2002 }}</ref> Because the precise location of Peter's burial was so firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians of Rome, the church to house the basilica had to be erected on a site that was not convenient to construction. The slope of the [[Vatican Hill]] had to be excavated, even though the church could much more easily have been built on level ground only slightly to the south.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Partner |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZ6eJuZfTAEC&q=saint+peter+rome+846+desecrating&pg=PA57 |title=The Lands of St. Peter - The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance |date=1972 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-02181-5 |language=en}}</ref> There were also moral and legal issues, such as demolishing a cemetery to make room for the building. The focal point of the Basilica, both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar located over what is said to be the point of Peter's burial.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Suzanne |first=Boorsch |title=The Building of the Vatican - The Papacy and Architecture": The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 40, no. 3 (Winter, 1982–1983) |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/the_building_of_the_vatican_the_papacy_and_architecture_the_metropolitan_museum_of_art_bulletin_v_40_no_3_winter_1982_1983 |access-date=14 January 2023 |website=metmuseum.org}}</ref>

==== Relics ====
According to a letter quoted by [[Bede]], [[Pope Vitalian]] sent a cross containing filings said to be from Peter's chains to the queen of [[Oswy]], [[Anglo-Saxon]] King of [[Northumbria]] in 665, as well as unspecified relics of the saint to the king.<ref name="Wall">Wall, J. Charles; (1912), ''Porches and Fonts'', Pub. London: Wells Gardner and Darton, p. 295; {{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book3.html |title=Venerable Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum: The Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Book III, Chapter 29 |publisher=Fordham.edu |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> The skull of Saint Peter is claimed to reside in the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]] since at least the ninth century, alongside the skull of Saint Paul.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cuming |first=H. Syer |title=Notes on a group of reliquaries |journal=Journal of the British Archaeological Association |date=December 1870 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDAGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA272}}</ref>

In 1950, human bones were found buried underneath the altar of St. Peter's Basilica. The bones have been claimed by many to have been those of Peter.<ref>Walsh, ''The Bones of St. Peter: A 1st Full Account of the Search for the Apostle's Body''</ref> An attempt to contradict these claims was made in 1953 by the excavation of what some believe to be [[Dominus Flevit Church|Saint Peter's tomb]] in Jerusalem.<ref>Finegan, ''The Archeology of the New Testament'', pp. 368–370.</ref> However along with this supposed tomb in Jerusalem bearing his previous name Simon (but not Peter), tombs bearing the names of Jesus, Mary, James, John, and the rest of the apostles were also found at the same excavation—though all these names were very common among Jews at the time.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://lonelypilgrim.com/2013/11/25/on-the-so-called-jerusalem-tomb-of-st-peter/ | title=On the so-called "Jerusalem Tomb of St. Peter" | date=25 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://jamestabor.com/was-simon-peter-buried-in-jerusalem/ | title=Was Simon Peter Buried in Jerusalem? | date=29 November 2017 }}</ref>

In the 1960s, items from the excavations beneath [[St Peter's Basilica]] were re-examined, and the bones were identified as male. A forensic examination found them to be a male of about 61 years of age from the 1st century. This caused [[Pope Paul VI]] in 1968 to announce them most likely to be the relics of Apostle Peter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Necropolis/JW/TheBonesofStPeter-1.htm |title=The Bones of St. Peter |publisher=Saintpetersbasilica.org |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> On 24 November 2013, [[Pope Francis]] presented part of the relics, consisting of bone fragments, for the first time in public during a Mass celebrated in St. Peter's Square.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/24/vatican-st-peters-bones-display-pope-francis
|agency=Associated Press |title=Vatican displays Saint Peter's bones for the first time |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=24 November 2013 |access-date=24 November 2013}}</ref> On 2 July 2019, it was announced that Pope Francis had transferred nine of these bone fragments within a bronze reliquary to Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch [[Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople|Bartholomew of Constantinople]].<ref name=braveandbold>{{Cite news |url=https://cruxnow.com/vatican/2019/07/02/pope-gives-relics-of-st-peter-to-orthodox-patriarch/ |title=Pope gives relics of St. Peter to Orthodox patriarch |author=Cindy Wooden |publisher=[[Catholic News Service]] |date=2 July 2019 |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=25 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025194659/https://cruxnow.com/vatican/2019/07/02/pope-gives-relics-of-st-peter-to-orthodox-patriarch/}}</ref> Bartholomew, who serves as head of the Eastern Orthodox Christian church, described the gesture as "brave and bold".<ref name=braveandbold /> [[Pope Francis]] has said his decision was born "out of prayer" and intended as a sign of the ongoing work towards communion between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brockhaus |first=Hannah |title=Pope Francis explains decision to give relics of St. Peter to Orthodox |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/42253/pope-francis-explains-decision-to-give-relics-of-st-peter-to-orthodox |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[Catholic News Agency]] |language=en}}</ref> The majority of Saint Peter's remains, however, are still preserved in Rome, under the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 July 2019 |title=The inexplicable transfer of St Peter's relics to Constantinople |url=https://catholicherald.co.uk/the-inexplicable-transfer-of-st-peters-relics-to-constantinople/ |access-date=27 March 2021 |website=[[Catholic Herald]] |language=en}}</ref>

==== Scholarly views ====
[[File:Domenico Fetti 007.jpg|thumb|''[[Peter's vision of a sheet with animals]]'', [[Domenico Fetti]], 1619]]

Some church historians consider Peter and Paul to have been [[martyr]]ed under the reign of Nero,<ref name="ODCC self"/><ref name="St-Paul-Outside-the-Walls homepage"/> around AD 65 after the Great Fire of Rome.{{refn|group=note|name=historians}}<ref name="Wylen, pp.190-192"/><ref name="Dunn, pp. 33-34"/> Currently, most Catholic scholars,<ref>"most scholars, both Catholic and Protestant, concur that Peter died in Rome" Keener, Craig S., [https://books.google.com/books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary], p. 425, n. 74, 2009 Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company</ref> and many scholars in general,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Saint Peter the Apostle |date=2013 |author=O'Connor, Daniel William |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/453832/Saint-Peter-the-Apostle/5632/Tradition-of-Peter-in-Rome |page=5 |access-date=12 April 2013 |quote=[M]any scholars… accept Rome as the location of the martyrdom and the reign of Nero as the time.}}</ref> hold the view that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero.{{refn|group=note|[[Margherita Guarducci]], who led the research leading to the rediscovery of Peter's reputed tomb in its last stages (1963–1968), concludes Peter died on 13 October AD 64 during the festivities on the occasion of the ''dies imperii'' of Emperor Nero.<ref>Rainer Riesner, ''Paul's Early Period: Chronology, Mission Strategy, Theology'' (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1998) p. 65</ref>}}

While accepting that Peter came to Rome and was martyred there, there is no historical evidence that he held episcopal office there.<ref name=BrownMeier>{{Cite book |title=Antioch and Rome - New Testament Cradles of Christianity |publisher=Paulist Press |date=1983 |page=98 |quote=As for Peter, we have no knowledge at all of when he came to Rome and what he did there before he was martyred. |author1=Brown, Raymond E. |author2=Meier, John P. |name-list-style=amp |isbn=978-0-8091-0339-3}}</ref><ref name=Cullman>{{Cite book |first=Oscar |last=Cullmann |title=Peter - Disciple, Apostle, Martyr, 2nd ed. |publisher=Westminster Press |date=1962 |page=234 |quote=From the second half of the second century we do possess texts that mention the apostolic foundation of Rome, and at this time, which is indeed rather late, this foundation is traced back to Peter and Paul, an assertion that cannot be supported historically. Even here, however, nothing is said as yet of an episcopal office of Peter.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=Henry |last=Chadwick |title=The Early Church, rev. ed. |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |date=1993 |page=18 |quote=No doubt Peter's presence in Rome in the sixties must indicate a concern for Gentile Christianity, but we have no information whatever about his activity or the length of his stay there. That he was in Rome for twenty-five years is third-century legend.}}</ref><ref>J.N.D. Kelly, ''Oxford Dictionary of the Popes'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 1996), p. 6. "Ignatius assumed that Peter and Paul wielded special authority over the Roman church, while Irenaeus claimed that they jointly founded it and inaugurated its succession of bishops. Nothing, however, is known of their constitutional roles, least of all Peter's as presumed leader of the community."</ref><ref>''Building Unity'', Ecumenical Documents IV ([[Paulist Fathers|Paulist Press]], 1989), p. 130. "There is increasing agreement that Peter went to Rome and was martyred there, but we have no trustworthy evidence that Peter ever served as the supervisor or bishop of the local church in Rome."</ref> According to two studies published by the German philologist {{Interlanguage link|Otto Zwierlein|de}} in 2009<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4V222SlC4oC&q=Zwierlein+Petrus+Gruyter&pg=PP1 |title=Petrus in Rom |first=Otto |last=Zwierlein |date=20 February 2010 |publisher=[[De Gruyter|Walter de Gruyter]] |via=Google Books |isbn=978-3-11-024058-0}}</ref> and 2013 respectively,<ref>Zwierlein, Otto: ''Petrus und Paulus in Jerusalem und Rom. Vom Neuen Testament zu den apokryphen Apostelakten''. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2013. {{ISBN|978-3-11-030331-5}}.</ref> "there is not a single piece of reliable literary evidence (and no archaeological evidence either) that Peter ever was in Rome."<ref name="Zwierlein review">[[Pieter Willem van der Horst]], review of Otto Zwierlein, ''Petrus in Rom: die literarischen Zeugnisse. Mit einer kritischen Edition der Martyrien des Petrus und Paulus auf neuer handschriftlicher Grundlage'', Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009, in ''[[Bryn Mawr Classical Review]]'' [http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010-03-25.html 2010.03.25] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505161124/http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010-03-25.html |date=5 May 2010}}.</ref><ref>[[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]], review of Zwierlein 2009, in ''[[Review of Biblical Literature]]'' [http://www.bookreviews.org/bookdetail.asp?TitleId=7189 2010] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725092129/http://www.bookreviews.org/bookdetail.asp?TitleId=7189 |date=25 July 2011}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|Zwierlein's thesis has caused debate.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBPGDQAAQBAJ&q=Siecienski+Zwierlein&pg=PA48 |title=The Papacy and the Orthodox: Sources and History of a Debate |first=A. Edward |last=Siecienski |date=20 February 2017 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-19-024525-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://subscribe.vision.org/first-followers/bid/41962/Petrus-im-Rom-or-Peter-in-Rome-revisited |title="Petrus im Rom" or Peter in Rome revisited |first=Staff |last=Bloggers |access-date=9 June 2017 |archive-date=20 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120102549/http://subscribe.vision.org/first-followers/bid/41962/Petrus-im-Rom-or-Peter-in-Rome-revisited}}</ref> Zwierlein has made a summary of his view available online in English.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.philologie.uni-bonn.de/philologie/personal/zwierlein/st_peter_in_rome.pdf |title=Has St. Peter ever been in Rome?|access-date=2 November 2013 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306171055/https://www.philologie.uni-bonn.de/philologie/personal/zwierlein/st_peter_in_rome.pdf}}</ref> An edited volume in German was also written in rebuttal against Otto Zwierlein's views.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://rosetta.reltech.org/TC/v17/TC-2012-Rev-Heid-Bockmuehl.pdf |title=Review of ''Petrus und Paulus in Rom''.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://jesusmemoirs.wordpress.com/2017/06/19/otto-zwierlein/ |title=Otto Zwierlein on the Traditions about Peter in Rome |first=Michael J. |last=Kok |date=19 June 2017}}</ref>}} [[Timothy Barnes (classicist)|Timothy Barnes]] has criticised Zwierlein's views as "a nadir in historical criticism".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Peter in Early Christianity |last=Barnes |first=Timothy D. |publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]] |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-8028-7171-8 |editor-last=Bond |editor-first=Helen K. |page=86 |chapter="Another Shall Gird Thee" - Probative Evidence for the Death of Peter |editor-last2=Hurtado |editor-first2=Larry W. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DabDCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA86}}</ref>

[[First Letter of Clement|Clement of Rome's First Letter]], a document that has been dated from the 90s to the 120s, is one of the earliest sources adduced in support of Peter's stay in Rome, but Zwierlein questions the text's authenticity and whether it has any knowledge about Peter's life beyond what is contained in the New Testament [[Acts of the Apostles]].<ref name="Zwierlein review"/> The letter also does not mention any particular place, only saying: "Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labours and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him" (ch. 5).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.scripturecatholic.com/the-primacy-of-peter/ |title=The Primacy of Peter |date=7 August 2017}}</ref>

A letter to the Romans attributed to [[Ignatius of Antioch]] might imply that Peter and Paul had special authority over the Roman church,<ref name="ODCC Peter" /> telling the Roman Christians: "I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did" (ch. 4), although Zwierlein says he could be simply referring to the Epistles of the Apostles, or their mission work in the city, not a special authority given or bestowed. Zwierlein questions the authenticity of this document and its traditional dating to {{circa|105|110}}, saying it may date from the final decades of the 2nd century instead of from the beginning.<ref name="Zwierlein review"/>

The ancient historian [[Josephus]] describes how Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Flavius |first1=Josephus |title=Jewish War, Book V Chapter 11 |url=http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/war-5.htm |publisher=ccel.org |access-date=1 June 2015}}</ref> and it is likely that this would have been known to the author of the ''Acts of Peter''. The position attributed to Peter's crucifixion is thus plausible, either as having happened historically or as being an invention by the author of the ''Acts of Peter''. Death, after crucifixion head down, is unlikely to be caused by [[suffocation]], the usual "cause of death in ordinary crucifixion".<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=V8IjAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA350 The Holy Bible, according to the authorized version (AD&nbsp;1611)] – [[Frederic Charles Cook]] – J. Murray (1881) p. 350.</ref>

==== Rome as Babylon ====
Church tradition ascribes the epistles [[First Epistle of Peter|First]] and [[Second Epistle of Peter|Second Peter]] to the Apostle Peter, as does the text of Second Peter itself, an attribution rejected by scholarship. First Peter<ref name="bibleverse|1 Peter|5:13"/> says the author is in "Babylon", which has been held to be a coded reference to Rome.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |author-link=Stephen L. Harris |title=Understanding the Bible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-yAQQAACAAJ |edition=8th |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |date=2010 |page=477 |isbn=978-0-07-340744-9 |quote="Babylon" became the Christian code name for Rome after Titus destroyed Jerusalem, thus duplicating the Babylonians' demolition of the holy city (587 BCE).}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KuauhZijcb4C&pg=PA69 |title=Knowing the End From the Beginning |isbn=978-0-567-08462-0 |last1=Grabbe |first1=Lester L. |last2=Haak |first2=Robert D. |date=2003 |publisher=[[A & C Black]] |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4vUkZpLbOooC&pg=PA41 |title=The First Letter of Peter |via=google.ca |isbn=978-1-60258-024-4 |last1=Feldmeier |first1=Reinhard |date=2008 |publisher=[[Baylor University Press]]}}</ref> Early Church tradition reports that Peter wrote from Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea states:
{{blockquote|[[Clement of Alexandria]] in the sixth [book] of the Hypotyposeis cites the story, and the bishop of Hierapolis named [[Papias of Hierapolis|Papias]] joins him in testifying that Peter mentions Mark in the first epistle, which they say he composed in Rome herself, and that he indicates this, calling the city more figuratively Babylon by these: "She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you greetings and so does my son Mark. (1 Pet 5:13)"<ref>{{Cite web |author=Eusebius |title=Church History Book II Chapter 15:2 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm |publisher=hypotyposeis.org & newadvent.org |access-date=4 June 2015}}</ref>}}

If the reference is to Rome, it is the only biblical reference to Peter being there. Many scholars regard both First and Second Peter as not having been authored by him, partly because other parts of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] seem to describe Peter as an illiterate fisherman.<ref name="Martin 2009"/><ref>Brown, Raymond E., ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gk_uAAAAMAAJ Introduction to the New Testament]'', Anchor Bible, 1997, {{ISBN|0-385-24767-2}}. p. 767 "the pseudonymity of II Pet is more certain than that of any other NT work".</ref>

Most Biblical scholars<ref name="HoWi" /><ref>
* [[L. Michael White]], [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/revelation/white.html Understanding the Book of Revelation] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228151125/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/revelation/white.html |date=28 December 2017}}, [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]
* [[Helmut Köster]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=qWflda5Erq4C&pg=PA260 Introduction to the New Testament, Volume 2], 260
* [[Pheme Perkins]], First and Second Peter, James, and Jude, 16
* Watson E. Mills, Mercer Commentary on the New Testament, 1340
* Nancy McDarby, [https://books.google.com/books?id=i962jBEOJVYC&pg=PA349 The Collegeville Bible Handbook] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162623/https://books.google.com/books?id=i962jBEOJVYC&pg=PA349 |date=22 December 2022}}, 349
* Carol L. Meyers, Toni Craven, Ross Shepard Kraemer [Women in scripture: a dictionary of named and unnamed women in the Hebrew Bible] p. 528
* David M. Carr, Colleen M. Conway, [https://books.google.com/books?id=dJerjvlxCHsC&pg=PA353AN Introduction to the Bible: Sacred Texts and Imperial Contexts] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162619/https://books.google.com/books?id=dJerjvlxCHsC&pg=PA353An |date=22 December 2022}}, 353
* Larry Joseph Kreitzer [https://books.google.com/books?id=VNQlTGRm-bEC&pg=PA61 Gospel images in fiction and film: on reversing the hermeneutical flow] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162610/https://books.google.com/books?id=VNQlTGRm-bEC&pg=PA61 |date=22 December 2022}}, 61
* By Mary Beard, John A. North, S. R. F. Price [https://books.google.com/books?id=2rtaTFYuM3QC&pg=PA283 Religions of Rome: A history] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162613/https://books.google.com/books?id=2rtaTFYuM3QC&pg=PA283 |date=22 December 2022}},
* David M. Rhoads, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4rGPq4fKncIC&pg=PA174 From every people and nation: the book of Revelation in intercultural perspective] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162614/https://books.google.com/books?id=4rGPq4fKncIC&pg=PA174 |date=22 December 2022}}, 174
* Charles T. Chapman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=qPAiFCpfNUEC&pg=PA114 The message of the book of Revelation] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162615/https://books.google.com/books?id=qPAiFCpfNUEC&pg=PA114 |date=22 December 2022}}, 114
* Norman Cheadle, [https://books.google.com/books?id=u0Pxziu43BUC&pg=PA36 The ironic apocalypse in the novels of Leopoldo Marechal] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222162620/https://books.google.com/books?id=u0Pxziu43BUC&pg=PA36 |date=22 December 2022}}, 36
* Peter M. J. Stravinskas, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ihHMmu2_NFkC&pg=PA18 The Catholic answer book, Volume 1], 18
* Catherine Keller, God and power: counter-apocalyptic journeys, 59
* Brian K. Blount, Revelation: A Commentary, 346
* Frances Carey, The Apocalypse and the shape of things to come, 138
* Richard Dellamora, Postmodern apocalypse: theory and cultural practice at the end, 117
* A. N. Wilson, Paul: The Mind of the Apostle, 11
* Gerd Theissen, John Bowden, Fortress introduction to the New Testament, 166</ref> believe that "Babylon" is a metaphor for the pagan [[Roman Empire]] at the time it persecuted Christians, before the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313: perhaps specifically referencing some aspect of Rome's rule (brutality, greed, [[paganism]]). Although most scholars recognise that Babylon is a metaphor for Rome, some also claim that Babylon represents more than the Roman city of the first century. According to Lutheran scholar on Revelation Craig R. Koester "the whore [of Babylon] is Rome, yet more than Rome".<ref>Craig R. Koester, ''Revelation'', Anchor Yale Bible 38A (New Haven, CT, [[Yale University Press]], 2014), 684.</ref> It "is the Roman imperial world, which in turn represents the world alienated from God".<ref>Craig R. Koester, ''Revelation'', Anchor Yale Bible 38A (New Haven, CT, [[Yale University Press]], 2014), 506.</ref>

At that time in history, the ancient city of Babylon was no longer of any importance. E.g., [[Strabo]] wrote, "The greater part of Babylon is so deserted that one would not hesitate to say ... the Great City is a great desert."<ref>Strabo. Geography 16.1.5</ref>

Another theory is that "Babylon" refers to the [[Babylon (Egypt)|Babylon in Egypt]] that was an important [[Babylon Fortress|fortress city]] in Egypt, just north of today's Cairo and this, combined with the "greetings from Mark" (1 Peter 5:13), who may be [[Mark the Evangelist]], regarded as the founder of the [[Church of Alexandria]] (Egypt), has led some scholars to regard the First Peter epistle as having been written in Egypt.<ref>Manley, Gerald T. (1944), [https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/eq/1944-2_138.pdf Babylon on the Nile], in: The Evangelical Quarterly 16.2, pp. 138-146.</ref>

== Feast days ==
{{Main|Feast of Saints Peter and Paul}}
{{See also|St Peter's Eve}}
[[File:Peter the Apostle. Detail of the mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale. Ravena, Italy.jpg|thumb|Peter the Apostle, detail of the mosaic in the [[Basilica of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], 6th century]]

The [[Roman Martyrology]] assigns 29 June as the [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] of both Peter and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], without thereby declaring that to be the day of their deaths. [[Augustine of Hippo]] says in his Sermon 295: "One day is assigned for the celebration of the martyrdom of the two apostles. But those two were one. Although their martyrdom occurred on different days, they were one."

This is also the feast of both [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]] in the calendar of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].

In the [[Roman Rite]], the feast of the [[Chair of Saint Peter]] is celebrated on 22 February, and the anniversary of the dedication of the two [[Papal Basilica]]s of [[St. Peter's Basilica|Saint Peter's]] and [[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls|Saint Paul outside the Walls]] is held on 18 November.

Before [[Pope John XXIII]]'s revision in 1960, the Roman Calendar also included on 18 January another feast of the Chair of Saint Peter (denominated the Chair of Saint Peter in Rome, while the February feast was then called that of the Chair of Saint Peter at Antioch), and on 1 August the feast of [[Liberation of Saint Peter|Saint Peter in Chains]].

In the Orthodox [[Daily Office]] every Thursday throughout the year is dedicated to the Holy Apostles, including St. Peter. There are also three [[feast day]]s in the year which are dedicated to him:

* 16 January, [[Liberation of Saint Peter|Veneration of the Precious Chains of the Holy and All-Glorious Apostle Peter]] — commemorating both the chains which Acts 12:1–11 says miraculously fell from him, and the chains in which he was held before his martyrdom by [[Nero]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Veneration of the Precious Chains of the Holy and All-Glorious Apostle Peter |url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2023/01/16/100202-veneration-of-the-precious-chains-of-the-holy-and-all-glorious-a |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116125206/https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2023/01/16/100202-veneration-of-the-precious-chains-of-the-holy-and-all-glorious-a |archive-date=16 January 2023 |access-date=29 April 2023 |website=oca.org}}</ref>
* 29 June, [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]] — This is a major feast day and is preceded by a period of Lenten fasting known as the [[Apostles' Fast]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Holy Glorious and All-Praised Leaders of the Apostles, Peter and Paul |url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2023/06/29/101840-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-leaders-of-the-apostles-peter |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429182314/https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2023/06/29/101840-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-leaders-of-the-apostles-peter |archive-date=29 April 2023 |access-date=29 April 2023 |website=www.oca.org }}</ref>
* 30 June, Synaxis of the Holy, Glorious and All-Praised Twelve Apostles — commemorating of [[Apostles in the New Testament|Twelve Apostles]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Synaxis of the Holy, Glorious and All-Praised Twelve Apostles |url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2021/06/30/101711-synaxis-of-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-twelve-apostles |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406005122/https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2021/06/30/101711-synaxis-of-the-holy-glorious-and-all-praised-twelve-apostles |archive-date=6 April 2023 |access-date=7 September 2021 |website=oca.org}}</ref>

Peter is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] (with [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]) in the [[Church of England]] with a [[Festival (Anglicanism)|Festival]] on 29 June, Peter the Apostle may be celebrated alone, without Paul, on 29 June.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Calendar |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |access-date=3 April 2021 |website=The Church of England |language=en}}</ref>

== Primacy of Peter ==
{{Main|Primacy of Peter}}

Christians of different theological backgrounds are in disagreement as to the exact significance of Peter's ministry. For instance: 
* Catholics view Peter as the first pope. The Catholic Church asserts that Peter's ministry, conferred upon him by Jesus of Nazareth in the gospels, lays down the theological foundation for the pope's exercise of pastoral authority over the Church.
* Eastern Orthodox also believe that Peter's ministry points to an underlying theology wherein a special primacy ought to be granted to Peter's successors above other Church leaders but see this as merely a "primacy of honor", rather than the right to exercise pastoral authority.
* Protestant denominations assert that Peter's apostolic work in Rome does not imply a connection between him and the papacy.
Similarly, historians of various backgrounds also offer differing interpretations of the Apostle's presence in Rome.

=== Catholic Church ===
{{Main|Primacy of Simon Peter|Papal primacy}}
[[File:Statua di San Pietro realizzata da Giuseppe De Fabris - Piazza di San Pietro.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of St. Peter in [[St. Peter's Square]] at the Vatican]]

According to Catholic belief, Simon Peter was distinguished by Jesus to hold the [[Primacy of Simon Peter|first place of honor and authority]]. Also in Catholic belief, Peter was, as the first Bishop of Rome, the first [[Pope]]. Furthermore, they consider every Pope to be Peter's successor and the rightful superior of all other [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]].<ref name=CEPope>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Pope|author=Joyce, G. H.}}</ref> However, Peter never bore the title of "Pope" or "Vicar of Christ".{{refn|{{harvnb|Hitchcock|Tutu|Esposito|2004|p=281}} note "Some (Christian communities) had been founded by Peter, the disciple Jesus designated as the founder of his church. [...] Once the position was institutionalized, historians looked back and recognized Peter as the first pope of the Christian church in Rome"}}

The Catholic Church's recognition of Peter as head of [[Churches Militant, Penitent, and Triumphant#Catholic Church|its church on earth]] (with Christ being its [[heaven]]ly head) is based on its interpretation of passages from the [[canonical gospels]] of the New Testament, as well as [[sacred tradition]].

==== John 21:15–17 ====
The first passage is John 21:15–17 which is: "Feed my lambs... Tend my sheep... feed my sheep"<ref>{{Bibleverse|John|21:15–17}}</ref> (within the Greek it is Ποίμαινε i.e., to feed and rule [as a Shepherd] v. 16, while Βόσκε i.e., to feed for v.15 & v. 17)<ref>[http://tr.biblos.com/john/21.htm "Greek New Testament"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705054846/http://tr.biblos.com/john/21.htm |date=5 July 2011}} Greek New Testament, John xxi 11 June 2010.</ref> – which is seen by Catholics as Christ promising the spiritual supremacy to Peter. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' of 1913 sees in this passage Jesus "charging [Peter] with the superintendency of all his sheep, without exception; and consequently of his whole flock, that is, of his own church".<ref name= CEPope/>

==== Matthew 10:2 ====
In this passage, the evangelist writes, "First, Simon called Peter..." The Greek word for "first" (protos), derived from the ancient Greek πρῶτος, can mean primacy in foundation, not just in a numerical sense.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Horn |first=Trent |date=May–June 2023 |editor-last=Ryland |editor-first=Tim |title=Quick Questions |journal=Catholic Answers: The Magazine of Apologetics and Evangelization |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=44–45}}</ref>

==== Matthew 16:18 ====
Another passage is Matthew 16:18:
{{blockquote|I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hell will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven.|Matthew 16:18–19 (NIV)<ref name="auto1">{{Bibleverse|Matthew|16:18}}</ref>}}

===== Etymology =====
In the story of the [[First disciples of Jesus|calling of the disciples]], Jesus addresses Simon Peter with the Greek term Κηφᾶς (''Cephas''), a Hellenised form of Aramaic '''ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ''' (''keepa''), which means "rock",<ref>{{cite web |title=Strong's Greek: 2786. Κηφᾶς (Képhas) – "a rock", Cephas, a name given to the apostle Peter |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm |website=biblehub.com |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> a term that before was not used as a proper name:

{{blockquote|:ἐμβλέψας αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν Σὺ εἶ Σίμων ὁ υἱὸς Ἰωάννου, σὺ κληθήσῃ '''Κηφᾶς''' ὃ ἑρμηνεύεται Πέτρος.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://biblehub.com/text/john/1-42.htm |title=John 1:42 Greek Text Analysis |website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

:Having looked at him, Jesus said, "You are Simon the son of John; you will be called '''Cephas'''," which means ''Petros'' ("rock").| John 1:42}}

Jesus later alludes to this nickname after Peter declares Jesus to be the Messiah:

{{blockquote|:κἀγὼ δέ σοι λέγω ὅτι σὺ εἶ '''Πέτρος''' [''Petros''] καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ τῇ '''πέτρᾳ''' [''petra''] οἰκοδομήσω μου τὴν ἐκκλησίαν, καὶ πύλαι ᾅδου οὐ κατισχύσουσιν αὐτῆς.{{refn|group=note|{{lang|grc|Πέτρᾳ}} (''petra'' "rock") is the feminine form of the Greek noun ({{lang|grc|Πέτρος}}) (''Petros''), which represents the masculine form; the two forms are identical in meaning.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm |title=Cephas (Aramaic for rock) |access-date=20 February 2019 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331130125/https://biblehub.com/greek/2786.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cephas">({{langx|he|כֵּיפׇא \ כֵּיף}}) is an indirect transliteration of the Syriac ({{lang|syc|ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ}}), ({{langx|el|Κηφᾶς}}) is a direct transliteration of the Syriac ({{lang|syc|ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ}}), and ({{langx|he|כֵּיפׇא \ כֵּיף}}) is a direct transliteration of the Greek. The Hebrew word ({{langx|he|כאפא}}) is also a direct transliteration of the Syriac. (''cƒ.'' ''Interlinear Peshitta Aramaic New Testament Bible'' [http://peshitta.info/gospel/matthew_16.htm Matthew xvi. 18] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824080209/http://peshitta.info/gospel/matthew_16.htm |date=24 August 2011}}).</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |title=Peter the Rock |website=Catholic Answers |date=10 August 2004 |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119034546/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |archive-date=19 November 2011 |quote=And what does Kepha mean? It means a rock, the same as petra (It doesn't mean a little stone or a pebble) What Jesus said to Simon in Matthew 16:18 was this: "You are Kepha, and on this kepha I will build my Church".}}</ref>}}

:I also say to you now that you are '''Peter''', and on this '''rock''' I will build my Church, and the gates of [[Hades]] will not prevail against it.| Matthew 16:18<ref name="matthew1618greek">{{cite web |title=Matthew 16:18 |url=https://biblehub.com/text/matthew/16-18.htm |website=BibleHub |publisher=Online Parallel Bible Project |access-date=9 June 2019 |ref=matthew1618greek}}</ref>}}

The [[Peshitta]] [[Syriac versions of the Bible|Syriac]] version renders Jesus' words into [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]<ref name="aramaic">{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary |title=Aramaic |quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Palestine in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73) |page=72 |isbn=978-0-8028-2402-8 |editor=Allen C. Myers |location=Grand Rapids, MI |publisher=[[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]] |date=1987}}</ref> as follows:

{{blockquote|:ܐܳܦ݂ ܐܶܢܳܐ ܐܳܡܰܪ ܐ݈ܢܳܐ ܠܳܟ݂ ܕ݁ܰܐܢ݈ܬ݁ ܗ݈ܽܘ '''ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ''' ܘܥܰܠ ܗܳܕ݂ܶܐ '''ܟ݁ܺܐܦ݂ܳܐ''' ܐܶܒ݂ܢܶܝܗ ܠܥܺܕ݈݁ܬ݁ܝ ܘܬ݂ܰܪܥܶܐ ܕ݁ܰܫܝܽܘܠ ܠܳܐ ܢܶܚܣܢܽܘܢܳܗ܂

:Also I say to you that you are '''''Keepa''''', and on this '''''keepa''''' I will build my Church, and the gates of [[Sheol]] not will subdue it.|Matthew 16:18<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.peshitta.org/pdf/Mattich16.pdf |title=Peshitta Matthew 16}}</ref>}}

[[Paul of Tarsus]] later uses the appellation Cephas in reference to Peter.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://biblehub.com/greek/strongs_2786.htm |title=Strong's Greek: 2786. Κηφᾶς (Képhas) -- 9 Occurrences |website=biblehub.com}}</ref>

===== Interpretation of Matthew 16:18 =====
[[File:Petrus San Giovanni in Laterano 2006-09-07.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Saint Peter in the [[Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran]] by [[Pierre-Étienne Monnot]]. Peter holds the Keys of Heaven.]]
[[File:Gesupietrochiave.jpg|thumb|''Christ Handing the Keys to St Peter'', by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1481–1482)]]

To better understand what Christ meant, St. Basil elaborates:<ref name="Basil">Basil li. De poenit. cƒ. Matth. v. 14; Luke xxii. 19</ref>
{{blockquote|Though Peter be a rock, yet he is not a rock as Christ is. For Christ is the true unmoveable rock of himself, Peter is unmoveable by Christ the rock. For Jesus doth communicate and impart his dignities, not voiding himself of them, but holding them to himself, bestoweth them also upon others. He is the light, and yet you are the light: he is the Priest, and yet he maketh Priests: he is the rock, and he made a rock.|Basil li. De poenit. cƒ. Matt. v. 14; Luke 22:19}}

In reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the [[Fisherman's Ring]], which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Matt.|16:18–19}}</ref> The terminology of this "commission" of Peter is unmistakably parallel to the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in Isaiah 22:15–23.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|22:15–23}}</ref> Peter is often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a [[Key (lock)|key]] or a set of keys.

In the original [[Greek language|Greek]] the word translated as "Peter" is ''Πέτρος'' (Petros) and that translated as "rock" is ''πέτρα'' (petra), two words that, while not identical, give an impression of one of many times when Jesus used a play on words. Furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native Aramaic language, he would have used ''kepha'' in both instances.<ref name="keating">{{Cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |title=Peter the Rock |publisher=catholic.com |date=10 August 2004 |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119034546/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peter-the-rock |archive-date=19 November 2011}}</ref> [[Peshitta|The Peshitta Text]] and [[Peshitta#Old Syriac texts|the Old Syriac texts]] use the word "kepha" for both "Peter" and "rock" in Matthew 16:18.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=http://www.peshitta.org/pdf/Mattich16.pdf |chapter=The Preaching of Mattai, chapter 16 |title=Peshitta Aramaic/English Interlinear New Testament |access-date=2 April 2014}}</ref> John 1:42 says Jesus called Simon "Cephas", as Paul calls him in some letters.<ref>{{Bibleverse|John|1:42}}</ref> He was instructed by Christ to strengthen his brethren, i.e., the apostles.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Lk|22:31–32}}</ref> Peter also had a leadership role in the early Christian church at Jerusalem according to The Acts of the Apostles chapters 1–2, 10–11, and 15.

Early Catholic Latin and Greek writers (such as St. [[John Chrysostom]]) considered the "foundation rock" as applying to both Peter personally and his confession of faith (or the faith of his confession) symbolically, as well as seeing Christ's promise to apply more generally to his twelve apostles and the Church at large.<ref>{{Cite book |title="Peter's Primacy in the New Testament and the Early Tradition" in The Primacy of Peter |author=Veselin Kesich |date=1992 |publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press |pages=61–66}}</ref> This "double meaning" interpretation is present in the current [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]].<ref>[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], Articles 424 and 552.</ref>

Protestant arguments against the Catholic interpretation are largely based on the difference between the Greek words translated "Rock" in the Matthean passage. They often claim that in classical [[Attic Greek]] ''petros'' (masculine) generally meant "pebble", while ''petra'' (feminine) meant "boulder" or "cliff", and accordingly, taking Peter's name to mean "pebble", they argue that the "rock" in question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself or the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://spectrummagazine.org/article/2017/03/30/becoming-pebble-name-god-gave-simon |title=On Becoming a Pebble - The Name God Gave Simon |website=spectrummagazine.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.romancatholicism.co.uk/petrospetra.html |title=Did Jesus really say he would build his church on Peter? Petros or Petra? |access-date=5 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206131511/http://www.romancatholicism.co.uk/petrospetra.html |archive-date=6 February 2018}}</ref> These popular-level writings are disputed in similar popular-level Catholic writings.<ref>[http://patrickmadrid.blogspot.gr/2009/02/bam-bam-pebbles-argument-goes-down.html Patrick Madrid, Bam! Bam! The "Pebbles" Argument Goes Down] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206131538/http://patrickmadrid.blogspot.gr/2009/02/bam-bam-pebbles-argument-goes-down.html |date=6 February 2018}} or [https://www.catholic.com/tract/peter-the-rock Catholic Answers Magazine, Peter the Rock] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814142703/https://www.catholic.com/tract/peter-the-rock |date=14 August 2017}}</ref>

The New Testament was written in [[Koiné Greek]], not Attic Greek and some authorities say no significant difference existed between the meanings of ''petros'' and ''petra''. So far from meaning a pebble was the word ''petros'' that [[Apollonius Rhodius]], a writer of Koiné Greek of the third century&nbsp;BC, used it to refer to "a huge round ''boulder'', a terrible quoit of [[Ares]] [[Enyalius]]; four stalwart youths could not have raised it from the ground even a little".<ref>[http://www.theoi.com/Text/ApolloniusRhodius3.html translation by R.C. Seaton] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170512144343/http://www.theoi.com/Text/ApolloniusRhodius3.html |date=12 May 2017}} of [[Apollonius Rhodius]], ''[[Argonautica]]'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0227%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D1245 3:1365–1367] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518190325/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0227:book%3D3:card%3D1245 |date=18 May 2021}}:
:λάζετο δ᾽ ἐκ πεδίοιο μέγαν περιηγέα ''πέτρον'', 
:δεινὸν Ἐνυαλίου σόλον Ἄρεος: οὔ κέ μιν ἄνδρες 
:αἰζηοὶ πίσυρες γαίης ἄπο τυτθὸν ἄειραν.</ref>

The feminine noun ''petra'' (πέτρα in Greek), translated as ''rock'' in the phrase "on this rock I will build my church", is also used in 1 Cor. 10:4 describing Jesus Christ, which reads: "They all ate the same spiritual food and drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied them, and that rock was Christ."<ref>{{Bibleverse|1Cor|10:4||1 Cor. 10:4}}</ref>

Although Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic doctrine of Papal supremacy, some Protestant scholars say that prior to the Reformation of the 16th century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used to support papal claims, despite it being well documented as being used in the 3rd century by Stephen of Rome against Cyprian of Carriage in a "passionate disagreement" about baptism and in the 4th century by Pope Damasus as a claim to primacy as a lesson of the Arian Controversy for stricter discipline and centralised control.<ref>Chadwick, The Early Christian Church, pp. 237–238.</ref> Their position is that most of the early and medieval Church interpreted the "rock" as being a reference either to Christ or to Peter's faith, not Peter himself. They understand Jesus' remark to have been his affirmation of Peter's testimony that Jesus was the Son of God.<ref>Mathison, Keith A., [https://books.google.com/books?id=w_PHAGr2TfgC ''The Shape of Sola Scriptura''], pp. 184–85.</ref>

Despite this claim, many Fathers saw a connection between Matthew 16:18 and the primacy of Peter and his office, such as [[Tertullian]], writing: "The Lord said to Peter, 'On this rock I will build my Church, I have given you the keys of the kingdom of heaven [and] whatever you shall have bound or loosed on earth will be bound or loosed in heaven' [Matt. 16:18–19]. ...Upon you, he says, I will build my Church; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peters-primacy |title=Peter's Primacy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018060632/http://www.catholic.com/tracts/peters-primacy |archive-date=18 October 2012}}</ref>

==== Epistles of Paul ====
Paul's [[Epistle to the Romans]], written about AD 57.<ref name="Franzen, p.26"/> greets some fifty people in Rome by name,<ref name="bibleverse||Romans|16"/> but not Peter [[Incident at Antioch|whom he knew]]. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in {{bibleverse|Acts||28}}, about AD 60–62. Some Church historians consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero,<ref name="ODCC self">"Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, New York, [[Oxford University Press]], 2005</ref><ref name="St-Paul-Outside-the-Walls homepage">{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/various/basiliche/san_paolo/en/basilica/tomba.htm |title=Papal Basilica – Saint Paul Outside-the-Walls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720031958/https://www.vatican.va/various/basiliche/san_paolo/en/basilica/tomba.htm |archive-date=20 July 2009}}</ref> around AD 64 or 68.{{refn|group=note|name=historians|Historians debate whether the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the [[Fiscus Judaicus]] in 96. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not.}}<ref name="Wylen, pp.190-192">Wylen, Stephen M., pp. 190–192</ref><ref name="Dunn, pp. 33-34"> Dunn, James, pp. 33–34</ref>

==== Protestant rejection of Catholic claims ====
[[File:Dirck van Baburen Saint Peter.jpg|thumb|''Saint Peter'' by [[Dirck van Baburen]] ({{circa|1615–1620}})]]

Other theologically conservative Christians, including [[Confessional Lutherans]], also rebut comments made by Karl Keating and D.A. Carson who claim that there is no distinction between the words ''petros'' and ''petra'' in Koine Greek. The Lutheran theologians state that the dictionaries of [[Koine Greek|Koine/NT Greek]], including the authoritative<ref>Rykle Borger, "Remarks of an Outsider about Bauer's Worterbuch, BAGD, BDAG, and Their Textual Basis", Biblical Greek Language and Lexicography: Essays in Honor of Frederick W. Danker, Bernard A. Tayler (et al. eds.) pp. 32–47.</ref> [[Bauer lexicon|Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich Lexicon]], indeed list both words and the passages that give different meanings for each. The Lutheran theologians further note that:

{{blockquote|We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the whole church of believers in Matthew 18.<ref name="WELS">{{Cite web |url=http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl@1518cutopic_topicid19cuitem_itemid6106.htm |title=WELS Topical Q&A: Responses to previous questions |publisher=[[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]] |date=8 August 2013 |access-date=5 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808194544/http://arkiv.lbk.cc/faq/site.pl%401518cutopic_topicid19cuitem_itemid6106.htm |archive-date=8 August 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}

[[Oscar Cullmann]], a Lutheran theologian and distinguished Church historian, disagrees with Luther and the Protestant reformers who held that by "rock" Christ did not mean Peter, but meant either himself or the faith of his followers. He believes the meaning of the original Aramaic is very clear: that "Kepha" was the Aramaic word for "rock", and that it was also the name by which Christ called Peter.<ref name=Time/>

Yet, Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that Peter began the papal succession. He writes: "In the life of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at large". While he believes the Matthew text is entirely valid and is in no way spurious, he says it cannot be used as "warrant of the papal succession".<ref name=Time>{{Cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890753-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622111607/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,890753-1,00.html |archive-date=22 June 2011 |title=Religion: Peter & the Rock |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=7 December 1953 |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> Cullmann concludes that while Peter ''was'' the original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.<ref name="Time" />

There are other Protestant scholars who also partially defend the historical Catholic position about "Rock".<ref>D. A. Carson in ''The Expositor's Bible Commentary'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984).</ref> Taking a somewhat different approach from Cullman, they point out that the Gospel of Matthew was not written in the classical Attic form of Greek, but in the Hellenistic [[Koine Greek|Koine dialect]] in which there is no distinction in meaning between ''petros'' and ''petra''. Moreover, even in Attic Greek, in which the regular meaning of ''petros'' was a smallish "stone", there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in [[Sophocles]], ''[[Oedipus at Colonus]]'', v. 1595, where ''petros'' refers to a boulder used as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case, a ''petros''/''petra'' distinction is irrelevant considering the Aramaic language in which the phrase might well have been spoken. In Greek, of any period, the feminine noun ''petra'' could not be used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of ''Petros'' as the Greek word with which to translate Aramaic ''Kepha''.<ref name="keating" />

Yet, still other Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact ''did'' mean to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build upon, but that the passage does nothing to indicate a continued succession of Peter's implied position. They assert that Matthew uses the demonstrative pronoun ''taute'', which allegedly means "this very" or "this same" when he refers to the rock on which Jesus' church will be built. He also uses the Greek word for "and", ''kai''. It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with ''kai'', the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The second rock Jesus refers to must then be the same rock as the first one; and if Peter is the first rock, he must also be the second.<ref>''Jesus, Peter & the Keys: A Scriptural Handbook on the Papacy''</ref>

Unlike Oscar Cullmann, [[Confessional Lutherans]] and many other Protestant apologists agree that it's meaningless to elaborate the meaning of "Rock" by looking at the Aramaic language. While the Jews spoke mostly Aramaic at home, in public they usually spoke Greek. The few Aramaic words spoken by Jesus in public were unusual, which is why they are noted as such. And most importantly the New Testament was revealed in Koine Greek, ''not'' Aramaic.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wlsessays.net/files/GawrischDoctrine.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203191915/http://www.wlsessays.net/files/GawrischDoctrine.pdf |title=The Doctrine of Church and Ministry in the Life of the Church Today |archive-date=3 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wlsessays.net/files/BalgeMinistry.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203192344/http://www.wlsessays.net/files/BalgeMinistry.pdf |title=Cross-Cultural And Multicultural Ministry in the New Testament |archive-date=3 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.graceway.com/articles/article_017.html |title=Some Thoughts on Matthew 16:18 |access-date=4 August 2014 |archive-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216191505/http://www.graceway.com/articles/article_017.html}}</ref>

Lutheran historians even report that the Catholic church itself did not, at least unanimously, regard Peter as the rock until the 1870s:
{{blockquote|Rome's rule for explaining the Scriptures and determining doctrine is the [[Profession of faith (Catholic Church)#Tridentine Creed|Creed]] of [[Pius IV]]. This Creed binds Rome to explain the Scriptures only according to the unanimous consent of the Fathers. In the year 1870 when the Fathers gathered and the pope declared his infallibility, the cardinals were not in agreement on Matthew 16:18. They had five different interpretations. Seventeen insisted Peter is the rock. Sixteen held that Christ is the rock. Eight were emphatic that the whole apostolic college is the rock. Forty-four said Peter's faith is the rock, The remainder looked upon the whole body of believers as the rock. – And yet Rome taught and still teaches that Peter is the rock.<ref name=WLS-Eckert>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wlsessays.net/files/EckertSpecific.pdf |title=The Specific Functions of the Church in the World |last1=Eckert |first1=Harold H. |publisher=[[Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary]] |access-date=4 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150203182715/http://www.wlsessays.net/files/EckertSpecific.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}

=== Eastern Orthodox ===
[[File:Icon c 1500 Peter.JPG|thumb|upright=0.6|left|Icon of Saint Peter, {{Circa|1500|lk=no}}]]

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] regards Apostle Peter, together with Apostle Paul, as "Preeminent Apostles". Another title used for Peter is ''Coryphaeus'', which could be translated as "Choir-director", or lead singer.<ref>[[John Meyendorff]], et al. (1963), ''The Primacy of Peter in the Orthodox Church'' ([[St. Vladimir's Seminary]] Press, Crestwood NY, {{ISBN|978-0-88141-125-6}})</ref> The church recognises Apostle Peter's leadership role in the [[early church]], especially in the very early days at Jerusalem, but does not consider him to have had any "princely" role over his fellow Apostles.

The New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any extraordinary authority for Peter with regard to faith or morals. The Orthodox also hold that Peter did not act as leader at the [[Council of Jerusalem]], but as merely one of a number who spoke. The final decision regarding the non-necessity of [[circumcision]] (and certain prohibitions) was spelled out by [[James, brother of Jesus]] (though Catholics hold that James merely reiterated and fleshed out what Peter had said regarding the latter's earlier divine revelation regarding the inclusion of Gentiles).

Eastern and Oriental Orthodox do not recognise the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter but the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] sends a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul. In the [[declaration of Ravenna|Ravenna Document]] of 13 October 2007, the representatives of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] agreed that "Rome, as the Church that "presides in love" according to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch ("To the Romans", Prologue), occupied the first place in the ''taxis'', and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the ''protos'' among the patriarchs if the Papacy unites with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as ''protos'', a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium".

With regard to Jesus' words to Peter, "Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church", the Orthodox hold Christ is referring to the confession of faith, ''not'' the person of Peter as that upon which he will build the church. This is allegedly shown by the fact that the original Septuagint uses the feminine demonstrative pronoun when he says, "upon this rock" (ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ); whereas, grammatically, if he had been referring to Peter, he would allegedly have used the masculine.<ref>Holy Apostles Convent (1999) ''The Orthodox New Testament'', Vol. I: The Holy Gospels (Dormition Skete, Buena Vista CO, {{ISBN|0-944359-13-2}}) p. 105</ref>

=== Syriac Orthodox Church ===
[[File:Antonio de Bellis - La liberazione di San Pietro.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Saint Peter and the angel'', early 1640s, by [[Antonio de Bellis]]]] 

The Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church tried to give a theological interpretation to the primacy of Apostle Peter. They were fully convinced of the unique office of Peter in the primitive Christian community. [[Ephrem the Syrian|Ephrem]], [[Aphrahat]] and [[Maruthas]] who were supposed to have been the best exponents of the early [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac tradition]] unequivocally acknowledge the office of Peter.

The Syriac Fathers, following the rabbinic tradition, call Jesus "Kepha" for they see "rock" in the Old Testament as a messianic Symbol (yet the Old Maronite Syriacs of Lebanon still refer to Saint Peter as "Saint Simon the Generous" or Simon Karam"). When Christ gave his own name "Kepha" to Simon he was giving him participation in the person and office of Christ. Christ who is the Kepha and shepherd made Simon the chief shepherd in his place and gave him the very name Kepha and said that on Kepha he would build the Church. [[Aphrahat]] shared the common Syriac tradition. For him Kepha is in fact another name of Jesus, and Simon was given the right to share the name. The person who receives somebody else's name also obtains the rights of the person who bestows the name. Aphrahat makes the stone taken from Jordan a type of Peter. He wrote: "Jesus [Joshua] son of Nun set up the stones for a witness in Israel; Jesus our Saviour called Simon Kepha Sarirto and set him as the faithful witness among nations."

Again, he wrote in his commentary on [[Deuteronomy]] that [[Moses]] brought forth water from "rock" (Kepha) for the people and Jesus sent Simon Kepha to carry his teachings among nations. God accepted him and made him the foundation of the Church and called him Kepha. When he speaks about the transfiguration of Christ he calls him [[Simon Peter]], the foundation of the Church. Ephrem also shared the same view. The Armenian version of [[De Virginitate]] records that [[Peter the rock]] shunned honour. A ''mimro'' of Efrem found in Holy Week Liturgy points to the importance of Peter.

Both [[Aphrahat]] and [[Ephrem the Syrian|Ephrem]] represent the authentic tradition of the Syrian Church. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification of Church buildings, marriage, ordination, ''et cetera'', reveal that the primacy of Peter is a part of living faith of the Church.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.syrianchurch.org/Articles/PrimacyofStPeter.htm |title="Primacy of St. Peter" – by Dr. Thomas Athanasius |publisher=syrianchurch.org |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-date=17 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617144615/http://www.syrianchurch.org/Articles/PrimacyofStPeter.htm}}</ref>

=== New Apostolic Church ===
The [[New Apostolic Church]], which believes in the re-established Apostle ministry, sees Peter as the first [[Chief Apostle]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cnewsliveenglish.com/news/19843/saint-peter-the-first-pope-sm |title=Saint Peter - The First Pope (Successors of Peter - Part 1)}}</ref>

=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===
[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] teaches that Peter was the first leader of the early Christian church after the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. While the Church accepts apostolic succession from Peter, it rejects papal successors as illegitimate. [[Joseph Smith]], the founder of [[Mormonism]], recorded in multiple revelations that the resurrected Peter appeared to him and [[Oliver Cowdery]] in 1829, near [[Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania]], in order to bestow the apostleship and keys of the kingdom as part of a [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restoration of priesthood authority]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/27.12-13?lang=eng |title=Doctrine & Covenants 27:12–13 |publisher=Scriptures.lds.org |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/128.20-21?lang=eng |title=Doctrine & Covenants 128:20–21 |publisher=Scriptures.lds.org |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref>

In interpreting {{Bibleverse|Matthew|16:13–19}}, Latter-day Saint leader [[Bruce R. McConkie]] stated, "The things of God are known only by the power of his Spirit",<ref>{{Cite magazine |first=Bruce R. |last=McConkie |author-link=Bruce R. McConkie |date=May 1981 |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1981/05/upon-this-rock?lang=eng |title=Upon This Rock |magazine=[[Ensign (LDS magazine)|Ensign]] |publisher=LDS Church}}</ref> and "that which the world calls Mormonism is based upon the rock of revelation".<ref>{{Cite magazine |first=Bruce R. |last=McConkie |date=July 1973 |url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/ensign/1973/07/the-rock-of-revelation?lang=eng |title=The Rock of Revelation |magazine= Ensign |publisher= LDS Church }}</ref> In his April 1981 [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] address, McConkie identified the rock of which Jesus spoke as the rock of revelation: "There is no other foundation upon which the Lord could build His Church and kingdom. ...Revelation: Pure, perfect, personal revelation—this is the rock!"<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.thechurchnews.com/archive/1991-03-30/christ-built-church-on-rock-of-revelation-3640 |title=Christ built Church on rock of revelation |newspaper=[[Church News]] |date=30 March 1991}}</ref>

== Non-Christian views ==
=== Judaism ===
{{Main|Saint Peter and Judaism}}

According to an old Jewish tradition, Simon Peter joined the early Christians at the decision of the rabbis. Worried that early Christianity's similarity to Judaism would lead people to mistake it for a branch of Judaism, he was chosen to join them. As he moved up in rank, he would be able to lead them into forming their own, distinct belief system. Despite this, he was said to remain a practicing Jew and is ascribed with the authorship of the Nishmas prayer.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Otzar HaMidrashim |author=Julius Eisenstein |date=1915 |publisher=Mishor |page=557 |author-link=Julius Eisenstein}}</ref>

=== Islam ===
{{Main|Peter in Islam}}

[[Muslim]]s consider [[Jesus in Islam|Jesus]] a prophet of God. The [[Qur'an]] also speaks of Jesus's disciples but does not mention their names, instead referring to them as "helpers to the [[Prophets in Islam|prophet of God]]".<ref>Qur'an 3:49–53</ref> Muslim exegesis and Qur'an commentary, however, names them and includes Peter among the disciples.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite book |author1-last=Noegel |author1-first=Scott B. |author2-last=Wheeler |author2-first=Brandon M. |date= 2003 |title=Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam and Judaism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6aTXAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Scarecrow Press (Rowman & Littlefield) |page=86 |isbn=978-0-8108-4305-9 |quote=Muslim exegesis identifies the disciples of Jesus as Peter, Andrew, Matthew, Thomas, Philip, John, James, Bartholomew, and Simon}}</ref> An old tradition, which involves [[Habib the Carpenter]], mentions that Peter was one of the three disciples sent to [[Antioch]] to preach to the people there.<ref>''Hughes Dictionary of Islam'', ''Habib the Carpenter''.</ref>

[[Twelver]] [[Shia]] Muslims see a parallel in the figure of Peter to [[Ali]] at [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]]'s time. They look upon Ali as being the [[vicegerent]], with Muhammad being the prophet; likewise, they see Peter as the vicegerent, behind Jesus the prophet and [[Masih]]. Peter's role as the first proper leader of the church is also seen by Shias to be a parallel to their belief in Ali as the first [[caliph]] after Muhammad.<ref>''[[No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam]]'', [[Reza Aslan]], Dictionary: ''Simon Peter''</ref> <!-- why is this here? Shias believe that [[Muhammad al-Mahdi]] (who was probably [[Imam Mahdi]]) was the son of [[Hasan al-Askari]] (a descendant of Muhammad and thus of Ishmael) and [[Narjis]] (a descendant of Yahuda and thus of Isaac). -->

=== Bahá'í Faith ===
In the [[Baháʼí Faith|Bahá'í Faith]] "the primacy of Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, is upheld and defended."<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Promised Day Is Come {{!}} Bahá'í Reference Library |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/shoghi-effendi/promised-day-come/5#058329751 |access-date=6 August 2021 |website=bahai.org}}</ref> Bahá'ís understand Peter's station as The Rock upon which the church of God would be founded to mean that Peter's belief in Christ as the Son of the living God would serve as the foundation for Christianity, and that upon this belief would the foundation of the church of God, understood as the Law of God, be established.<ref name="bahai.org">{{Cite web |title=The Summons of the Lord of Hosts {{!}} Bahá'í Reference Library |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/summons-lord-hosts/5#662049814 |access-date=6 August 2021 |website=bahai.org}}</ref> Peter appears in the writings of [[Baháʼu'lláh|Bahá'u'lláh]], the Prophet-Founder of the Bahá'í Faith, often referred to as The Rock:

{{blockquote|O followers of all religions! We behold you wandering distraught in the wilderness of error. Ye are the fish of this Ocean; wherefore do ye withhold yourselves from that which sustaineth you? Lo, it surgeth before your faces. Hasten unto it from every clime. This is the day whereon the Rock (Peter) crieth out and shouteth, and celebrateth the praise of its Lord, the All-Possessing, the Most High, saying: "Lo! The Father is come, and that which ye were promised in the Kingdom is fulfilled!"|Bahá'u'lláh, ''[[Summons of the Lord of Hosts|The Summons of the Lord of Hosts]]''<ref name="bahai.org"/>}}

=== Ossetian mythology ===
His name with a prefix {{lang|os|dan}} (related to river names) was applied to [[Donbettyr]], the [[Ossetian mythology|Ossetian]] god of waters, patron of fish and fishermen.<ref name="Foltz">{{Cite book |last1=Foltz |first1=Richard |title=The Ossetes - Modern-Day Scythians of the Caucasus |date=30 December 2021 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-7556-1846-0 |page=108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PuhJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 |access-date=29 August 2022 |language=en |quote="bettyr", a corruption of (St) Peter.}}</ref>

=== Andean traditional medicine ===
[[Echinopsis pachanoi|San Pedro cactus]] ''(Echinopsis pachanoi)'' has a long history of being used in [[Andes|Andean]] [[traditional medicine]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Socha |first1=Dagmara M. |last2=Sykutera |first2=Marzena |last3=Orefici |first3=Giuseppe |date=1 December 2022 |title=Use of psychoactive and stimulant plants on the south coast of Peru from the Early Intermediate to Late Intermediate Period |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |language=en |volume=148 |page=105688 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2022.105688 |bibcode=2022JArSc.148j5688S |s2cid=252954052 |issn=0305-4403 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The common name "San Pedro cactus" – Saint Peter cactus, is attributed to the belief that as St Peter holds the keys to heaven, the effects of the cactus allow users "to reach heaven while still on earth". In 2022, the Peruvian Ministry of Culture declared the traditional use of San Pedro cactus in northern Peru as [[cultural heritage]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Declaran Patrimonio Cultural de la Nación a los conocimientos, saberes y usos del cactus San Pedro |url=https://elperuano.pe/noticia/197142-declaran-patrimonio-cultural-de-la-nacion-a-los-conocimientos-saberes-y-usos-del-cactus-san-pedro |access-date=18 December 2022 |website=elperuano.pe |language=es}}</ref>

== Writings ==
Traditionally, two canonical epistles ([[First Epistle of Peter]] and [[Second Epistle of Peter]]) and several apocryphal works have been attributed to Peter.

=== New Testament ===
[[File:Francesco del Cossa 017.jpg|thumb|upright|''St Peter'' by [[Francesco del Cossa]], 1473]]

==== Epistles ====
{{Main|Authorship of the Petrine epistles}}

The New Testament includes two letters (''epistles'') ascribed to Peter. Both demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, at odds with the linguistic skill that would ordinarily be expected of an Aramaic-speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. The textual features of these two epistles are such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written by the same hand. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply different sources and point to the lack of references to [[Second Epistle of Peter]] among the early Church Fathers.

[[Daniel B. Wallace]] (who maintains that Peter was the author) writes that, for many scholars, "the issue of authorship is already settled, at least negatively: the apostle Peter did not write this letter" and that "the vast bulk of NT scholars adopts this perspective without much discussion". However, he later states, "Although a very strong case has been made against Petrine authorship of 2 Peter, we believe it is deficient. ...Taken together, these external and internal arguments strongly suggest the traditional view, viz., that Peter was indeed the author of the second epistle which bears his name."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20031209164253/http://www.bible.org/docs/soapbox/2petotl.htm ''Second Peter: Introduction, Argument, and Outline''], archive date: 9 December 2003, access date: 19 August 2013.</ref>

Of the two epistles, the [[First Epistle of Peter|first epistle]] is considered the earlier. A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies with what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it having been written with the help of a secretary or as an [[amanuensis]].<ref name="ce-epistles">{{cathEncy|wstitle=Epistles of St. Peter|volume=11|author=Vander Heeren, Achille}}</ref>

[[Jerome]] explains:

{{blockquote|The two Epistles attributed to St. Peter differ in style, character, and the construction of the words, which proves that according to the exigencies of the moment St. Peter made use of different interpreters. ''(Epistle 120 – To Hedibia)''<ref name="Jerome">{{Cite web |last1=saint |first1=Jerome |title=Epistle 120 – To Hedibia Question 11 |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_hedibia_2_trans.htm |publisher=tertullian.org |access-date=9 June 2015}}</ref>}}

Some have seen a reference to the use of a secretary in the sentence: "By Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you, as I suppose, I have written briefly, exhorting, and testifying that this is the true grace of God wherein ye stand".<ref>{{bibleverse|1Pet|5:12|ESV|1 Pet. 5:12}}</ref> However New Testament scholar [[Bart D. Ehrman]] in his 2011 book ''Forged'' states that "scholars now widely recognise that when the author indicates that he wrote the book "through Silvanus", he is indicating not the name of his secretary, but the person who was carrying his letter to the recipients".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ehrman |first1=Bart D. |author-link1=Bart D. Ehrman |title=Forged |url=https://archive.org/details/forgedwritinginn00ehrm |url-access=registration |date=2011 |publisher=[[HarperOne]], [[HarperCollins]] |isbn=978-0-06-201262-3 |page=76}}</ref> The letter refers to Roman persecution of Christians, apparently of an official nature. The Roman historian [[Tacitus]] and the biographer [[Suetonius]] do both record that Nero persecuted Christians, and Tacitus dates this to immediately after the fire that burned Rome in 64. Christian tradition, for example Eusebius of Caesarea (''History'' book 2, 24.1), has maintained that Peter was killed in Nero's persecution, and thus had to assume that the Roman persecution alluded to in First Peter must be this Neronian persecution.<ref name="ce-epistles"/> On the other hand, many modern scholars argue that First Peter refers to the persecution of Christians in Asia Minor during the reign of the emperor [[Domitian]] (81–96), as the letter is explicitly addressed to Jewish Christians from that region:

{{blockquote|Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to God's elect, strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood: Grace and peace be yours in abundance.<ref>{{bibleverse|1Pet|1:1–2}}</ref>}}

Those scholars who believe that the epistle dates from the time of Domitian argue that Nero's persecution of Christians was confined to the city of Rome itself and did not extend to the Asian provinces mentioned in 1 Pet 1:1–2.
 
The [[Second Epistle of Peter]], on the other hand, appears to have been copied, in part, from the [[Epistle of Jude]], and some modern scholars date its composition as late as {{circa|150}}. Some scholars argue the opposite, that the Epistle of Jude copied Second Peter, while others contend an early date for Jude and thus observe that an early date is not incompatible with the text.<ref name="ce-epistles"/> Many scholars have noted the similarities between the [[apocrypha]]l [[Second Epistle of Clement]] (2nd century) and Second Peter. Second Peter may be earlier than 150; there are a few possible references to it that date back to the 1st century or early 2nd century, e.g., [[1 Clement]] written in {{circa|96}}, and the later church historian Eusebius wrote that [[Origen]] had made reference to the epistle before 250.<ref name="ce-epistles"/><ref>{{Cite web |author=Eusebius |title=Church History Book VI, Chapter 25 |url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm |publisher=newadvent.org |access-date=11 June 2015}}</ref>

Jerome says that Peter "wrote two epistles which are called Catholic, the second of which, on account of its difference from the first in style, is considered by many not to be by him" (''De Viris Illustribus'' 1).<ref name="Jerome1" /> But he himself received the epistle, and explained the difference in style, character, and structure of words by the assumption that Peter used different interpreters in the composition of the two epistles;<ref name="Jerome" /> and from his time onward the epistle was generally regarded as a part of the New Testament.

Even in early times there was controversy over its authorship, and Second Peter was often not included in the [[biblical canon]]; it was only in the 4th century that it gained a firm foothold in the New Testament, in a series of synods. In the East the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] still did not admit it into the canon until the 6th century.<ref name="ce-epistles"/>

==== Mark ====
Traditionally, the [[Gospel of Mark#Authorship and genre|Gospel of Mark]] was said to have been written by a person named [[John Mark]], and that this person was an assistant to Peter; hence its content was traditionally seen as the closest to Peter's viewpoint. According to Eusebius' ''Ecclesiastical History'', [[Papias of Hierapolis|Papias]] recorded this belief from [[John the Presbyter]]:

{{blockquote|Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the necessities [of his hearers], but with no intention of giving a normal or chronological narrative of the Lord's sayings. Wherefore Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to put anything fictional into the statements.<ref>Eusebius, ''Ecclesiastical History'', 3.39.14–16</ref>}}

Clement of Alexandria in the fragments of his work ''Hypotyposes'' (AD&nbsp;190) preserved and cited by the historian Eusebius in his ''Church History'' (VI, 14: 6) writes that:

{{blockquote|As Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the Spirit, many who were present requested that [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], who had followed him for a long time and remembered his sayings, should write them out. And having composed the Gospel he gave it to those who had requested it.<ref name="CL" />}}

Also, Irenaeus wrote about this tradition:

{{blockquote|After their (Peter and Paul's) passing, Mark also, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, transmitted to us in writing the things preached by Peter.<ref>Irenaeus, ''Against Heresies'', III. 1.2.; quoted by Eusebius in ''Ecclesiastical History'', book 5, 7.6</ref>}}

Based on these quotes, and on the Christian tradition, the information in Mark's gospel about Peter would be based on eyewitness material.<ref name="ce-epistles"/> The gospel itself is [[Anonymous work|anonymous]], and the above passages are the oldest surviving written testimony to its authorship.<ref name="ce-epistles"/>

=== Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha ===
[[File:Muenster-100725-15996-Überwasserkirche-Schlüssel.jpg|thumb|upright=0.55|The [[Key (lock)|key]] as symbol of St. Peter]]
There are also a number of other [[apocrypha]]l writings which have been either attributed to or written about Peter. These include:
* [[Gospel of Peter]], a partially [[docetism|Docetic]] narrative that has survived in part;
* [[Acts of Peter]];
* [[Acts of Peter and Andrew]];
* [[Acts of Peter and Paul]];
* [[Acts of Peter and the Twelve]];
* [[Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter]];
* A [[Letter of Peter to Philip]], which was preserved in the [[Nag Hammadi library]];
* [[Apocalypse of Peter]], which was considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the 4th century;
* [[Preaching of Peter]], a 2nd-century writing, only fragments survived;<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://blog.bibleodyssey.net/articles/preaching-of-peter/ |title=Preaching of Peter |website=Bible Odyssey}}</ref>
* The Epistula Petri, the introductory letter ascribed to the Apostle Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of the [[Clementine literature]].

=== Non-canonical sayings of Peter ===
[[File:Bouts third-appearance.jpg|thumb|''[[Miraculous catch of fish]]'', by [[Aelbrecht Bouts]]]]

Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the [[Gnostic]] [[Gospel of Thomas]]. In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a "just messenger".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm |title=Gospel of Thomas 13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813204310/http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm |archive-date=13 August 2007}}</ref> In the second, Peter asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for females don't deserve life."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm |title=Gospel of Thomas 114 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813204310/http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm |archive-date=13 August 2007}}</ref> In the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], Peter holds a dialogue with Jesus about the [[parable of the fig tree]] and the fate of [[sinners]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/apocalypsepeter-mrjames.html |title=The Apocalypse of Peter (translation by M. R. James) |website=earlychristianwritings.com}}</ref> In the [[Gospel of Mary]], whose text is largely fragmented, Peter appears to be jealous of "Mary" (probably [[Mary Magdalene]]). He says to the other disciples, "Did He really speak privately with a woman and not openly to us? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?"<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |url=http://www.gnosis.org/library/marygosp.htm |title=The Gospel According to Mary Magdalene |website=gnosis.org}}</ref> In reply to this, Levi says, "Peter, you have always been hot tempered".<ref name="auto"/> Other noncanonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include the [[Secret Book of James]] and the [[Acts of Peter]].

In the [[Fayyum Fragment]], which dates to the end of the 3rd century, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny him three times before a [[Rooster|cock]] crows on the following morning. The account is similar to that of the canonical gospels, especially the [[Gospel of Mark]]. It is unclear whether the fragment is an abridged version of the accounts in the [[synoptic gospels]], or a source text on which they were based, perhaps the apocryphal Gospel of Peter.<ref>''Das Evangelium nach Petrus - Text, Kontexte, Intertexte'', edited by Thomas J. Kraus and Tobias Nicklas (Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, Archiv für die Ausgabe der Griechischen Christlichen Schiftsteller der ersten Jahrhunderte (TU), 158.) viii–384 pp. Berlin–New York: [[Walter de Gruyter]], 2007 {{ISBN|978-3-11-019313-8}}.</ref>

The fragmentary [[Gospel of Peter]] contains an account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonical gospels. It contains little information about Peter himself, except that after the discovery of the [[empty tomb]], "I, Simon Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to the sea."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cygnus-study.com/pagepet.html |title=Gospel of Peter 14:3 |publisher=Cygnus-study.com |access-date=12 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917093938/http://www.cygnus-study.com/pagepet.html |archive-date=17 September 2009}}</ref>

== Iconography ==
[[File:Altar piece of Taulumäki Church by Eero Järnefelt.JPG|thumb|''Saint Peter sinking on water'' by [[Eero Järnefelt]] (1892)]]

The earliest portrait of Peter dates back to the 4th century and was located in 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/22/italy.apostles.images/ |title=Oldest known images of apostles found |website=cnn.com |access-date=17 November 2013}}</ref> In traditional [[iconography]], Peter has consistently been shown since [[early Christian art]] as an oldish, thick-set man with a "slightly combative" face and a short beard, and usually white hair, sometimes balding. He thus contrasts with [[Paul the Apostle]] who is bald except at the sides, with a longer beard and often black hair, and thinner in the face. One exception to this is in [[Anglo-Saxon art]], where he typically lacks a beard. Both Peter and Paul are shown thus as early as the 4th century [[Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter]] in Rome.<ref>Higgitt, John; "The Iconography of Saint Peter in Anglo-Saxon England, and Saint Cuthbert's Coffin", pp. 267–272, 270 quoted, in: Bonner, Gerald, Rollason, David & Stancliffe, Clare, eds., ''St. Cuthbert, his Cult and his Community to AD 1200'', Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 1989 {{ISBN|0-85115-610-X|978-0851156101}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=3jPRV2hUGE8C&q=%22levis+theca%22&pg=PA268 google books]</ref> Later, in the Middle Ages, his [[emblem|attribute]] is one or two large keys in his hand or hanging from his belt, first seen in the early 8th century.<ref>Higgitt, p. 276</ref> More than many medieval attributes, this continued to be depicted in the Renaissance and afterwards. By the 15th century Peter is more likely to be bald on the top of his head in the Western church, but he continues to have a good head of hair in Orthodox icons.

The depiction of Saint Peter as literally the keeper of the [[Pearly gates|gates of heaven]], popular with modern cartoonists, is not found in traditional religious art, but Peter usually heads groups of saints flanking God in heaven, on the right side (viewer's left) of God. Narrative images of Peter include several scenes from the ''[[Life of Christ in art|Life of Christ]]'' where he is mentioned in the gospels, and he is often identifiable in scenes where his presence is not specifically mentioned. Usually, he stands nearest to Christ. In particular, depictions of the ''[[Arrest of Christ]]'' usually include Peter cutting off the ear of one of the soldiers. Scenes without Jesus include his distinctive martyrdom, his rescue from prison, and sometimes his trial. During the [[Counter-Reformation]], scenes of Peter hearing the cock crow for the third time became popular, as a representation of [[repentance]] and hence the Catholic [[sacrament]] of [[Confession (sacrament)|Confession]] or Reconciliation.

== Patronage ==
<!-- This section is linked from the Christian leader infobox at top -->
[[File:Chora-Kirche 2013-03-21x.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Medieval mosaic of Saint Peter in the [[Chora Church]], Istanbul]]
[[File:Ancient icon of sts peter & paul.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Icon of Saints Peter and Paul]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3|Workers
|-
| Valign="top"|
* [[Baker]]s
* [[Engineering|Bridge builders]]
* [[Butcher]]s
* [[Fisherman|Fishermen]]
* [[Harvest]]ers
| Valign="top"|
* [[Cordwainer]]s
* [[Horology|Horologists]]
* [[Locksmith]]s
* [[shoemaking|Cobblers]]
| Valign="top"|
* [[Net (device)|Net]] makers
* [[Shipwright]]s
* [[Stationer]]s
|-
!colspan=3|Called for aid in
|-
| Valign="top"|
* Frenzy
* Foot problems
| Valign="top"|
* [[Fever]]
| Valign="top"|
* [[Longevity]]
|-
!colspan=3|Institutions
|-
| Valign="top"|
* The [[Papacy]]
* The [[Patriarchate of Antioch]]
* [[Berchtesgaden Provostry]]
* [[Bishop Cotton Boys School|Bishop Cotton Boys' School, Bangalore]]
| Valign="top"|
* [[Exeter College, Oxford]]
* [[Christian Universalism|Universalist Church]]
| Valign="top"|
* [[Peterhouse, Cambridge]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
* [[St Peter's College, Oxford]], UK
* [[St Peter's College, Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]
* [[Radley College|St Peter's College, Radley]], UK
* [[St Peter's School, York]], UK
* [[Saint Peter's University|Saint Peter's University, New Jersey]], US
* [[St Peter's College, Adelaide|St Peter's College]], Adelaide, Australia
|-
!colspan=3|Churches and Cathedrals
|-
| style="vertical-align:top;" colspan="3"|
* [[St. Peter's Basilica|The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter]], Vatican City
* [[Bath Abbey]] 
* [[York Minster]]
* [[St. Peter's Church (disambiguation)|List of churches dedicated to St Peter]]
|-
!colspan=3|Locations
|-
| Valign="top"|
* [[Apalit]]
* [[Barotac Viejo]]
* [[Birżebbuġa]]
* [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]
* [[Calatrava, Negros Occidental|Calatrava]]
* [[Calauag]]
* [[Calbayog]]
* [[Chartres]]
* [[Chimbote]]
* [[Cologne]]
* [[Davao City|Davao]]
* [[Dunajská Streda]]
* [[Évora]]
* [[Hinton on the Green]]
* [[Ilovik]] i [[Sveti Petar (island)|Sveti Petar]]
* [[Jackson, Mississippi|Jackson]]
* [[Köpenick]]
| Valign="top"|
* [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]]
* [[Leuven]]
* [[Leiden]]
* [[Lessines]]
* [[Loboc, Bohol|Loboc]]
* [[Maralal]]
* [[Marquette, Michigan|Marquette]]
* [[Moissac]]
* [[Naumburg]]
* [[Obermarsberg]]
* [[Peterborough]]
* [[Philadelphia]]
* [[Póvoa de Varzim]]
* [[Poznań]]
* [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]]
* [[Pubnico (village), Nova Scotia|Pubnico]]
| Valign="top"|
* [[Regensburg]]
* [[Rio Grande do Sul]]
* [[Rome]]
* [[St. Petersburg, Florida]]
* [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]]
* [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]
* [[San Pedro, Laguna]]
* [[San Pedro Soloma]]
* [[Scranton, Pennsylvania|Scranton]]
* [[Seixal Municipality]]
* [[Sunderland, Tyne and Wear|Sunderland]]
* [[Sintra]]
* [[Holsbeek|Sint-Pieters-Rode]]
* [[Siuntio]]
* [[Tielt]]
* [[Toa Baja]]
* [[Trier]]
* [[Umbria, Italy|Umbria]]
* [[Worms, Germany|Worms]]
|}

== Revisionist views ==
[[L. Michael White]] suggests that there was a serious division between Peter's [[Jewish Christian]] party and Paul's Hellenizing party, seen in, e.g., the [[Incident at Antioch]], which later Christian accounts have downplayed.<ref>White, L. Michael (2004), ''From Jesus to Christianity'', Harper San Francisco, p. 170 {{ISBN|0-06-052655-6}}.</ref>

Another revisionist view was developed by supporters of the [[Christ myth theory]], which holds that the figure of Peter is largely a development from mythological doorkeeper figures. According to [[Arthur Drews]] and [[George Albert Wells]], if there was a historical Peter, then all that is known about him is the brief mentions in the [[Epistle to the Galatians]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.egodeath.com/arthurdrewslegendstpeter.htm |title=Arthur Drews – The Legend of St. Peter |publisher=Egodeath.com |date=10 October 2005 |access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref><ref>George Albert Wells, "St. Peter as Bishop of Rome".</ref>

== See also ==
{{Saint Peter}}
* ''[[Apocalypse of Simeon Kepha]]''
* [[List of Catholic saints]]
* [[List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources]]
* [[List of popes]]
* [[Peter in Islam|Saint Peter in Islam]]
* [[Saint Peter and Judaism]]
* [[Saint Peter's Square]]
* [[Saint Peter's tomb]]
* [[San Pietro in Vincoli]]
* [[St. Peter's Basilica]]
* [[Sword of Saint Peter]]
{{Clear}}


== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
<!-- B -->
* {{Cite book |last=Bockmuehl |first=Markus N. A. |date=2010 |title=The Remembered Peter - In Ancient Reception and Modern Debate |publisher=[[Mohr Siebeck]]}}
<!-- D -->
* {{Cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |editor=Lee Martin McDonald |editor2=James A. Sanders |title=The Canon Debate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxW-AgAAQBAJ |date=2001 |publisher=Baker |isbn=978-1-4412-4163-4 |chapter=Has the Canon a Continuing Function}}
<!-- H -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Susan Tyler |last2=Tutu |first2=Mpho |author-link2=Mpho Tutu |last3=Esposito |first3=John L. |title=Geography of Religion - Where God Lives, where Pilgrims Walk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elbuAAAAMAAJ |date=2004 |publisher=[[National Geographic]] |isbn=978-0-7922-7317-2}}
<!-- J -->
* {{Cite book |last=Jobes |first=Karen |date=2005 |title=Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament: 1 Peter |publisher=[[Baker Publishing Group]]}}
<!-- K -->
* {{Cite journal |last=Kruger |first=Michael J. |date=1999 |title=The Authenticity of 2 Peter |journal=Journal of Evangelical Society |volume=42 |number=4 |pages=645–671}}
<!-- L -->
* {{Cite book |last1=Lüdemann |first1=Gerd |last2=Özen |first2=Alf |date=1996 |title=De opstanding van Jezus - Een historische benadering (Was mit Jesus wirklich geschah. Die Auferstehung historisch betrachtet / The Resurrection of Christ: A Historical Inquiry) |publisher=[[Averbode (publisher)|Averbode]] |isbn=978-9-02594-665-4}}
<!-- P -->
* {{Cite book |last=Pagels |first=Elaine |date=2005 |title=De Gnostische Evangelien (The Gnostic Gospels) |publisher=Servire}}

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Saint Peter Spoken Version.ogg|date=10 November 2013}}
* [http://www.churchfathers.org/category/the-church-and-the-papacy/peters-primacy/ Church Fathers on the Peter's Primacy] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711044612/http://www.churchfathers.org/category/the-church-and-the-papacy/peters-primacy/ |date=11 July 2012}}
* [http://www.churchfathers.org/category/the-church-and-the-papacy/peters-successors/ Church Fathers on Peter's Successors] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626211430/http://www.churchfathers.org/category/the-church-and-the-papacy/peters-successors/ |date=26 June 2018}}
* [http://www.catholicrevelations.com/category/saints/the-life-of-st-peter-the-apostle-saint-pope-apostle-of-the-catholic-church.html The Life & Miracles of St. Peter, Prince of the Apostles]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050617085800/http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/Cephas.htm Etymology of Peter] (archived 17 June 2005)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110704/http://wikinoah.org/index.php/Simon_Kefa_(Peter)_bar_Jonah The Jewish St Peter] (archived 28 September 2007)
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=790&letter=S&search=Simon%20Peter Jewish Encyclopedia: Simon Cephas]
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Peter, St |volume=21 |pages=285–288 |first=Kirsopp |last=Lake |short=1}}
* [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=100202 Veneration of the Precious Chains of the Holy and All-Glorious Apostle Peter] Orthodox [[icon]] and [[synaxarion]]
* [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=101841 The Holy Glorious and All-Praised Leader of the Apostles, Peter] icon and synaxarion
* [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=101840 The Holy Glorious and All-Praised Leader of the Apostles, Peter & Paul] sermon of Saint Augustine, Bishop of Hippo
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071013083832/http://catholic.com/library/Was_Peter_in_Rome.asp Catholic response to Protestant claims that Peter never visited Rome] (archived 13 October 2007)
* [http://www.stpetersbasilica.org/tours.htm stpetersbasilica.org] Books on St. Peter's Basilica in Rome

{{S-start}}
{{S-rel|ca}}
{{Succession box
| before = Debut
| title  = [[List of popes|Pope]]
| years  = before 64
| after  = [[Pope Linus|Linus]]
}}
{{Succession box
| before = Debut
| title  = [[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Bishop of Antioch]]
| years  = 37–53
| after  = [[Saint Evodius|Evodius]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Apostles}}
{{New Testament people}}
{{Popes}}
{{Navboxes
| title = Other articles relating to Saint Peter
| list1 = 
{{Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch}}
{{Catholic saints}}
{{First Epistle of Peter}}
{{Coptic saints}}
}}

{{Subject bar
| book1 = Apostles in the New Testament
| portal1 = Biography
| portal2 = History
| portal3 = Catholicism
| portal4 = Saints
| portal5 = Christianity
| commons = y
| s = y
| q = y
| d = y
| d-search = Q33923
}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Peter, Saint}}
[[Category:1st-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:1st-century Jews]]
[[Category:1st-century people]]
[[Category:60s deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish fishermen]]
[[Category:Asian popes]]
[[Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy]]
[[Category:Christian saints from the New Testament]]
[[Category:Patriarchs of Antioch]]
[[Category:People executed by crucifixion]]
[[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:People from Bethsaida]]
[[Category:Saint Peter| ]]
[[Category:Saints from the Holy Land]]
[[Category:Twelve Apostles]]
[[Category:Christian miracle workers]]
[[Category:Burials at St. Peter's Basilica]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]
[[Category:1st-century popes]]
[[Category:People in Acts of the Apostles]]
[[Category:People in the Gospel of John]]