View source for Syriac language

{{short description|Dialect of Middle Aramaic}}
{{About|Classical Syriac or Edessan Aramaic|the alphabet|Syriac alphabet|Neo-Aramaic languages|Turoyo|and|Suret language|Syro-Palestinian or Christian Palestinian Syriac|Christian Palestinian Aramaic}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Syriac
| altname          = Classical Syriac<br/>Edessan Aramaic
| nativename       = {{lang|syc|ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ}}, ''{{transliteration|syc|Leššānā Suryāyā}}''
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|syc|lɛʃˈʃɑːnɑː surˈjɑːjɑː|}}
| image            = Syriac - Estrangelo Nisibin Calligraphy.png
| imagescale       = 
| imagecaption     = '''Leššānā Suryāyā''' in written Syriac (Esṭrangelā script)
| region           = [[Fertile Crescent]] (northern [[Iraq]], northwestern [[Iran]], [[Syria]], southeastern [[Turkey]], [[Lebanon]], [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]), [[Eastern Arabia]] ([[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Qatar]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Mario Kozah |author2=Abdulrahim Abu-Husayn |author3=Saif Shaheen Al-Murikhi |author4=Haya Al Thani |authorlink2=Abdulrahim Abu-Husayn|title=The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century |date=9 December 2014 |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=9781463236649 |pages=298 |language=English |quote=The Syriac writers of Qatar themselves produced some of the best and most sophisticated writing to be found in all Syriac literature of the seventh century, but they have not received the scholarly attention that they deserve in the last half century. This volume seeks to redress this underdevelopment by setting the standard for further research in the sub-field of Beth Qatraye studies.}}</ref>), [[Malabar Coast]] of [[India]]{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=637–652}}
| era              = 1st century AD; declined as a [[vernacular language]] after the 13th century; still in liturgical use
| ref              = {{sfn|Healey|2012|p=637, 649}}
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2             = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
| fam3             = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
| fam4             = [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
| fam5             = [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
| fam6             = [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
| fam7             = [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]]
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Afroasiatic]]
| ancestor2        = [[Proto-Semitic]]
| ancestor3        = [[Old Aramaic]]
| ancestor4        = [[Middle Aramaic]]
| ancestor5        = [[Eastern Middle Aramaic]]
| script           = [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac abjad]]
| minority         = [[Turkey]]<ref>Akbulut, Olgun (19 October 2023). "For Centenary of the Lausanne Treaty: Re-Interpretation and Re-Implementation of Linguistic Minority Rights of Lausanne". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. -1 (aop): 1–24. doi:10.1163/15718115-bja10134. ISSN 1385-4879. S2CID 264412993.</ref>
| iso2             = syc
| iso2comment      = 
| iso3             = syc
| iso3comment      = 
| glotto           = clas1252
| glottorefname    = Classical Syriac
| notice           = IPA
| ethnicity        = 
| dia1             = West-Syriac
| dia2             = East-Syriac
}}
{{Special characters
| image            = Shlama.svg
| alt              = 
| link             = http://www.bethmardutho.org/meltho/
| special          = Syriac text, written from right to left in a cursive style with some letters joined
| fix              = Help:Multilingual_support#Syriac/Aramaic script
| characters       = [[Syriac script]]
| error            = unjoined Syriac letters or other symbols
}}

The '''Syriac language''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪr|i|æ|k}} {{respell|SIRR|ee|ak}}; {{langx|link=no|syc|ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ|Leššānā Suryāyā}}),{{efn|Classical, unvocalized spelling; with Eastern Syriac vowels: {{lang|syc|ܠܸܫܵܢܵܐ ܣܘܼܪܝܵܝܵܐ}}; with Western Syriac vowels: {{lang|syc|ܠܶܫܳ݁ܢܳܐ ܣܽܘܪܝܳܝܳܐ}}.}} also known natively in its spoken form in early [[Syriac literature]] as '''Edessan''' ({{translit|syc|Urhāyā}}), the '''Mesopotamian language''' ({{translit|syc|Nahrāyā}}) and '''Aramaic''' ({{translit|syc|Aramāyā}}), is an [[Aramaic#Eastern Middle Aramaic|Eastern Middle Aramaic]] dialect.<ref>{{cite book |title=Religious Origins of Nations? |date=2010 |isbn=9789004173750 |page=106 |publisher=BRILL |language=English |quote=In the grammar of [[Jacob of Edessa]], the Syriac language is in fact called mamllā Urhāyā (2a9) or leššānā Urhāyā (2b, 12-13), mamllā Nahrāyā (2b, 19-20), the Edessan or Mesopotamian tongue or language.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Syriac World |isbn=9780300271256 |page=1 |language=English |quote=The fact that the Syriac language can be known as suryāyā (the adjectival form of "Syrian" in the old sense), aramāyā (formed from "Aramean"), or urhāyā (formed from the Aramaic name Edessa, Urhay) shows the complexity of identity and self-definition within this culture. |last1=Chatonnet |first1=Francoise Briquel |last2=Debie |first2=Muriel |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Eusebius, Christianity and Judaism |date=4 October 2022 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004509139 |page=226 |language=English |quote=Syriac is nothing other than a literary dialect of Aramaic which possesses its own distinctive script. Early Syriac writers use a variety of terms to refer to the language, but besides the more general terms "Aramaya" (Aramaic) and "Suryaya" (Syriac), a third term stands out, "Urhaya," the dialect of Urhay/Edessa, or "Edessene (Aramaic)". The existence of this term must indicate that Syriac, which came to be adopted as the literary and cultural language of Aramaic-speaking Christians throughout the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire and over the border in the Sassanid Empire, started out as the local Aramaic dialect of Edessa.}}</ref> '''Classical Syriac''' is the academic term used to refer to the dialect's literary usage and standardization, distinguishing it from other Aramaic dialects also known as 'Syriac' or 'Syrian'.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Semitic Languages |isbn=9780300271256 |page=638 |language=English |quote=This chapter summarizes linguistic data on Classical Syriac, one of the best attested of the literary dialects of Aramaic (alongside Jewish Aramaic and Mandaic). Classical Syriac survives in restricted ecclesiastical and literary use. |last1=Chatonnet |first1=Francoise Briquel |last2=Debie |first2=Muriel |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Yale University Press }}</ref> In its [[West-Syriac Rite|West-Syriac]] tradition, Classical Syriac is often known as {{translit|syc|leššōnō kṯoḇonōyō}} ({{lit|the written language or the book language}}) or simply {{translit|syc|kṯoḇonōyō}}, or {{translit|syc|kṯowonōyō}},<ref name=kthobonoyo>{{cite journal |last=Kiraz |first=George A. |date=2020-03-04 |title=Kthobonoyo Syriac: Some Observations and Remarks |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=113–124 |doi=10.31826/hug-2011-100113 |s2cid=188192926 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://syriacpress.com/blog/2022/02/27/about-the-origin-of-the-lebanese-language/|title=About the origin of the Lebanese language (I)
|last=Iskandar|first=Amine|date=27 February 2022|website=syriacpress.com|publisher=Syriacpress}}</ref> while in its [[East-Syriac Rite|East-Syriac]] tradition, it is known as {{translit|syc|leššānā ʔatīqā}} ({{lit|the old language}}) or {{translit|syc|saprāyā}} ({{lit|scribal or literary}}).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Shabo Talay |title=Die neuaramäischen Dialekte der Khabur-Assyrer in Nordostsyrien |date=2008 |publisher=Harrassowitz |isbn=9783447057028 |pages=8–9 |language=German}}</ref>

It emerged during the first century AD from a local [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] dialect that was spoken in the ancient region of [[Osroene]], centered in the city of [[Edessa]]. During the [[Early Christian]] period, it became the main [[literary language]] of various Aramaic-speaking Christian communities in the historical region of [[Syria (region)|Ancient Syria]] and throughout the [[Near East]]. As a [[liturgical language]] of [[Syriac Christianity]], it gained a prominent role among [[Eastern Christian]] communities that used both [[Eastern Syriac Rite|Eastern Syriac]] and [[Western Syriac Rite|Western Syriac]] rites. Following the spread of Syriac Christianity, it also became a liturgical language of eastern Christian communities as far as [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|India]] and [[Church of the East in China|China]]. It flourished from the 4th to the 8th century, and continued to have an important role during the next centuries, but by the end of the [[Middle Ages]] it was gradually reduced to liturgical use, since the role of [[vernacular language]] among its native speakers was overtaken by several emerging [[Neo-Aramaic languages]].{{sfn|Brock|1998|p=708-719}}{{sfn|Butts|2011|p=390-391}}{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=637-652}}{{sfn|Butts|2018|p=137-165}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=222-242}}

Classical Syriac is written in the [[Syriac alphabet]], a derivation of the [[Aramaic alphabet]]. The language is preserved in a large body of [[Syriac literature]], which comprises roughly 90% of the extant Aramaic literature.{{sfn|Brock|1989a|p=11–23}} Along with [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin language|Latin]], Syriac became one of the three most important languages of [[Early Christianity]].{{sfn|Brock|2005|p=5-20}} Already from the first and second centuries AD, the inhabitants of the region of Osroene began to embrace Christianity, and by the third and fourth centuries, local Edessan Aramaic language became the vehicle of the specific Christian culture that came to be known as Syriac Christianity. Because of theological differences, Syriac-speaking Christians diverged during the 5th century into the [[Church of the East]] that followed the East Syriac Rite under [[Sasanian Empire|Persian]] rule, and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] that followed the West Syriac Rite under the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule.{{sfn|Beyer|1986|p=44}}

As a liturgical language of Syriac Christianity, Classical Syriac spread throughout Asia as far as the Southwestern India ([[Malabar Coast]]),{{sfn|Neill|2004|p=38}} and [[Eastern China]],{{sfn|Briquel-Chatonnet|2012|p=652–659}} and became the medium of communication and cultural dissemination for the later [[Arabs]], and (to a lesser extent) the other peoples of [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and Sasanian empires. Primarily a Christian medium of expression, Syriac had a fundamental cultural and literary influence on the development of [[Arabic]],{{sfn|Weninger|2012|p=747–755}} which largely replaced it during the later medieval period.{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=643}}

Syriac remains the sacred language of Syriac Christianity to this day.{{sfn|Brock|1992b|p=}} It is used as the liturgical language of several denominations, like those who follow the East Syriac Rite, including the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Ancient Church of the East]], the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]], and the [[Assyrian Pentecostal Church]], and also those who follow the [[West Syriac Rite]], including: [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], the [[Syriac Catholic Church]], the [[Maronite Catholic Church]], the [[Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church]], the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] and the [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]]. Classical Syriac was originally the liturgical language of the Syriac [[Melkite]]s within the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch]] in [[Antioch]] and parts of [[Syria Prima|ancient Syria]]. The Syriac Melkites changed their church's [[West Syriac Rite]] to that of [[Byzantine Rite|Constantinople]] in the 9th–11th centuries, necessitating new translations of all their Syriac liturgical books.<ref>{{cite book |title=CLASSICAL SYRIAC |publisher=Gorgias Handbooks |page=14 |language=English |quote=In contrast to "Nestorians" and "Jacobites", a small group of Syriacs accepted the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. Non-Chalcedonian Syriacs called them "Melkites" (from Aramaic {{translit|syc|malka}} "king"), thereby connecting them to the Byzantine Emperor's denomination. Melkite Syriacs were mostly concentrated around Antioch and adjacent regions of northern Syria and used Syriac as their literary and liturgical language. The Melkite community also included the Aramaic-speaking Jewish converts to Christianity in Palestine and the Orthodox Christians of Transjordan. During the 5th–6th centuries, they were engaged in literary work (mainly translation) in Palestinian Christian Aramaic, a Western Aramaic dialect, using a script closely resembling the Estrangela cursive of Osrhoene.}}</ref><ref>"JACOB BARCLAY, Melkite Orthodox Syro-Byzantine Manuscripts in Syriac and Palestinian Aramaic" quote from the German book Internationale Zeitschriftenschau für Bibelwissenschaft und Grenzgebiete, p. 291</ref><ref>"The west Syriac tradition covers the Syriac Orthodox, Maronite, and Melkite churches, though the Melkites changed their Church's rite to that of Constantinople in the 9th–11th centuries, which required new translations of all its liturgical books.", quote from the book The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, p.917</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Arman Akopian |title=Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies |date=11 December 2017 |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=9781463238933 |pages=573 |language=English |chapter=Other branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites |quote= The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th–6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene. Palestinian Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.}}</ref>

==Name==
[[File:Syriac Sertâ book script.jpg|thumb|265px|An 11th-century Syriac [[manuscript]]]]

In the [[English language]], the term "Syriac" is used as a [[linguonym]] (language name) designating a specific variant of the [[Aramaic language]] in relation to its regional origin in northeastern parts of [[Ancient Syria]], around [[Edessa]], which lay outside of the provincial borders of [[Roman Syria]]. Since Aramaic was used by various Middle Eastern peoples, having several variants ([[dialects]]), this specific dialect that originated in northeastern Syria became known under its regional (Syrian/Syriac) designation (''Suryaya'').{{sfn|Robinson|Coakley|2013|p=1-2}}

In English [[scholarly literature]], the term "Syriac" is preferred over the alternative form "Syrian", since the latter is much more [[polysemic]] and commonly relates to [[Syria]] in general.{{sfn|Robinson|Coakley|2013|p=1, note 1}} That distinction is used in English as a [[Convention (norm)|convention]] and does not exist on the ancient [[endonymic]] level.{{sfn|Millar|2006|p=107-109}} Several compound terms like "Syriac Aramaic", "Syrian Aramaic" or "Syro-Aramaic" are also used, thus emphasizing both the Aramaic nature of the language and its Syrian/Syriac regional origin.

===Endonyms and exonyms===
[[File:Aramaic alphabet.jpg|thumb|265px|The Syriac alphabet]]

Early native speakers and writers used several [[endonymic]] terms as designations for their language. In addition to common endonym (native name) for the [[Aramaic language]] in general (''Aramaya''), another endonymic term was also used, designating more specifically the local Edessan dialect, known as ''Urhaya'', a term derived directly from the native Aramaic name for the city of [[Edessa]] (''Urhay'').{{sfn|Brock|1992a|p=16}}{{sfn|Brock|1992c|p=226}}{{sfn|Butts|2011|p=390-391}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=222}} Among similar endonymic names with regional connotations, term ''Nahraya'' was also used. It was derived from [[choronym]] (regional name) [[Bet-Nahrain]], an Aramaic name for [[Mesopotamia]] in general.{{sfn|Butts|2011|p=390-391}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=222}}

[[File:East Syriac Script Thaksa.jpg|thumb|265px|Late Syriac text, written in ''Madnhāyā'' script, from [[Thrissur]], [[Kerala]], [[India]], 1799]]

Original endonymic (native) designations, for Aramaic in general (''Aramaya''), and Edessan Aramaic in particular (''Urhaya''), were later (starting from the 5th century) accompanied by another term, [[exonymic]] (foreign) in origin: ''Suryaya'' (Syrian/Syriac), adopted under the influence of a long-standing Greek custom of referring to speakers of Aramaic as ''Syrians''. Among ancient Greeks, term "Syrian language" was used as a common designation for Aramaic language in general, and such usage was also reflected in Aramaic, by subsequent (acquired) use of the term "Suryaya" as the most preferred [[synonym]] for "Aramaya" (Aramaic).{{sfn|Brock|1992c|p=226}}{{sfn|Brock|Taylor|2001|p=8}}{{sfn|Brock|Coakley|2011|p=30-31}}{{sfn|Butts|2011|p=390-391}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=222}}{{sfn|Minov|2020|p=256-257}}

Practice of interchangeable naming (Aramaya, Urhaya, Nahraya, and Suryaya) persisted for centuries, in common use and also in works of various prominent writers. One of those who used various terms was theologian [[Jacob of Edessa]] (d. 708), who was referring to the language as "''Syrian or Aramaic''" (Suryāyā awkēt Ārāmāyā), and also as ''Urhāyā'', when referring to Edessan Aramaic, or ''Naḥrāyā'' when pointing to the region of [[Bet-Nahrain]] (Aramaic term for [[Mesopotamia]] in general).{{sfn|Rompay|2000|p=78}}{{sfn|Debié|2009|p=106}}{{sfn|Brock|2010|p=7}}{{sfn|Farina|2018|p=182-183}}

Plurality of terms among native speakers (ārāmāyā, urhāyā, naḥrāyā, and suryāyā){{sfn|Butts|2011|p=390-391}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=222}} was not reflected in Greek and Latin terminology, that preferred Syrian/Syriac designation, and the same preference was adopted by later scholars, with one important distinction: in western scholarly use, Syrian/Syriac label was subsequently reduced from the original Greek designation for Aramaic language in general to a more specific (narrower) designation for Edessan Aramaic language, that in its literary and liturgical form came to be known as ''Classical Syriac''.{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=638}} That reduction resulted in the creation of a specific field of [[Syriac studies]], within [[Aramaic studies]].

[[File:Awondwashmayanetqaddash.png|thumb|265px|The [[Lord's Prayer]] in Syriac language]]

Preference of early scholars towards the use of the Syrian/Syriac label was also relied upon its notable use as an alternative designation for Aramaic language in the "''[[Cave of Treasures]]''",{{sfn|Ruzer|2014|p=196-197}} long held to be the 4th century work of an authoritative writer and revered Christian saint [[Ephrem of Edessa]] (d. 373), who was thus believed to be proponent of various linguistic notions and tendencies expressed in the mentioned work.{{sfn|Rubin|1998|p=322-323}} Since modern scholarly analyses have shown that the work in question was written much later ({{circa}} 600) by an unknown author,{{sfn|Toepel|2013|p=531-584}}{{sfn|Minov|2017|p=129-229}} several questions had to be reexamined. In regard to the scope and usage of Syrian/Syriac labels in linguistic terminology, some modern scholars have noted that diversity of Aramaic dialects in the wider historical [[Syria (region)|region of Syria]] should not be overlooked by improper and unspecific use of Syrian/Syriac labels.{{sfn|Taylor|2002|p=303}}{{sfn|Shepardson|2019|p=140}}

Diversity of Aramaic dialects was recorded by [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] (d. {{circa|466}}), who accepted Syrian/Syriac labels as common Greek designations for the Aramaic language in general, stating that "the Osroënians, the Syrians, the people of the Euphrates, the Palestinians, and the Phoenicians all speak Syriac, but with many differences in pronunciation".{{sfn|Petruccione|Hill|p=343}} Theodoret's regional (provincial) differentiation of Aramaic dialects included an explicit distinction between the "Syrians" (as Aramaic speakers of [[Roman Syria|Syria]] proper, western of [[Euphrates]]), and the "Osroenians" as Aramaic speakers of [[Osroene]] (eastern region, centered in [[Edessa]]), thus showing that dialect of the "Syrians" (Aramaic speakers of proper Syria) was known to be different from that of the "Osroenians" (speakers of Edessan Aramaic).{{sfn|Brock|1994|p=149}}{{sfn|Taylor|2002|p=302}}

Native ([[endonymic]]) use of the term ''Aramaic language'' (Aramaya/Oromoyo) among its speakers has continued throughout the medieval period, as attested by the works of prominent writers, including the Oriental Orthodox Patriarch [[Michael I of Antioch|Michael of Antioch]] (d. 1199).{{sfn|Weltecke|2009|p=115-125}}

===Wider and narrower meanings===
[[File:Roman Orpheus Taming Wild Animals.jpg|thumb|265px|An ancient mosaic from [[Edessa]], from the 2nd century AD, with inscriptions in early Edessan Aramaic (''Old Syriac'')]]

Since the proper dating of the ''[[Cave of Treasures]]'',{{sfn|Toepel|2013|p=531-539}} modern scholars were left with no indications of native Aramaic adoption of Syrian/Syriac labels before the 5th century. In the same time, a growing body of later sources showed that both in Greek, and in native literature, those labels were most commonly used as designations for Aramaic language in general, including its various dialects (both eastern and western),{{sfn|Millar|2013|p=49}} thus challenging the conventional scholarly reduction of the term "Syriac language" to a specific designation for Edessan Aramaic. Such use, that excludes non-Edessan dialects, and particularly those of [[Western Aramaic language|Western Aramaic]] provenience,{{sfn|Rompay|2008|p=366}}{{sfn|Brock|2011|p=96-97}} persist as an accepted convention, but in the same time stands in contradiction both with original Greek, and later native (acquired) uses of Syrian/Syriac labels as common designations for [[Aramaic language]] in general.

[[File:Ambrosianus F128.png|thumb|265px|Syriac "Codex Ambrosianus" (F. 128) from the 11th century (CORRECTION: here the text is in Greek cursive)]]

Those problems were addressed by prominent scholars, including [[Theodor Nöldeke]] (d. 1930) who noted on several occasions that term "''Syriac language''" has come to have two distinctive meanings, wider and narrower, with first (historical and wider) serving as a common [[synonym]] for Aramaic language in general, while other (conventional and narrower) designating only the Edessan Aramaic, also referred to more specifically as the "''Classical Syriac''".{{sfn|Nöldeke|1886|p=649}}{{sfn|Nöldeke|1904|p=XXXI}}

Noting the problem, scholars have tried to resolve the issue by being more consistent in their use of the term "''Classical Syriac''" as a strict and clear scientific designation for the old literary and liturgical language, but the consistency of such use was never achieved within the field.{{sfn|Brock|1989b|p=363–375}}{{sfn|Rompay|1994|p=72}}{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=638}}{{sfn|Gzella|2015|p=367}}{{sfn|Gzella|2019|p=205-207}}

[[File:Bilingual Syriac-New Persian psalter in Syriac script, Bulayik, 12th-13th century AD, paper - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01760.JPG|thumb|265px|A bilingual Syriac and Neo-Persian [[psalter]], in Syriac script, from the 12th–13th century]]

Inconsistent use of "Syrian/Syriac" labels in scholarly literature has led some researchers to raise additional questions, related not only to terminological issues but also to some more fundamental (methodological) problems, that were undermining the integrity of the field.{{sfn|Ishow|1978|p=359-365}} Attempts to resolve those issues were unsuccessful, and in many scholarly works, related to the old literary and liturgical language, reduction of the term "''Classical Syriac''" to "''Syriac''" (only) remained a manner of convenience, even in titles of works, including encyclopedic entries, thus creating a large body of unspecific references, that became a base for the emergence of several new classes of terminological problems at the advent of the [[informational era]]. Those problems culminated during the process of [[international standardization]] of the terms "''Syriac''" and "''Classical Syriac''" within the [[ISO 639]] and [[MARC standards|MARC]] systems.

The term "''Classical Syriac''" was accepted in 2007 and codified (ISO code: [https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=511 syc]) as a designation for the old literary and liturgical language, thus confirming the proper use of the term.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/code_changes_bycode.php?code_ID=511 |title=ISO 639-2 Registration Authority: Change History (syc) |website=Library of Congress |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> In the same time, within the MARC standard, code syc was accepted as designation for ''Classical Syriac'', but under the name "''Syriac''", while the existing general code syr, that was until then named "''Syriac''", was renamed to "''Syriac, Modern''".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/marc/tn071022.html |title=Additions to MARC Code List for Languages |date=2007-10-22 |website=Library of Congress |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> Within ISO 639 system, large body of unspecific references related to various linguistic uses of the term "''Syriac''" remained related to the original [[ISO 639-2]] code syr (''Syriac''),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=434 |title=ISO 639-2 Registration Authority: Change History (syr) |website=Library of Congress |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> but its scope is defined within the [[ISO 639-3]] standard as a [[macrolanguage]] that currently includes only some of the [[Neo-Aramaic]] languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/syr |title=639 Identifier Documentation: syr |website=SIL.org |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> Such differences in classification, both terminological and substantial, within systems and between systems (ISO and MARC), led to the creation of several additional problems, that remain unresolved.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://syriaca.org/documentation/isostandards.html |title=Language and Script Identifiers |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref>

Within linguistics, mosaic of terminological ambiguities related to Syrian/Syriac labels was additionally enriched by introduction of the term "''Palaeo-Syrian language''" as a variant designation for the ancient [[Eblaite language]] from the third millennium BC,{{sfn|Garbini|1981|p=81}}{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=51-52}} that is unrelated to the much later Edessan Aramaic, and its early phases, that were commonly labeled as Old/Proto- or even Paleo/Palaeo-Syrian/Syriac in scholarly literature. Newest addition to the terminological mosaic occurred {{circa|2014}}, when it was proposed, also by a scholar, that one of regional dialects of the [[Old Aramaic]] language from the first centuries of the [[1st millennium BC]] should be called "''Central Syrian Aramaic''",{{sfn|Gzella|2014|p=73}}{{sfn|Gzella|2015|p=11, 67–87}} thus introducing another ambiguous term, that can be used, in its generic meaning, to any local variant of Aramaic that occurred in central regions of Syria during any period in history.

After more than five centuries of [[Syriac studies]], which were founded by western scholars at the end of the 15th century,{{sfn|Burnett|2005|p=421-436}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|2019|p=751-769}} main terminological issues related to the name and classification of the language known as Edessan Aramaic, and also referred to by several other names combined of Syrian/Syriac labels, remain opened and unsolved. Some of those issues have special [[sociolinguistic]] and [[ethnolinguistic]] significance for the remaining [[Neo-Aramaic]] speaking communities.{{sfn|Heinrichs|1990|p=}}

Since the occurrence of major political changes in the [[Near East]] (2003), those issues have acquired additional complexity, related to legal recognition of the language and its name.{{sfn|Naby|2004|p=197-203}} In the [[Constitution of Iraq]] (Article 4), adopted in 2005, and also in subsequent legislation, term "''Syriac''" ({{langx|ar|السريانية|al-suriania}}) is used as official designation for the language of [[Neo-Aramaic]]-speaking communities,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://zaidalali.bookswarm.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Iraqs-constitution-FINAL-official-gazette-copy.pdf |title=Constitution of the Republic of Iraq |work=Official Gazette of Iraq |volume=4012 |date=2005-12-28 |language=ar |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304074809/http://www.iraqinationality.gov.iq/attach/iraqi_constitution.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-04 |access-date=2023-02-21 |language=en |title=Iraqi Constitution}}</ref> thus opening additional questions related to linguistic and cultural identity of those communities. Legal and other practical (educational and informational) aspects of the linguistic [[self-identification]] also arose throughout Syriac-speaking [[diaspora]], particularly in European countries (Germany, Sweden, Netherlands).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://userblogs.fu-berlin.de/saop/events/who-are-we/project-description |title=Surayt-Aramaic Online Project (SAOP) |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Syriac Christianity.svg|thumb|265px|alt=The distribution of the Syriac language in Asia|Once a major language in the [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Eastern Arabia]], Syriac is now limited to the towns and villages in the [[Nineveh Plains]], [[Tur Abdin]], the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] plains, in and around the cities of [[Mosul]], [[Erbil]] and [[Kirkuk]].]]

Syriac was the local [[dialect]] of Aramaic in [[Edessa]], and evolved under the influence of the [[Church of the East]] and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] into its current form. Before Arabic became the dominant language, Syriac was a major language among Christian communities in the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]] and the [[Malabar Coast]] in [[India]],{{sfn|Neill|2004|p=38}} and remains so among the [[Terms for Syriac Christians|Syriac Christians]] to this day. It has been found as far afield as [[Hadrian's Wall]] in [[Great Britain]], with inscriptions written by Aramaic-speaking soldiers of the [[Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Healey|2009|p=13}}

==History==
[[File:Syriac Dialects EN.svg|thumb|265px|The modern distribution of [[Neo-Aramaic languages]], including Neo-Syriac groups]]
[[File:Early Syriac alphabet form of the name of Jesus.svg|thumb|265px|''Īšoˁ'', the Syriac pronunciation of the Hebrew and Aramaic name of [[Jesus]], ''Ishoʿ'']]

History of Syriac language is divided into several successive periods, defined primarily by linguistic, and also by cultural criteria. Some terminological and chronological distinctions exist between different classifications, that were proposed among scholars.{{sfn|Kim|2008|p=506-509}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-231}}

* "Old Syriac" (Old-Edessan Aramaic), represents the earliest stage in development of the language, that emerged by the beginning of the first century AD as the main Aramaic dialect in the region of [[Osroene]], centered in [[Edessa]], and continued to develop during the next two or three centuries, gradually gaining wider regional significance.{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}}{{sfn|Healey|2008|p=221-229}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-227}}
* "Middle Syriac" (Middle-Edessan Aramaic), most commonly known as "Classical Syriac" or "Literary Syriac" ({{lang|syr|ܟܬܒܢܝܐ}} ''{{transliteration|syr|Kṯāḇānāyā}}''), represents the most important period in the history of the language, marked by notable literary, liturgical and cultural development and expansion, from the third to the thirteenth century. The period is further subdivided into three stages:
** Early Classical Syriac (Pre-Classical Syriac), represents the earliest stage in development of Classical Syriac during the third and fourth century, preceding the later linguistic standardization.{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=227-230}}
** Classical Syriac (in the narrower sense of the term), represents the main, standardized stage in development of Classical Syriac, from the fourth century up to the eighth century.{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=230-231}}
** Late Classical Syriac (Post-Classical Syriac), represents the later, somewhat declining stage in development of Classical Syriac, from the eighth century up to the twelfth or thirteenth century.{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=231}}
* "Modern Syriac" (Neo-Syriac Aramaic) represents modern [[Neo-Aramaic languages]].{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=70}}{{sfn|Kim|2008|p=505-531}} Neo-Syriac languages did not develop directly from Classical Syriac, but rather from closely related dialects belonging to the same branch of Aramaic. Those dialects have long co-existed with Classical Syriac as a liturgical and literary language, and were significantly influenced by it during the [[late medieval]] and [[early modern]] period.{{sfn|Murre van den Berg|2008|pp=335–352}} Modern Syriac is divided into:
** Modern Eastern Syriac ([[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]]), including primarily [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] and [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]]. The term is usually not used in reference to [[Neo-Mandaic]], another variety of Eastern Aramaic spoken by the [[Mandaeans]].
** Modern Western Syriac ([[Central Neo-Aramaic]]), including ([[Turoyo language|Turoyo]] and [[Mlahsô language|Mlahsô]]).{{sfn|Lipiński|2001|p=70}}

=== Origins ===
[[File:Alter Orient 0100AD.svg|thumb|265px|The [[Linguistic homeland]] of Edessan Aramaic: the [[Kingdom of Osroene]] between the Romans and Parthians, in the 1st century AD]]

During the first three centuries of the [[Common Era]], a local Aramaic dialect spoken in the [[Kingdom of Osroene]], centered in [[Edessa]], eastern of [[Euphrates]], started to gain prominence and regional significance. There are about eighty extant early inscriptions, written in Old-Edessan Aramaic, dated to the first three centuries AD, with the earliest inscription being dated to the 6th year AD, and the earliest parchment to 243&nbsp;AD. All of these early examples of the language are non-Christian.{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}}{{sfn|Healey|2008|p=221-229}}{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=641-642}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-247}}

As a language of public life and administration in the region of Osroene, Edessan Aramaic was gradually given a relatively coherent form, style and grammar that is lacking in other Aramaic dialects of the same period. Since Old-Edessan Aramaic later developed into Classical Syriac, it was retroactively labeled by western scholars as "Old Syrian/Syriac" or "Proto-Syrian/Syriac", although the [[linguistic homeland]] of the language in the region of Osroene, was never part of contemporary (Roman) [[Roman Syria|Syria]].{{sfn|Healey|2007|p=115–127}}{{sfn|Healey|2008|p=221-229}}{{sfn|Healey|2012|p=641-642}}{{sfn|Butts|2019|p=225-247}}

=== Literary Syriac ===
[[File:6thBeatitude.svg|thumb|400px|The sixth [[Beatitudes|beatitude]] ([[Matthew 5:8]]) from an East Syriac Peshitta.<br />{{lang|syr|ܛܘܼܒܲܝܗܘܿܢ ܠܐܲܝܠܹܝܢ ܕܲܕ݂ܟܹܝܢ ܒܠܸܒ̇ܗܘܿܢ܄ ܕܗܸܢ݂ܘܿܢ ܢܸܚܙܘܿܢ ܠܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ܂}}<br />''{{transliteration|syr|Ṭūḇayhōn l-ʾaylên da-ḏḵên b-lebbhōn, d-hennōn neḥzōn l-ʾălāhā}}.''<br />"Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God."]]
{{Further|Syriac literature}}

In the 3rd century, churches in [[Edessa]] began to use local Aramaic dialect as the language of worship. Early literary efforts were focused on creation of an authoritative Aramaic translation of the Bible, the [[Peshitta]] ({{lang|syr|ܦܫܝܛܬܐ}} {{transliteration|syr|Pšīṭtā}}).{{sfn|Peursen|2008|231–256}} At the same time, [[Ephrem the Syrian]] was producing the most treasured collection of poetry and theology in the Edessan Aramaic language, that later became known as Syriac.

In 489, many Syriac-speaking Christians living in the eastern reaches of the Roman Empire fled to the Sasanian Empire to escape persecution and growing animosity with Greek-speaking Christians.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} The Christological differences with the Church of the East led to the bitter [[Nestorian Schism]] in the Syriac-speaking world. As a result, Syriac developed distinctive western and eastern varieties. Although remaining a single language with a high level of comprehension between the varieties, the two employ distinctive variations in pronunciation and writing system, and, to a lesser degree, in vocabulary.

The Syriac language later split into a western variety, used mainly by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] in upper Mesopotamia and Syria proper, and an eastern variety used mainly by the [[Church of the East]] in central and northeastern Mesopotamia. Religious divisions were also reflected in linguistic differences between the [[West Syriac Rite|Western Syriac Rite]] and the [[East Syriac Rite|Eastern Syriac Rite]]. During the 5th and the 6th century, Syriac reached its height as the lingua franca of [[Mesopotamia]] and surrounding regions. It existed in literary (liturgical) form, as well as in vernacular forms, as the native language of Syriac-speaking populations.

Following the Arab conquest in the 7th century, vernacular forms of Syriac were gradually replaced during the next centuries by the advancing [[Arabic|Arabic language]].{{sfn|Weninger|2012|p=747–755}} Having an Aramaic (Syriac) [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]], the regional Arabic dialect ([[Mesopotamian Arabic]]) developed under the strong influence of local Aramaic (Syriac) dialects, sharing significant similarities in language structure, as well as having evident and stark influences from previous (ancient) languages of the region.{{sfn|Khan|2007|p=95-114}}{{sfn|Río Sánchez|2013|p=129-136}}
Syriac-influenced Arabic dialects developed among [[Iraqi Arabs|Iraqi Muslims]], as well as [[Christianity in Iraq|Iraqi Christians]], most of whom descend from native Syriac speakers.

Western Syriac is the official language of the [[West Syriac Rite]], practiced by the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], the [[Syriac Catholic Church]], the [[Maronite Catholic Church]], the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]], the [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]], the [[Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church]], the [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]] and some Parishes in the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Archeparchy of Kottayam|Syro-Malabar Knanaya Archeparchy of Kottayam]].

Eastern Syriac is the liturgical language of the [[East Syriac Rite]], practised in modern times by the ethnic Assyrian followers of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Assyrian Pentecostal Church]], the [[Ancient Church of the East]], the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], as well as the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]] in India.

Syriac literature is by far the most prodigious of the various Aramaic languages. Its corpus covers poetry, prose, theology, liturgy, hymnody, history, philosophy, science, medicine and natural history. Much of this wealth remains unavailable in critical editions or modern translation.

From the 7th century onwards, Syriac gradually gave way to [[Arabic]] as the spoken language of much of the region, excepting northern Iraq and Mount Lebanon. The [[Mongol invasions and conquests]] of the 13th century, and the religiously motivated massacres of Syriac Christians by [[Timur]] further contributed to the rapid decline of the language. In many places outside of [[Upper Mesopotamia]] and [[Mount Lebanon]], even in liturgy, it was replaced by Arabic.

=== Current status ===
[[File:Tabelayeke bi suryanî Dêra Zehferanê 2008.jpg|thumb|A warning sign in [[Mardin]], [[Turkey]]:
{|
! Syriac
! Turkish
|-
| {{lang|syc|ܫܬܩܐ ܒܒܥܘ}}<br>{{transliteration|syc|šeṯqā, b-ḇāʿū}}<br>'Silence, please')
| {{lang|tr|Lütfen! Sessiz olalım!}}<br>'Please! Let's be quiet!'
|} ]]
Revivals of literary Syriac in recent times have led to some success with the creation of newspapers in written Syriac ({{lang|syr|ܟܬܒܢܝܐ}} ''{{transliteration |syr|Kṯāḇānāyā}}'') similar to the use of [[Modern Standard Arabic]] has been employed since the early decades of the 20th century.{{clarify|date=September 2018|reason=Does the 20th century refer to Syriac or Arabic?}} Modern forms of literary Syriac have also been used not only in religious literature but also in secular genres, often with [[Assyrian nationalism|Assyrian nationalistic]] themes.{{sfn|Kiraz|2007|p=129-142}}

Syriac is spoken as the liturgical language of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], as well as by some of [[Syriac Orthodox Christians (Middle East)|its adherents]].{{sfn|Watt|2009|p=58}} Syriac has been recognised as an official [[minority language]] in Iraq.<ref>{{cite web |last=Anbori |first=Abbas |title=The Comprehensive Policy to Manage the Ethnic Languages in Iraq |pages=4–5 |url=http://www.turkmen.nl/1A_Others/minority-Iraq.pdf |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> It is also taught in some public schools in [[Iraq]], [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Syria]], [[Palestine]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Farhoud |first=Amira |date=2017-03-28 |title=Syriacs: Still Going Strong |url=https://bethbc.edu/blog/2017/03/28/syriacs-still-going-strong/ |access-date=2023-02-21 |website=Bethlehem Bible College |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Israel]], [[Sweden]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Dorit |first=Shilo |title=The Ben Yehudas of Aramaic |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2010-04-01/ty-article/the-ben-yehudas-of-aramaic/0000017f-e2d2-d9aa-afff-fbdaaa3d0000 |access-date=2023-02-21 |newspaper=[[Haaretz]] |date=2010-04-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syriac... a language struggling to survive |url=http://admin.iraqupdates.net/p_articles.php/article/25518 |access-date=2023-02-21 |newspaper=Voices of Iraq |date=28 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330162150/http://admin.iraqupdates.net/p_articles.php/article/25518 |archive-date=30 March 2012}}</ref> [[Augsburg]] (Germany) and [[Kerala]] (India).

In 2014, an Assyrian [[preschool|nursery school]] could finally be opened in [[Yeşilköy]], [[Istanbul]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aina.org/news/20140910111521.htm |title=Assyrian School Welcomes Students in Istanbul, Marking a New Beginning |date=2014-09-10 |access-date=2023-02-21 |newspaper=Assyrian International News Agency}}</ref> after waging a lawsuit against the [[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of National Education]] which had denied it permission, but was required to respect non-Muslim minority rights as specified in the [[Treaty of Lausanne]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/culture/2012/12/turkey-denies-assyrian-request-to-open-kindergarten.html |title=Turkey Denies Request to Open Assyrian-Language Kindergarten |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104151615/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/culture/2012/12/turkey-denies-assyrian-request-to-open-kindergarten.html |archive-date=2014-11-04 |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref>

In August 2016, the Ourhi Centre was founded by the Assyrian community in the city of Qamishli, to educate teachers in order to make Syriac an additional language to be taught in public schools in the [[Jazira Region]] of the [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/ |title=Syriac Christians revive ancient language despite war |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=2016-08-17 |access-date=2023-02-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817064715/http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/ |archive-date=2016-08-17}}</ref> which then started with the 2016/17 academic year.<ref name=syriaclanguage>{{cite web |url=https://syrianobserver.com/news/25299/hassakeh_syriac_language_be_taught_pyd_controlled_schools.html |title=Hassakeh: Syriac Language to Be Taught in PYD-controlled Schools |publisher=The Syrian Observer |date=3 October 2016 |first=Zaman |last=al-Wasl |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref>

In April 2023, a team of AI researchers completed the first AI translation model and website for classical Syriac.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Syriac.IO – Translator |url=https://www.syriac.io/translate |access-date=2023-05-08 |website=www.syriac.io |language=en}}</ref>

==Grammar==
Many Syriac words, like those in other [[Semitic languages]], belong to [[Semitic root#Triconsonantal roots|triconsonantal roots]], collations of three Syriac consonants. New words are built from these three consonants with variable vowel and consonant sets. For example, the following words belong to the root {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}} (''{{transliteration|syc|ŠQL}}''), to which a basic meaning of ''taking'' can be assigned:

* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šqal}}: "he has taken"
* {{lang|syc|ܢܫܩܘܠ}} – {{transliteration|syc|nešqol}}: "he will take, ... let him take, ... so that he might take."
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܘܠ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šqol}}: "take! (masculine singular)"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šāqel}}: "he takes, he is taking, the one (masculine) who takes"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šaqqel}}: "he has lifted/raised"
* {{lang|syc|ܐܫܩܠ}} – {{transliteration|syc|ʾašqel}}: "he has set out"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠܐ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šqālā}}: "a taking, burden, recension, portion or syllable"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šeqlē}}: "takings, profits, taxes"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠܘܬܐ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šaqluṯā}}: "a beast of burden"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܘܩܠܐ}} – {{transliteration|syc|šuqqālā}}: "arrogance"

=== Nouns ===
Most Syriac [[noun]]s are built from triliteral roots. Nouns carry [[grammatical gender]] (masculine or feminine), they can be either singular or plural in number (a very few can be dual) and can exist in one of three grammatical states. These states should not be confused with [[grammatical case]]s in other languages.

* The absolute state is the basic form of the noun – {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝܢ}}, {{transliteration|syc|šeqlin}}, "taxes".
* The emphatic state usually represents a definite noun – {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ}}, {{transliteration|syc|šeqlē}}, "the taxes".
* The construct state marks a noun in relationship to another noun – {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝ}}, {{transliteration|syc|šeqlay}}, "taxes of...".

However, very quickly in the development of Classical Syriac, the emphatic state became the ordinary form of the noun, and the absolute and construct states were relegated to certain stock phrases (for example, {{lang|syc|ܒܪ ܐܢܫܐ/ܒܪܢܫܐ}}, {{transliteration|syc|bar nāšā}}, "man, person", literally "son of man").

In Old and early Classical Syriac, most [[genitive case|genitive]] noun relationships are built using the construct state, but contrary to the genitive case, it is the head-noun which is marked by the construct state. Thus, {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝ ܡܠܟܘܬܐ}}, {{transliteration|syc|šeqlay malkuṯā}}, means "the taxes of the kingdom". Quickly, the construct relationship was abandoned and replaced by the use of the relative particle {{lang|syc|ܕ}}, ''{{transliteration|syc|d-, da-}}''. Thus, the same [[noun phrase]] becomes {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ}}, {{transliteration|syc|šeqlē d-malkuṯā}}, where both nouns are in the emphatic state. Very closely related nouns can be drawn into a closer grammatical relationship by the addition of a pronominal suffix. Thus, the phrase can be written as {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝܗ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ}}, {{transliteration|syc|šeqlêh d-malkuṯā}}. In this case, both nouns continue to be in the emphatic state, but the first has the suffix that makes it literally read "her taxes" ("kingdom" is feminine), and thus is "her taxes, [those] of the kingdom".

[[Adjective]]s always agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify. Adjectives are in the absolute state if they are [[predicative expression#Predicative (adjectival or nominal)|predicative]], but agree with the state of their noun if [[adjective#Attributive adjective|attributive]]. Thus, {{lang|syc|ܒܝܫܝ̈ܢ ܫܩ̈ܠܐ}}, ''{{transliteration|syc|bišin šeqlē}}'', means "the taxes are evil", whereas {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܒܝ̈ܫܐ}}, ''{{transliteration|syc|šeqlē ḇišē}}'', means "evil taxes".

=== Verbs ===
Most Syriac verbs are built on triliteral roots as well. Finite verbs carry [[grammatical person|person]], gender (except in the first person) and number, as well as [[grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]. The non-finite verb forms are the [[infinitive]] and the [[active voice|active]] and [[passive voice|passive]] participles.

Syriac has only two true [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] tenses: perfect and imperfect. Whereas these tenses were originally [[grammatical aspect|aspectual]] in Aramaic, they have become a truly temporal [[past tense|past]] and [[future tense|future]] tenses respectively. The [[present tense]] is usually marked with the [[participle]] followed by the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] pronoun. Such [[pronoun]]s are usually omitted in the case of the third person. This use of the participle to mark the present tense is the most common of a number of ''compound'' tenses that can be used to express varying senses of tense and aspect.

Syriac also employs [[Derived stem|derived verb stems]] such as are present in other Semitic languages. These are regular modifications of the verb's root to express other changes in meaning. The first stem is the ground state, or ''{{transliteration|syc|Pəʿal}}'' (this name models the shape of the root) form of the verb, which carries the usual meaning of the word. The next is the intensive stem, or ''{{transliteration|syc|Paʿʿel}}'', form of the verb, which usually carries an [[Intensive word form|intensified meaning]]. The third is the extensive stem, or ''{{transliteration|syc|ʾAp̄ʿel}}'', form of the verb, which is often [[causative]] in meaning. Each of these stems has its parallel passive conjugation: the ''{{transliteration|syc|ʾEṯpəʿel}}'', ''{{transliteration|syc|ʾEṯpaʿʿal}}'' and ''{{transliteration|syc|ʾEttap̄ʿal}}'' respectively. To these six cardinal stems are added a few irregular stems, like the ''{{transliteration|syc|Šap̄ʿel}}'' and ''{{transliteration|syc|ʾEštap̄ʿal}}'', which generally have an extensive meaning.

The basic G-stem or "Peal" conjugation of "to write" in the perfect and imperfect is as follows:<ref>Robinson and Coakley, 2013 p.36, p. 60.</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Perfect
! colspan="2" | Imperfect
|-
! singular !! plural
! singular !! plural
|-
! colspan="2" |  1st person
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒܬ}} {{Transliteration|syc|keṯḇeṯ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒܢ}} {{Transliteration|syc|kəṯaḇn}}
| {{lang|syc|ܐܟܬܘܒ}} {{Transliteration|syc|eḵtoḇ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܢܟܬܘܒ}} {{Transliteration|syc|neḵtoḇ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! m.
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒܬ}} {{lang|syc|kəṯaḇt}}
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒܬܘܢ}} {{lang|syc|kəṯaḇtûn}}
| {{lang|syc|ܬܟܬܘܒ}} {{lang|syc|teḵtoḇ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܬܟܬܒܘܢ}} {{lang|syc|teḵtəḇûn}}
|-
! f.
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒܬܝ}} {{lang|syc|kəṯaḇt}}
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒ̈ܬܝܢ}} {{lang|syc|kəṯaḇtên}}
| {{lang|syc|ܬܟܬܒܝܢ}} {{lang|syc|teḵtəḇîn}}
| {{lang|syc|ܬܟܬܒ̈ܢ}} {{lang|syc|teḵtəḇān}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! m.
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒ}} {{Transliteration|syc|kəṯaḇ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒܘ}} {{Transliteration|syc|kəṯaḇ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܢܟܬܘܒ}} {{Transliteration|syc|neḵtoḇ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܢܟܬܒܘܢ}} {{Transliteration|syc|neḵtəḇûn}}
|-
! f.
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒܬ}} {{Transliteration|syc|keṯbaṯ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܟܬܒ}} {{Transliteration|syc|kəṯaḇ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܬܟܬܘܒ}} {{Transliteration|syc|teḵtoḇ}}
| {{lang|syc|ܢܟܬܒ̈ܢ}} {{Transliteration|syc|neḵtəḇān}}
|}

==Phonology==

{{listen|filename=aboun.ogg|title=''ʾAḇôn daḇašmayyā''|description= [[Lord's Prayer]], {{transliteration|syr|''ʾAḇōn daḇašmayyā''}} sung in Western Syriac}}
Phonologically, like the other Northwest Semitic languages, Syriac has 22 consonants. The consonantal phonemes are:

{| class="wikitable"  style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
|-
| transliteration 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Aleph|ʾ]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Bet (letter)|b]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Gimel|g]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Dalet|d]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[He (letter)|h]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Waw (letter)|w]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Zayin|z]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Heth|ḥ]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Teth|ṭ]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Yodh|y]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Kaph|k]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Lamedh|l]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Mem|m]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Nun (letter)|n]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Samekh|s]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Ayin|ʿ]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Pe (Semitic letter)|p]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Tsade|ṣ]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Qoph|q]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Resh|r]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Shin (letter)|š]]}}'' 
|| ''{{transliteration|syc|[[Taw|t]]}}''
|-
| letter
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܐ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܒ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܓ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܕ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܗ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܘ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܙ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܚ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܛ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܝ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܟ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܠ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܡ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܢ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܣ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܥ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܦ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܨ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܩ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܪ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܫ}}
|  style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;" | {{lang|syc|ܬ}}
|-
| pronunciation
| {{IPAblink|ʔ}}
| {{IPAblink|b}}, {{IPAblink|v}}
| {{IPAblink|g}}, {{IPAblink|ɣ}}
| {{IPAblink|d}}, {{IPAblink|ð}}
| {{IPAblink|h}}
| {{IPAblink|w}}
| {{IPAblink|z}}
| {{IPAblink|ħ}}
| {{IPAblink|tˤ}}
| {{IPAblink|j}}
| {{IPAblink|k}}, {{IPAblink|x}}
| {{IPAblink|l}}
| {{IPAblink|m}}
| {{IPAblink|n}}
| {{IPAblink|s}}
| {{IPAblink|ʕ}}
| {{IPAblink|p}}, {{IPAblink|f}}
| {{IPAblink|sˤ}}
| {{IPAblink|q}}
| {{IPAblink|r}}
| {{IPAblink|ʃ}}
| {{IPAblink|t}}, {{IPAblink|θ}}
|}

Phonetically, there is some variation in the pronunciation of Syriac in its various forms. The various Modern Eastern Aramaic vernaculars have quite different pronunciations, and these sometimes influence how the classical language is pronounced, for example, in public prayer. Classical Syriac has two major streams of pronunciation: western and eastern.

=== Consonants ===
Syriac shares with Aramaic a set of lightly contrasted [[stop consonant|stop]]/[[fricative consonant|fricative]] pairs. In different variations of a certain lexical root, a root consonant might exist in stop form in one variation and fricative form in another. In the Syriac alphabet, a single letter is used for each pair. Sometimes a dot is placed above the letter (''quššāyā'' "strengthening"; equivalent to a [[dagesh]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) to mark that the stop pronunciation is required, and a dot is placed below the letter (''rukkāḵā'' "softening") to mark that the fricative pronunciation is required. The pairs are:
* Voiced [[labial consonant|labial]] pair – {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/v/}}
* Voiced [[velar consonant|velar]] pair – {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
* Voiced [[dental consonant|dental]] pair – {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}}
* Voiceless [[labial consonant|labial]] pair – {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/f/}}
* Voiceless [[velar consonant|velar]] pair – {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}
* Voiceless [[dental consonant|dental]] pair – {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}}

Like some Semitic languages, Syriac too has [[emphatic consonant]]s, and it has three of them, {{IPA|/q/}} being a historically emphatic variant of {{IPA|/k/}}. These are consonants that have a coarticulation in the [[human pharynx|pharynx]] or slightly higher.  There are two [[Pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] fricatives, another class of consonants typically found in Semitic languages. Syriac also has a rich array of [[sibilant]]s:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Syriac consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | 
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br />dental]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan=4 | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyn-<br />geal]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!  colspan=2 | <small>plain</small> ||   colspan=2 | <small>[[pharyngealization|emphatic]]</small> 
|- align=center
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|m}}
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|n}}
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
|- align=center
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|p}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|b}}
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|t}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|d}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|tˤ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|k}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|q}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan=2 | 
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|ʔ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
|- align=center
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan=2 | 
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|f}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|v}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|θ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ð}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|s}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|z}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|sˤ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|ʃ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|x}} || colspan=2 style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ɣ}} 
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|ħ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA link|ʕ}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA link|h}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
|- align=center
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|w}}
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|l}}
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|j}}
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
|- align=center
! [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | {{IPA link|r}}
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
| colspan=2 | 
|}
*

=== Vowels ===
As with most Semitic languages, the vowels of Syriac are mostly subordinated to consonants. Especially in the presence of an emphatic consonant, vowels tend to become mid-centralised.

Classical Syriac had the following distinguishable vowels:
{|
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" | Vowel phonemes in Classical Syriac
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}
! {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
|
|
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|a}}
| {{IPA link|ɑ}}
|
|}
|}
In the western dialect, {{IPA|/ɑ/}} has become {{IPA|[ɔ]}}, and the original {{IPA|/o/}} has merged with {{IPA|/u/}}. In eastern dialects, there is more fluidity in the pronunciation of [[front vowel]]s, with some speakers distinguishing five qualities of such vowels, and others only distinguishing three. Vowel length is generally not important: [[close vowel]]s tend to be longer than [[open vowel]]s.

The open vowels form [[diphthong]]s with the [[approximant consonant|approximants]] {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}. In almost all dialects, the full sets of possible diphthongs collapses into two or three actual pronunciations:
* {{IPA|/ɑj/}} usually becomes {{IPA|/aj/}}, but the western dialect has {{IPA|/oj/}}
* {{IPA|/aj/}}, further, sometimes [[monophthong]]ized to {{IPA|/e/}}
* {{IPA|/aw/}} usually becomes {{IPA|/ɑw/}}
* {{IPA|/ɑw/}}, further, sometimes monophthongized to {{IPA|/o/}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Middle East|Christianity|Languages}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* [[Syriac literature]]
* [[Syriac sacral music]]
* [[Syriac Christianity]]
* [[Syriac studies]]
* [[Aramaic studies]]
* [[Bible translations into Syriac]]
* [[Bible translations into Aramaic]]
* [[Neo-Aramaic languages]]
* [[List of loanwords in Classical Syriac]]
* [[Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium]]
}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Cite book |editor-last1=Brock |editor-first1=Sebastian P. |editor-link1=Sebastian P. Brock |editor-last2=Taylor |editor-first2=David G. K. |title=The Hidden Pearl: The Syrian Orthodox Church and its Ancient Aramaic Heritage |year=2001 |volume=1 |location=Rome |publisher=Trans World Film Italia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=grfuAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |chapter=The Earliest Syriac Literature |title=The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature |year=2004 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=161–172 |isbn=9780521460835 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aepYpUVf9OkC}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=The Syriac Orient: A Third 'Lung' for the Church? |journal=Orientalia Christiana Periodica |year=2005 |volume=71 |pages=5–20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QOckAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=Fire from Heaven: Studies in Syriac Theology and Liturgy |year=2006 |location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=9780754659082 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey_FW7acTycC}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=Early Dated Manuscripts of the Church of the East, 7th–13th Century |journal=Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies |year=2007 |volume=21 |number=2 |pages=8–34 |url=http://www.jaas.org/toc/v21022007toc.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006105753/http://www.jaas.org/toc/v21022007toc.htm |archive-date=2008-10-06}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=The Holy Spirit in the Syrian Baptismal Tradition |year=2008 |orig-year=1979 |edition=3rd |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=9781593338442 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bbdVAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |chapter=Jacob the Annotator: Jacob’s Annotations to His Revised Translation of Severus’ Cathedral Homilies |title=Studies on Jacob of Edessa |year=2010 |location=Piscataway |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=1–13 |doi=10.31826/9781463216634-002 |isbn=9781463216634 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9781463216634/10.31826/9781463216634-002.xml}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |chapter=Christian Palestinian Aramaic |title=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage |year=2011 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=96–97 |chapter-url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Christian-Palestinian-Aramaic}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Brock |first1=Sebastian P. |author-link1=Sebastian P. Brock |last2=Butts |first2=Aaron M. |chapter=Syriac Conferences |title=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage |year=2011 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=389–390 |chapter-url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Syriac-Conferences}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Brock |first1=Sebastian P. |author-link1=Sebastian P. Brock |last2=Coakley |first2=James F. |chapter=Arameans |title=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage |year=2011 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=30–31 |chapter-url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Arameans}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=An Introduction to Syriac Studies |year=2017 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=9781463207137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VDxItAEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |chapter=Scribal Tradition and the Transmission of Syriac Literature in Late Antiquity and Early Islam |title=Scribal Practices and the Social Construction of Knowledge in Antiquity |year=2017 |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters Publishers |pages=61–68 |isbn=9789042933149 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qg2ktwEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=The People and the Peoples: Syriac Dialogue Poems from Late Antiquity |year=2019 |location=Oxford |publisher=Journal of Jewish Studies |isbn=9780957522817 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7_NwgEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |chapter=Later Syriac Poetry |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=327–338 |isbn=9781138899018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brockelmann |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Brockelmann |title=Lexicon Syriacum |year=1895 |edition=1st |location=Berlin |publisher=Reuther & Reichard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bTJIAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burnett |first=Stephen G. |chapter=Christian Aramaism: The Birth and Growth of Aramaic Scholarship in the Sixteenth Century |title=Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients |year=2005 |location=Winona Lake |publisher=Eisenbrauns |pages=421–436 |chapter-url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188050924.pdf |access-date=2020-11-28 |archive-date=2021-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827102740/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188050924.pdf |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |last=Butts |first=Aaron M. |chapter=Syriac Language |title=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage |year=2011 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=390–391 |chapter-url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Syriac-Language}}
* {{Cite book |last=Butts |first=Aaron M. |title=Language Change in the Wake of Empire: Syriac in its Greco-Roman Context |year=2016 |location=Winona Lake |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=9781575064215 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxsMMQAACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Butts |first=Aaron M. |chapter=The Greco-Roman Context of the Syriac Language |title=Les auteurs syriaques et leur langue |year=2018 |location=Paris |publisher=Geuthner |pages=137–165 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/36472678}}
* {{Cite book |last=Butts |first=Aaron M. |chapter=The Classical Syriac Language |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=222–242 |doi=10.4324/9781315708195-15 |isbn=978-1-315-70819-5 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/26842432}}
* {{Cite book |last=Carlson |first=Thomas A. |chapter=Syriac in a Diverse Middle East: From the Mongol Ilkhanate to Ottoman Dominance, 1286–1517 |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=718–730 |isbn=9781138899018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Donabed |first=Sargon G. |title=Reforging a Forgotten History: Iraq and the Assyrians in the Twentieth Century |year=2015 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9780748686056 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bwLdCQAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Donabed |first=Sargon G. |chapter=Neither Syriac-speaking nor Syrian Orthodox Christians: Harput Assyrians in the United States as a Model for Ethnic Self-Categorization and Expression |title=Syriac in its Multi-Cultural Context |year=2017 |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters Publishers |pages=359–369 |isbn=9789042931640 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxt4rgEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Drijvers |first=Hendrik J. W. |title=Cults and Beliefs at Edessa |year=1980 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=9004060502 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69YUAAAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Farina |first=Margherita |chapter=La linguistique syriaque selon Jacques d’Édesse |title=Lesauteurs syriaques etleurlangue |year=2018 |location=Paris |publisher=Geuthner |pages=167–187 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/37792302}}
* {{Cite book |last=Garbini |first=Giovanni |chapter=Considerations on the Language of Ebla |title=La Lingua Di Ebla: Atti Del Convegno Internazionale |year=1981 |edition=1st |location=Napoli |publisher=Istituto universitario orientale, Seminario di studi asiatici |pages=75–82 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9NINAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gzella |first=Holger |chapter=Language and Script |title=The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria |year=2014 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=71–107 |isbn=9789004229433 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sW_AAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gzella |first=Holger |title=A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam |year=2015 |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004285101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9UuBgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gzella |first=Holger |chapter=The Syriac Language in the Context of the Semitic Languages |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=205–221 |doi=10.4324/9781315708195-14 |isbn=978-1-315-70819-5 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/38655623}}
* {{Cite book |last=Healey |first=John F. |title=First Studies in Syriac |year=1980 |location=Birmingham |publisher=University of Birmingham |isbn=9780704403901 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJ8OAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Healey |first=John F. |title=The Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |year=2007 |volume=10 |number=2 |pages=115–127 |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Healey |first=John F. |title=Aramaic Inscriptions and Documents of the Roman Period |year=2009 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199252565 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Op8VDAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Healey |first=John F. |chapter=Syriac |title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook |year=2012 |location=Berlin-Boston |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=637–652 |isbn=9783110251586 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC&pg=PA637}}
* {{Cite book |last=Healey |first=John F. |chapter=Variety in Early Syriac: The Context in Contemporary Aramaic |title=Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting |year=2008 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=221–229 |isbn=9783447057875 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Healey |first=John F. |chapter=The Pre-Christian Religions of the Syriac-Speaking Regions |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=47–67 |isbn=9781138899018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Heinrichs |editor-first=Wolfhart |editor-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |title=Studies in Neo-Aramaic |year=1990 |location=Atlanta |publisher=Scholars Press |isbn=9781555404307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n0OAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Herman |first=Geoffrey |chapter=The Syriac World in the Persian Empire |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=134–145 |doi=10.4324/9781315708195-9 |isbn=978-1-315-70819-5 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/41536816}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ishow |first=Habib |chapter=Faut-il remplacer le terme syriaque par le terme araméen? |title=Symposium Syriacum 1976 |year=1978 |location=Roma |publisher=Pontificium institutum studiorum orientalium |pages=359–365 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TBliAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Joseph |first=John B. |author-link=John Joseph (historian) |title=The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers |year=2000 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=9004116419 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Khan |chapter=Aramaic in the Medieval and Modern Periods |title=Languages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern |year=2007 |location=Cambridge |publisher=The British School of Archaeology in Iraq |pages=95–114 |chapter-url=http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Ronald |title=Stammbaum or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |year=2008 |volume=128 |number=3 |pages=505–531 |url=https://www.academia.edu/23883016}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kiraz |first=George A. |author-link=George Kiraz |title=Kthobonoyo Syriac: Some Observations and Remarks |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |year=2007 |volume=10 |number=2 |pages=129–142 |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Kiraz.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lipiński |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Lipiński (orientalist) |title=Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar |year=2001 |orig-year=1997 |edition=2nd |location=Leuven |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=9789042908154 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IiXVqyEkPKcC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Maclean |first=Arthur J. |author-link=Arthur John Maclean |title=Grammar of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac: As Spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, North-West Persia and the Plain of Mosul, with Notices of the Vernacular of the Jews of Azerbijan and of Zakhu near Mosul |year=1895 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107648128 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCR6RznZM3MC}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |title=A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450) |year=2006 |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520253919 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0bowDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |title=Community, Religion and Language in the Middle-Euphrates Zone in Late Antiquity |journal=Scripta Classica Israelica |year=2008 |volume=27 |pages=67–93 |doi=10.71043/sci.v27i.3273 |url=https://scriptaclassica.org/index.php/sci/article/view/3273/2789}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |title=Greek and Syriac in Edessa: From Ephrem to Rabbula (CE 363–435) |journal=Semitica et Classica |year=2011 |volume=4 |pages=99–114 |doi=10.1484/J.SEC.1.102508 |url=https://doi.org/10.1484/J.SEC.1.102508|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |title=Greek and Syriac in Fifth-Century Edessa: The Case of Bishop Hibas |journal=Semitica et Classica |year=2012 |volume=5 |pages=151–165 |doi=10.1484/J.SEC.1.103053 |url=https://doi.org/10.1484/J.SEC.1.103053|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |title=The Evolution of the Syrian Orthodox Church in the Pre-Islamic Period: From Greek to Syriac? |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |year=2013 |volume=21 |number=1 |pages=43–92 |doi=10.1353/earl.2013.0002 |s2cid=170436440 |url=http://www.syriacstudies.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/24-Evolution-of-Syrian-church.pdf}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Minov |first=Sergey |title=Date and Provenance of the Syriac Cave of Treasures: A Reappraisal |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |year=2017 |volume=20 |number=1 |pages=129–229 |doi=10.31826/hug-2018-200105 |s2cid=212688445 |url=https://www.academia.edu/31601350|doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Minov |first=Sergey |title=Memory and Identity in the Syriac Cave of Treasures: Rewriting the Bible in Sasanian Iran |year=2020 |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004445512 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AsOEAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Murre van den Berg |first=Heleen | author-link = Heleen Murre-van den Berg | chapter=Classical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Churchof the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800 |title=Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting |year=2008 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=335–352 |isbn=9783447057875 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Naby |first=Eden |chapter=From Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq |title=On the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights |year=2004 |location=Bath |publisher=Foundation for Endangered Languages |pages=197–203 |isbn=9780953824861 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UM3BMtn6TmcC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Neill |first=Stephen |author-link=Stephen Neill |title=A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707 |year=2004 |orig-year=1984 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521548854 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RH4VPgB__GQC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nöldeke |first=Theodor |author-link=Theodor Nöldeke |chapter=Semitic Languages |title=The Encyclopaedia Britannica |edition=9th |year=1886 |volume=21 |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |pages=641–656 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_dAAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nöldeke |first=Theodor |author-link=Theodor Nöldeke |title=Compendious Syriac Grammar |year=1904 |edition=1st English |location=London |publisher=Williams & Norgate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rk06AQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pat-El |first=Na‘ama |title=Syriac |publisher=London & New York: Routledge. |year=2019 |edition=2nd |location=John Huehnergard and Na‘ama Pat-El (eds.), The Semitic Languages |pages=653–678}}
*{{Cite book |editor-last1=Petruccione |editor-first1=John F. |editor-last2=Hill |editor-first2=Robert C. |title=Theodoret of Cyrus: The Questions on the Octateuch |year=2007 |volume=2 |location=Washington |publisher=COA Press |isbn=9780813214993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-t0pkJHRbQC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Peursen |first=Wido van |chapter=Language Variation, Language Development, and the Textual History of the Peshitta |title=Aramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting |year=2008 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=231–256 |isbn=9783447057875 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Río Sánchez |first=Francisco del |chapter=Influences of Aramaic on dialectal Arabic |title=Archaism and Innovation in the Semitic Languages: Selected papers |year=2013 |location=Cordoba |publisher=Cordoba Near Eastern Research Unit |pages=129–136 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/3782152}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Theodore H. |last2=Coakley |first2=James F. |title=Robinson's Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar |year=2013 |orig-year=1915 |edition=6th revised |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199687176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQ4oAAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rompay |first=Lucas van |chapter=Some Preliminary Remarks on the Origins of Classical Syriac as a Standard Language: The Syriac Version of Eusebius of Caesarea's Ecclesiastical History |title=Semitic and Cushitic studies |year=1994 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |pages=70–89 |isbn=9783447034470 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnkOAAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rompay |first=Lucas van |title=Past and Present Perceptions of Syriac Literary Tradition |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |year=2000 |volume=3 |number=1 |pages=71–103 |doi=10.31826/hug-2010-030105 |s2cid=212688244 |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol3/HV3N1VanRompay.pdf |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rompay |first=Lucas van |chapter=The East: Syria and Mesopotamia |title=The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies |year=2008 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=365–386 |isbn=9780199271566 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NgPI7Jt1HewC}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rompay |first=Lucas van |chapter=Aramaic |title=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage |year=2011 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=28–30 |chapter-url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Aramaic}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rubin |first=Milka |title=The Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity |journal=Journal of Jewish Studies |year=1998 |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=306–333 |doi=10.18647/2120/JJS-1998 |url=https://www.academia.edu/16441972}}
* Rudder, Joshua.  ''Learn to Write Aramaic: A Step-by-Step Approach to the Historical & Modern Scripts''. n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 220 pp. {{ISBN|978-1461021421}}  Includes the Estrangela (pp.&nbsp;59–113), Madnhaya (pp.&nbsp;191–206), and the Western Serto (pp.&nbsp;173–190) scripts.
* {{Cite book |last=Ruzer |first=Serge |chapter=Hebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus’ Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors |title=The Language Environment of First Century Judaea |year=2014 |location=Leiden-Boston |publisher=Brill |pages=182–205 |isbn=9789004264410 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shepardson |first=Christine |title=Controlling Contested Places: Late Antique Antioch and the Spatial Politics of Religious Controversyd |year=2019 |location=Oakland |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520303379 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw6LDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=David G. K. |chapter=Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia |title=Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word |year=2002 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=298–331 |isbn=9789004264410 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=David G. K. |chapter=Syriac Lexicography |title=Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage |year=2011 |location=Piscataway, NJ |publisher=Gorgias Press |pages=391–393 |chapter-url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Syriac-Lexicography}}
* {{Cite book |last=Toepel |first=Alexander |chapter=The Cave of Treasures: A new Translation and Introduction |title=Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: More Noncanonical Scriptures |year=2013 |volume=1 |location=Grand Rapids |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |pages=531–584 |isbn=9780802827395 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kCbpAgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watt |first=John W. |chapter=Aramaic and Syriac |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |year=2009 |location=Oxford |publisher=Elsevier |pages=56–59 |isbn=9780080877754 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA56}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weninger |first=Stefan |chapter=Aramaic-Arabic Language Contact |title=The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook |year=2012 |location=Berlin-Boston |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=747–755 |isbn=9783110251586 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Weltecke |first=Dorothea |title=Michael the Syrian and Syriac Orthodox Identity |journal=Church History and Religious Culture |year=2009 |volume=89 |number=1–3 |pages=115–125 |doi=10.1163/187124109X408023 |url=https://brill.com/previewpdf/book/edcoll/9789047444367/Bej.9789004173750.i-366_006.xml}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Weltecke |first1=Dorothea |last2=Younansardaroud |first2=Helen |chapter=The Renaissance of Syriac Literature in the Twelfth–Thirteenth Centuries |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=698–717 |isbn=9781138899018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Robert J. |chapter=The Early Study of Syriac in Europe |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=751–769 |isbn=9781138899018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilmshurst |first=David |chapter=The Church of the East in the 'Abbasid Era |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=189–201 |isbn=9781138899018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Philip |chapter=Historiography in the Syriac-Speaking World, 300–1000 |title=The Syriac World |year=2019 |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=405–421 |isbn=9781138899018 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E48JswEACAAJ}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=1|iw=arc}}
* [https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/handle/fub188/24490 A Coursebook of Classical Syriac] Freie Universität Berlin Repository
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qfwoGQS_ieE YouTube video: Associate professor Svante Lundgren explains the history and origin of the term "Syriac" (Suryoyo/Suroyo)]
* [https://www.academia.edu/27766400/Leshono_Suryoyo_-_Die_traditionelle_Aussprache_des_Westsyrischen_-_The_traditional_pronunciation_of_Western_Syriac Syriac traditional pronunciation]
* [http://www.atour.com/dictionary Aramaic Dictionary (lexicon and concordance)]
* [http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Syrc Syriac at ScriptSource.com]
* [https://cal.huc.edu/ The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon]
* [https://lib.byu.edu/collections/syriac-studies-reference-library/about/ Syriac Studies Reference Library], Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Syriac Language|short=x}}
* [https://www.academia.edu/27766400/Leshono_Suryoyo_-_Die_traditionelle_Aussprache_des_Westsyrischen_-_The_traditional_pronunciation_of_Western_Syriac Leshono Suryoyo – Die traditionelle Aussprache des Westsyrischen – The traditional pronunciation of Western Syriac]
* {{cite web |url=http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/Bengaluru-Youth-Learn-Dying-Language-Preserve-It/2016/05/09/article3422438.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509075443/http://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/Bengaluru-Youth-Learn-Dying-Language-Preserve-It/2016/05/09/article3422438.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 May 2016 |title=City Youth Learn Dying Language, Preserve It |website=[[The New Indian Express]] |date=May 9, 2016 |access-date=May 9, 2016}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/548988/EPRS_BRI(2015)548988_REV1_EN.pdf|title=Minorities of Iraq: EU Research Service}}
* [https://hiphilangsci.net/2020/03/07/what-is-syriac/ What is Syriac and what is Aramaic according to Syriac grammarians] on [https://hiphilangsci.net/ History and Philosophy of the Language Sciences]
* [https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/index.html Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage]
* [https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/syriac-language-parent Syriac Language] at [https://www.iranicaonline.org/ Encyclopaedia Iranica]
* [https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/S/syriac-language.html Syriac Language] in the [https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/ McClintock and Strong Biblical Cyclopedia]
* [https://dss-syriacpatriarchate.org/syriac-language/?lang=en Syriac Language] at the [https://dss-syriacpatriarchate.org/?lang=en Department of Syriac Studies]

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[[Category:Syriac language| ]]
[[Category:Standard languages|Syriac]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 1st century]]
[[Category:Aramaic languages]]
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[[Category:Languages of Iraq]]
[[Category:Languages of Lebanon]]
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[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
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[[Category:Syriac Christianity]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
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[[Category:Diglossia]]