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{{short description|Play by William Shakespeare}}
{{About|the Shakespeare play||Tempest (disambiguation)}}
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| name              = The Tempest
| image             = First-page-first-folio-tempest.jpg
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| caption           = Title page of the part in the [[First Folio]]
| author            = [[William Shakespeare]]
| editors           = [[Edward Blount]] and [[William Jaggard|Isaac Jaggard]]
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| country           = England
| language          = English
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| genre             = [[Shakespearean comedy]]<br>[[Tragicomedy]]
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| release_date  = 1623
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'''''The Tempest''''' is a [[Shakespeare's plays|play]] by [[William Shakespeare]], probably written in 1610–1611, and thought to be one of the last plays that he wrote alone. After the first scene, which takes place on a ship at sea during a tempest, the rest of the story is set on a remote island, where [[Prospero]], a magician, lives with his daughter [[Miranda (The Tempest)|Miranda]], and his two servants: [[Caliban]], a savage monster figure, and [[Ariel (The Tempest)|Ariel]], an airy spirit. The play contains music and songs that evoke the spirit of enchantment on the island. It explores many themes, including [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]], betrayal, revenge, forgiveness and family. In Act IV, a wedding [[masque]] serves as a [[play-within-a-play]], and contributes spectacle, allegory, and elevated language.  

Although ''The Tempest'' is listed in the [[First Folio]] as the first of Shakespeare's comedies, it deals with both tragic and comic themes, and modern criticism has created a category of [[Shakespeare's late romances|romance for this and others of Shakespeare's late plays]]. ''The Tempest'' has been widely interpreted in later centuries. Its central character Prospero has been identified with Shakespeare - and Prospero's renunciation of magic signaling Shakespeare's farewell to the stage. It has also been seen as an allegory of Europeans colonizing foreign lands.

The play has had a varied afterlife, inspiring artists in many nations and cultures, on stage and screen, in literature, music (especially opera), and the visual arts.

== Characters ==
{{div col|colwidth=20em|rules=yes}}
* [[Prospero]] – the rightful Duke of Milan and a magician 
* [[Miranda (The Tempest)|Miranda]] – daughter to Prospero
* [[Ariel (The Tempest)|Ariel]] – a spirit in service to Prospero
* [[Caliban]] – an enslaved servant of Prospero
* Alonso – King of Naples
* Sebastian – Alonso's brother
* Antonio – Prospero's brother, the usurping Duke of Milan
* [[Ferdinand (The Tempest)|Ferdinand]] – Alonso's son
* [[Gonzalo (The Tempest)|Gonzalo]] – an honest old councillor
* Adrian – a lord serving under Alonso
* Francisco – a lord serving under Alonso
* Trinculo – the King's jester
* [[Stephano (The Tempest)|Stephano]] – the King's drunken butler
* [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] – Roman goddess of marriage
* [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] – Roman goddess of [[agriculture]]
* [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]] – Greek goddess of the rainbow and messenger of the gods
* Master – master of the ship
* Mariners
* [[Boatswain]] – servant of the master
{{div col end}}

== Plot ==
[[File:George_Romney_-_William_Shakespeare_-_The_Tempest_Act_I,_Scene_1.jpg|thumb|The shipwreck in Act I, Scene 1, in a 1797 engraving by [[Benjamin Smith (engraver)|Benjamin Smith]] after a painting by [[George Romney (painter)|George Romney]]]]

=== Act I ===
Twelve years before the action of the play, [[Prospero]], formerly Duke of [[Milan]] and a gifted sorcerer, had been usurped by his treacherous brother Antonio with the aid of Alonso, King of [[Naples]]. Escaping by boat with his infant daughter [[Miranda (The Tempest)|Miranda]], Prospero flees to a remote island where he has been living ever since.  There he used his magic to force the island's only inhabitant, [[Caliban]], to protect him and Miranda. He also frees the spirit [[Ariel (The Tempest)|Ariel]] and binds him into servitude.

When a ship carrying his brother Antonio passes nearby, Prospero conjures up a storm with help from Ariel and the ship is destroyed. Antonio is shipwrecked, along with Alonso, Ferdinand (Alonso's son and heir to the throne), Sebastian (Alonso's brother), Gonzalo (Prospero's trustworthy minister), Adrian, and other court members.

=== Acts II and III ===
[[File:Prospero and miranda.jpg|thumb|upright|''Prospero and Miranda'', by [[William Maw Egley]], c. 1850]]Prospero enacts a sophisticated plan to take revenge on his usurpers and regain his dukedom. Using magic, he separates the shipwreck survivors into groups on the island:
* Ferdinand, who is rescued by Prospero and Miranda and given shelter. Prospero successfully manipulates the youth into a romance with Miranda; 
* Trinculo, the king's jester, and [[Stephano (The Tempest)|Stephano]], the king's drunken butler, who encounter Caliban. Recognizing his miserable state, the three stage an unsuccessful "rebellion" against Prospero. Their actions provide the [[comic relief]] of the play.
* Alonso, Sebastian, Antonio, Gonzalo, and two attendant lords (Adrian and Francisco). Antonio and Sebastian conspire to kill Alonso and Gonzalo so Sebastian can become King; Prospero and Ariel thwart the conspiracy. Later, Ariel takes the form of a [[harpy]] and torments Antonio, Alonso, and Sebastian, causing them to flee in guilt for their crimes against Prospero and each other.
* The ship's captain and [[boatswain]], along with the other surviving sailors, are placed into a magical sleep until the final act.

=== Act IV ===
Prospero intends that Miranda, now aged 15, will marry Ferdinand, and he instructs Ariel to bring some other spirits and produce a masque. 

The masque will feature classical goddesses, [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]], [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], and [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]], and will bless and celebrate the betrothal. The masque will also instruct the young couple on marriage, and on the value of chastity until then.

The masque is suddenly interrupted when Prospero realises he had forgotten the plot against his life. Once Ferdinand and Miranda are gone, Prospero orders Ariel to deal with the nobles' plot. Caliban, Trinculo, and Stephano are then chased off into the swamps by goblins in the shape of hounds.

=== Act V and Epilogue ===
Prospero vows that once he achieves his goals, he will set Ariel free, and abandon his magic, saying:
<poem style="margin-left: 2em;">I'll break my staff,
Bury it certain fathoms in the earth,
And deeper than did ever plummet sound
I'll drown my book.<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.54–57</ref></poem>
Ariel brings on Alonso, Antonio, and Sebastian. Prospero forgives all three. Prospero's former title, Duke of Milan, is restored. Ariel fetches the sailors from the ship, and then Caliban, Trinculo, and Stephano. Caliban, seemingly filled with regret, promises to be good. Stephano and Trinculo are ridiculed and sent away in shame by Prospero. Before the reunited group (all the noble characters with the addition of Miranda and Prospero) leave the island, Ariel is instructed to provide good weather to guide the king's ship back to the royal fleet and then to Naples, where Ferdinand and Miranda will be married. After this, Ariel is set free.

In an epilogue, Prospero requests that the audience set him free — with their applause.

== Date and sources ==
[[File:Rowe Tempest.JPG|thumb|left|upright|A depiction from [[Nicholas Rowe (writer)|Nicholas Rowe's]] 1709 edition of Shakespeare's plays of the stage direction of the opening of the 1674 adaptation]]

=== Date ===
It is not known for certain exactly when ''The Tempest'' was written, but evidence supports the idea that it was probably composed sometime between late 1610 to mid-1611.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|pp=63–64}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=1–6}} Evidence supports composition perhaps occurring before, after, or at the same time as ''[[The Winter's Tale]]''.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|pp=63–64}} It is considered one of the last plays that Shakespeare wrote alone. But it was not, as is sometimes claimed, Shakespeare's last play, since it is post-dated by his collaborations with [[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]]: [[Henry VIII (play)|Henry VIII]], [[The History of Cardenio|Cardenio]] and [[The Two Noble Kinsmen]].{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=63}} [[Edward Blount]] entered ''The Tempest'' into the [[Stationers' Register]] on 8 November 1623. It was one of 16 Shakespeare plays that Blount registered on that date.{{sfn|Pollard|2002|p=111}}

=== Sources ===
[[File:Sylvester Jordain - Discovery of the Barmudas.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Silvester Jourdain]]'s ''A Discovery of the Barmvdas'']]

There is no obvious single [[source text]] for the plot of ''The Tempest'': it appears to have been created by Shakespeare with several sources contributing. {{sfn|Barton|1968|p=23}}

'''The Sea Venture:''' [[William Strachey]]'s ''[[True Reportory|A True Reportory of the Wracke and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight]]'', an eyewitness report of the real-life shipwreck of the ''[[Sea Venture]]'' in 1609 on the island of [[Bermuda]] while sailing toward [[Virginia]], may be considered a primary source for the opening scene, as well as a few other references in the play to conspiracies and retributions.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=287}} Although not published until 1625, Strachey's report was first recounted in his "Letter to an Excellent Lady", a private letter describing the incident and the earliest account of all. It was dated 15 July 1610, and it is thought that Shakespeare - who had personal connections with a number of members of the Virginia Company - may have seen the original sometime during that year.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|pp=41-42}}{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=32}} At around the time Shakespeare could have read Strachey's letter, another ''Sea Venture'' survivor, [[Silvester Jourdain]], published his account, ''A Discovery of The Barmudas, otherwise Called the Ile of Divels''.<!-- sic, as regards spelling and capitalisation -->{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=42}} Also there is the Council of Virginia's 1610 pamphlet ''True Declaration of the state of the Colonie in Virginia, with a confutation of such scandalous reports as have tended to the disgrace of so worthy an enterprise''.{{sfn|Kermode|1954|p=xxvii}} Regarding the influence of Strachey on the play, [[Kenneth Muir (scholar)|Kenneth Muir]] says that although "there is little doubt that Shakespeare had read&nbsp;... William Strachey's ''True Reportory''" and other accounts, "the extent of the verbal echoes of [the Bermuda] pamphlets has, I think, been exaggerated. There is hardly a shipwreck in history or fiction which does not mention splitting, in which the ship is not lightened of its cargo, in which the passengers do not give themselves up for lost, in which north winds are not sharp, and in which no one gets to shore by clinging to wreckage."{{sfn|Muir|2005|p=280}}

'''Montagne's''' '''''Of The Canibales:''''' Gonzalo's description of his ideal society<ref>''The Tempest'' 2.1.148-169</ref> thematically and verbally echoes [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]]'s [[Essays (Montaigne)|essay]] ''[[Of Cannibals|Of the Canibales]]'', translated into English in a version published by [[John Florio]] in 1603. Montaigne praises the society of the [[Caribbean]] natives: "It is a nation&nbsp;... that hath no kinde of traffike, no knowledge of Letters, no intelligence of numbers, no name of magistrate, nor of politike superioritie; no use of service, of riches, or of poverty; no contracts, no successions, no dividences, no occupation but idle; no respect of kinred, but common, no apparrell but natural, no manuring of lands, no use of wine, corne, or mettle. The very words that import lying, falsehood, treason, dissimulation, covetousnes, envie, detraction, and pardon, were never heard of amongst them."{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=61}}

'''Ovid's''' '''''Metamorphoses:''''' A source for Prospero's speech in act five, in which he bids farewell to magic<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.33-57</ref> is an invocation by the sorceress [[Medea]] found in Ovid's poem ''[[Metamorphoses]]''. Medea calls out:

<poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Ye airs and winds; ye elves of hills, of brooks, of woods alone,
Of standing lakes, and of the night, approach ye every one,
Through help of whom (the crooked banks much wondering at the thing)
I have compelled streams to run clean backward to their spring.{{sfn|Ovid|1567|p=book 7, page [[s:Metamorphoses_(tr._Golding)/Book_7#165|165]]}}</poem>

Shakespeare's Prospero begins his invocation:
<poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes and groves,
And ye that on the sands with printless foot
Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him
When he comes back ...<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.33-36</ref>{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=58–59}}</poem>

'''Other Sources''': Other shipwreck narratives probably drawn on by Shakespeare include those of [[Antonio Pigafetta]] contained in Richard Eden's<!-- Please don't wikilink without creating the page. Wikipedia already has pages for several Richard Edens, but none are this one. --> travel anthologies of 1555 and 1557.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=40}} And some of the characters' names may derive from a 1594 ''History of Italy''.{{sfn|Kermode|1954|p=lxix}}

''The Tempest'' may take its overall structure from traditional Italian ''[[commedia dell'arte]]'', which sometimes featured a [[magus]] and his daughter, their supernatural attendants, and a number of rustics. The ''commedia'' often featured a [[Clown#Commedia dell'Arte|clown]] known as [[Arlecchino]] (or his predecessor, [[Zanni]]) and his partner [[Brighella]], who bear a striking resemblance to Stephano and Trinculo; a lecherous Neapolitan hunchback who corresponds to Caliban; and the clever and beautiful Isabella, whose wealthy and manipulative father, [[Pantalone]], constantly seeks a suitor for her, thus mirroring the relationship between Miranda and Prospero.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=12}} Other dramatic influences on Prospero's character include [[Robert Greene (dramatist)|Greene's]] [[Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay|Friar Bacon]], [[Christopher Marlowe|Marlowe's]] [[Doctor Faustus (play)|Dr. Faustus]] and Shakespeare's own [[Henry IV, Part 1|Owen Glendower]].{{sfn|Mowat|Werstine|2015|p=215}} Bremo in ''[[Mucedorus]]'' may have influenced Caliban.{{sfn|Kermode|1954|p=lix}}

Scholars have debated the influence of [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'', which Robert Wiltenburg described as "the main source of the play ... not the source of the plot ... but the work to which Shakespeare is responding".{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=39}}  

Recently, scholars have also identified the influence on the Tempest of [[John Marston (playwright)|Marston]]'s ''[[The Malcontent]]'',{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=142}} [[Beaumont and Fletcher]]'s ''[[Philaster (play)|Philaster]]''{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=142}} and the anonymous romance ''Primaleon, Prince of Greece''.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=147}}

== Text ==
[[File:First-page-first-folio-tempest.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The first page of ''The Tempest'', printed in the First Folio of 1623]]
''The Tempest'' first appeared in print in 1623 in the collection of 36 of Shakespeare's plays entitled, ''Mr. William Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies; Published according to the True and Original Copies'', which is known as the [[First Folio]]. The plays, including ''The Tempest'', were gathered and edited by [[John Heminges]] and [[Henry Condell]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=125}}

The Folio text was based on a handwritten manuscript of ''The Tempest'' prepared by [[Ralph Crane]], a [[scrivener]] employed by the King's Men. Crane probably copied from Shakespeare's rough draft, and based his style on Ben Jonson's Folio of 1616. Crane is thought to have neatened texts, edited the divisions of acts and scenes, and sometimes added his own improvements. He was fond of joining words with hyphens, and using elisions with apostrophes, for example by changing "with the king" to read: "wi'th' King".<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.112</ref> The elaborate stage directions in ''The Tempest'' may have been due to Crane; they provide evidence regarding how the play was staged by the King's Men.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|pp=56–62}}

The entire First Folio project was delivered to the blind printer, [[William Jaggard]], and printing began in 1622. ''The Tempest'' is the first play in the publication. It was proofread and printed with special care; it is the most well-printed and the cleanest text of the thirty-six plays. To do the work of setting the type in the printing press, three compositors were used for ''The Tempest''. In the 1960s, a landmark bibliographic study of the First Folio was accomplished by [[Charlton Hinman]]. Based on distinctive quirks in the printed words on the page, the study was able to individuate the compositors, and reveal that three compositors worked on ''The Tempest'', who are known as Compositor B, C, and F. Compositor B worked on ''The Tempest''{{'}}s first page as well as six other pages. He was an experienced journeyman in Jaggard's printshop, who occasionally could be careless. In his role, he may have had a responsibility for the entire First Folio. The other two, Compositors C and F, worked full-time and were experienced printers.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=125}}

At the time, spelling and punctuation was not standardized and will vary from page to page, because each compositor had their individual preferences and styles. There is evidence that the press run was stopped at least four times, which allowed proofreading and corrections. However, a page with an error would not be discarded, so pages late in any given press run would be the most accurate, and each of the final printed folios may vary in this regard. This was the common practice at the time. There is also an instance of a letter (a metal [[Sort (typesetting)|sort]] or a type) being damaged (possibly) during the course of a run and changing the meaning of a word: After the masque Ferdinand says,
[[File:A short passage from Shakespeare's First Folio published in 1623.jpg|thumb|Ferdinand's line as it appears in Shakespeare's First Folio published in 1623]]

<poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Let me live here ever!
So rare a wondered father and a wise
Makes this place paradise! (4.1.122–124)</poem>

The word "wise" at the end of line 123 was printed with the traditional long "s" that resembles an "f". But in 1978 it was suggested that during the press run, a small piece of the crossbar on the type had broken off, and the word should be "wife". Modern editors have not come to an agreement—Oxford says "wife", Arden says "wise".{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=124–138}}{{sfn|Orgel|1987|pp=178}}{{sfn|Coursen|2000|pp=1–2}}

== Themes and motifs ==
=== The theatre ===
{{Quotebox|source=[[Prospero]]<ref>''The Tempest'' 4.1.148-158</ref>
|quote=<poem>Our revels now are ended. These our actors,
As I foretold you, were all spirits and
Are melted into air, into thin air;
And like the baseless fabric of this vision,
The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,
And, like this insubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff
As dreams are made on, and our little life
Is rounded with a sleep.</poem>}}
''The Tempest'' is explicitly concerned with its own nature as a play, frequently drawing links between Prospero's art and theatrical illusion. The shipwreck was a spectacle that Ariel performed. {{sfn|Gibson|2006|p=82}} Prospero may even refer to the [[Globe Theatre]] when he describes the whole world as an illusion: "the great globe&nbsp;... shall dissolve&nbsp;... like this insubstantial pageant".{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=254}} Ariel frequently disguises himself as figures from [[Classical mythology]], for example a [[nymph]], a [[harpy]], and [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], acting as the latter in a [[masque]] that Prospero creates.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=27}}

=== The masque ===

The masque in ''The Tempest'' is not itself a [[masque]]; rather, it is a dramatisation of a masque, while serving the narrative of the drama that contains it.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|pp=43-44}} It is an example of Propsero's magic art: a performance in which Ariel and his fellows play the roles.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=43}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=67}} In it, the goddesses [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]], [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] and [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] celebrate the betrothal of Miranda and Ferdinand.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=48}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=69}}

The language of the masque is stylized and artificial - to the point that some twentieth century critics dispraised it or considered it the work of another writer.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=70}}

''The Tempest'' as a whole contains elements which are derived from the masque as its leading practitioner, [[Ben Jonson]], was developing it: specifically a masque is a movement from conflict to harmony, as ''The Tempest'' is, and masques centre on [[Antithesis|antitheses]], as seen - for example - in the depiction of Ariel and Caliban as exquisite -v- monstrous, grateful -v- ungrateful or [[Classical element|air -v- earth]].{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=45}}

=== Revenge and forgiveness ===

The tone of Prospero's speech towards his three enemies Antonio, Alonso and Sebastian throughout the play is of rage and vengeance. However in the final act, Prospero tells Ariel "They being penitent, the sole drift of my purpose doth extend not a frown further."<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.28-30.</ref> But as Stephen Orgel notes in his introduction to the Oxford edition of the play, there is a condition in this speech which is not fulfilled: that Antonio is given no speech of remorse or contrition at the end of the play.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=51}} 

Prospero freely forgives Alonso. But in his final speeches towards Antonio, Prospero's attitude vascillates: "You, brother mine, that entertained ambition ... I do forgive thee"<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.75-78.</ref> but then immediately reverses himself: "Unnatural though thou art!"<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.79.</ref> and reconsiders upon remembering the conspiracy to kill Alonso: "At this time I will tell no tales"<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.128-129.</ref> then almost reverses himself with: "Most wicked sir, whom to call brother would even infect my mouth"<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.130-131.</ref> and only then confirms his forgiveness, while giving Antonio no opportunity to repent: "I do forgive thy rankest fault - all of them; and require my dukedom of thee, which perforce I know thou must restore."<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.131-134.</ref>{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=53}}

The spareness of Shakespeare's writing in the last act give scope to the actor playing Prospero to decide whether it was always the intention to forgive his enemies or whether he is influenced by Ariel's advice to be "tender",<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.19.</ref> and similarly whether the change is gradual, is sudden, or is forced upon him by shame or expediency.{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=lxi}}

=== Chastity ===

An important aspect of Prospero's project is to secure his dynasty by marrying his daughter, Miranda, to the heir of Naples, Ferdinand, for whom she is only a suitable bride if she is a virgin.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=49}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=70, 71}} Chastity had also become embodied as a royal virtue through the reign of [[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth]], the "Virgin Queen".{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=49}}

Miranda is seen as a sexual object by three characters:
*Caliban, who according to Prospero "didst seek to violate the honour of mine child";<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.248-349.</ref>
*Stephano, to whom Caliban says "she will become thy bed, I warrant, and bring thee forth brave brood";<ref>''The Tempest'' 3.2.104-105.</ref> and
*Ferdinand, whose mutual love with Miranda is the most immediate threat to her chastity.

The latter leads to chastity becoming the primary theme of the masque in Act IV, prefixed by Prospero's warning to Ferdinand: "But if thou dost break her virgin-knot before all sanctimonious ceremonies may with full and holy rite be ministered, no sweet aspersion shall the heavens let fall to make this contract grow."<ref>''The Tempest'' 4.1.14-19.</ref> Venus and Cupid (who, in the mythology, initiated the abduction of [[Proserpina]]) are banished from the masque, and the songs of Ceres and Juno<ref>''The Tempest'' 4.1.106-117</ref> celebrate chaste love.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=70-71}}

=== Magic ===

Prospero has been described as practicing "[[theurgy]]", white magic, known in Shakespeare's time from [[Neoplatonism|neo-Platonic]] writers, and contrasted with "[[Goetia|goety]]", black magic.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=62}} Contemporary [[John Dee (mathematician)|Dr John Dee]] regarded himself as practicing this white magic, but all magic was condemned by the church and the state: [[James VI and I|King James]] in his book ''[[Daemonologie]]'' having declared it punishable by death.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|pp=62-63}} Early modern plays about magic had portrayed it negatively: most famously in [[Christopher Marlowe|Marlowe]]'s ''[[Doctor Faustus (play)|Doctor Faustus]]'', but also, quite recently at the time ''The Tempest'' was written, in [[Ben Jonson|Jonson]]'s satire ''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'', played by Shakespeare's own company, [[King's Men (playing company)|The King's Men]], in which the central magician character, Subtle, is merely a con man.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|pp=63-65}}

In another more positive interpretation, Prospero's magic is an extension of science. [[Francis Bacon]] (who was at the time King James's Attorney-General) had written in his ''Magnalia Naturae'' of the possibility of the new philosophy giving humans powers over storms, seasons, germination and harvests.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=20}} 

Prospero often invokes the language of [[alchemy]] but his project is to transform not metals, but people: especially Caliban, and Prospero's former enemies Antonio, Sebastian and Alsonso.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|pp=63-64}} And he has the signifiers that Elizabethan audiences would have associated with magical power: his books, his staff and his robe.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=64}}

In the end Prospero must abandon his magic. He must free himself from the temptation to use magic for revenge, and from the distraction from his ducal duties which had caused his fall from power twelve years earlier.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=66}}{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=21}}

=== Prospero and Sycorax ===

Related to Prospero's magic is the contrast between himself and the unseen character [[Sycorax]], Caliban's mother, an Algerian witch who inhabited the island and died prior to Prospero and Miranda's arrival. Prospero himself makes much of the distinction between his own magical skill and that of Sycorax - both in moral terms (his white magic against her black magic) and in terms of his greater powers - exemplified by the fact that Sycorax "could not again undo"<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.291.</ref> Ariel's imprisonment in a cloven pine and "It was mine [Prospero's] art ... that made gape the pine and let thee out."<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.291-293.</ref>{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=66}}

Scholar Stephen Orgel concludes that "attitudes towards magic in the play ... range from the most positive to the most negative"{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=21}} but that twentieth century criticism emphasised the virtuous aspects of Propspero's magic: citing [[Frances Yates]] and [[Frank Kermode]] among those who praise Propsero's theurgy over the goety of Sycorax.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=21}} But Orgel goes on to reject this view as an oversimplification: pointing out that there is no evidence that the spirits controlled by Sycorax are any lower than (or, indeed, any other than) those controlled by Prospero, and also that Ariel is the unwilling servant of both.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|pp=21-22}}

The moral superiority of Prospero over Sycorax is also undermined in Prospero's speech renouncing his magic<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.24-57.</ref> which many in Shakespeare's audiences would have known (see "Sources" above) was a quotation from the witch Medea in Ovid's [[Metamorphoses]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|p=66}}{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=lii}}

=== Prospero as Shakespeare ===

[[Thomas Campbell (poet)|Thomas Campbell]] in 1838 was the first to consider that Prospero was meant to partially represent Shakespeare, but then abandoned that idea when he came to believe that ''The Tempest'' was an early play.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=10}} Even so, the idea has persisted in the critical canon that Prospero may be partly autobiographical.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=10}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=1}}

As it was probably Shakespeare's last solo play, ''The Tempest'' has often been seen as a valedictory for his career, especially in the passages beginning "Our revels now are ended..."<ref>''The Tempest'' 4.1.148-163.</ref> and "Ye elves of hills...".<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.33-57.</ref>{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=88-89}} Of the latter, Shakespeare's biographer [[Samuel Schoenbaum]] has suggested that it is more pertinent to Shakespeare than to Prospero, since there is nothing to suggested that at Prospero's command "Graves ... have wak'd their sleepers, ope'd, and let 'em forth"<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.48-49.</ref> - something Shakespeare has done, metaphorically, for many an historical character through his works.{{sfn|Schoenbaum|1987|p=278}}

And in the epilogue of the play, Prospero enters into a parabasis (a direct address to the audience) in which he tells the audience "Let your indulgence set me free".<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.E.20.</ref> Because Prospero is often identified with Shakespeare himself in this final speech, both appear (in the words of Germaine Greer) to be "[not] so much bidding farewell to the stage as begging to be released from it".{{sfn|Greer|1986|p=38}}{{sfn|Barton|1968|pp=50-51}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=1,285}}

== Criticism and interpretation ==

=== Genre ===
'''Comedy''': The Tempest is listed first among the "Comedies" in the 1623 [[First Folio]] of Shakespeare's works.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=1, 9}} The plot contains elements deriving from the Italian tradition of ''[[commedia dell'arte]]''.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=12, in turn citing Kathleen M. Lea's argument in her 1934 ''Italian Popular Comedy''}} In Shakespeare's time, whether a work was classified as comedy was chiefly defined by the resolution of its plot: typically one ending in marriage.{{sfn|Orlin|2003|p=169}}

'''Tragicomedy''': Although the plot contains similarities to Shakespeare's early comedies, its darker tone has led some twentieth-century critics including Joan Hartwig to label it a [[tragicomedy]] in the same tradition as contemporary mixed-mode plays such as the collaborations between [[Beaumont and Fletcher]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=10, 12, in turn citing Joan Hartwig's 1972 ''Shakespeare's Tragicomic Vision''}} [[E. M. W. Tillyard]] argued that the classic principles of tragedy were divided between two of Shakespeare's late plays: destruction being explored more fully in ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'', and regeneration more fully in ''The Tempest''.{{sfn|Palmer|1991|pp= 104-105, quoting E. M. W Tillyard's 1938 "The Tragic pattern".}} 

'''Romance''': Four of Shakespeare's late plays - ''[[Pericles, Prince of Tyre|Pericles]]'', ''[[Cymbeline]]'', ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'' and ''The Tempest'' - have become grouped together as his [[Shakespeare's late romances|romances]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=11}}{{sfn|Orlin|2003|pp=170-171}} This places them in a tradition derived from third-century Greek narratives, and practiced by Elizabethan writers including [[John Lyly|Lyly]], [[Thomas Lodge|Lodge]], [[Robert Greene (dramatist)|Greene]] and [[Philip Sidney|Sidney]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=11}} These plays (in the words of Reginald Foakes) "create a world dominated by chance ... in which we are attuned to delight in and wonder at the unexpected."{{sfn|Foakes|2003|p=249}}

=== The Classical Unities ===

Like ''[[The Comedy of Errors]]'', ''The Tempest'' roughly adheres to the [[Classical unities|unities]] of time, place, and action.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=14–17}} Shakespeare's other plays rarely respected the three unities, taking place in separate locations miles apart and over several days or even years.{{sfn|Hirst|1984|pp=34–35}} Of Shakespeare's other late romances, for example, ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'' contains a gap of sixteen years, and ''[[Cymbeline]]'s'' action veers between Britain and Italy.{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxxiii}} In contrast, ''The Tempest's'' events unfold in real time before the audience, taking around three hours.<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.239 and 5.1.3-5</ref>{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=262n}}{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxxiii}} All action is unified into one basic plot: Prospero's struggle to regain his dukedom; it is also confined to one place, a fictional island.

=== Location of Prospero's Island ===

The action takes place on an enchanted island ruled by Prospero, which must be located in the Mediterranean Sea, since it is encountered by travelers attempting to sail from [[Tunis]] to [[Naples]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=4}}{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxiii}} However it is often thought of in subsequent criticism as being in the North Atlantic: partly because of the play's association with the wreck of the Sea Venture (see "Sources" above) and Ariel's suggestion of its proximity to the "still-vexed Bermoothes"<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.229.</ref> both of which relate it to [[Bermuda]], but also because of the colonial context of the play - and the way in which it subsequently came to be viewed by postcolonial critics - which suggest a setting in the [[New World]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=98}}{{sfn|Butler|2007|pp=xxvii-xxviii}} Also indicative of a New World setting are the name of Sycorax's god, [[Setebos]], which derives from South America, and the source of Gonzalo's Utopia in [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne's]] essay ''[[Of Cannibals|Of The Cannibals]]'' (see also "Sources" above).{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxviii}}

=== Prospero as Hero ===

Throughout the critical history of the play until the mid-twentieth century, Prospero was generally regarded as an admirable figure: "prickly but essentially lovable" (in the words of Martin Butler).{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxxv}} But in more recent criticism and performance he has come to be seen as self-doubting and controlling and his attitude one of (in Martin Butler's words again) "suspicion, strain and paranoia".{{sfn|Butler|2007|pp=xxxv-xxxvi}}

This shift in the attitude of critics is partly due to the absence of soliloquies in which Prospero can make his feelings known to the audience. Did he always intend to forgive his enemies, for example, or is his statement that "the rarer action is in virtue than in vengeance"<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.27-28.</ref> a conclusion he reaches during the currency of the play?{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxxvi}} But it also reflects changing moral and political assumptions about the nature of rule, and of family.{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxxvi}}

=== Postcolonial ===

[[File:Millais ferdy.jpg|thumb|''[[Ferdinand Lured by Ariel]]'' by [[John Everett Millais]], 1850]]
''The Tempest'' is one of the plays (alongside ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'' and ''[[Othello]]'') most analysed in a [[Postcolonialism|Postcolonial]] context,{{sfn|Singh|2019|p=24}} and indeed is considered to be the work upon which postcolonial studies first took root.{{sfn|Singh|2003|p=499}} The play has become, in the words of Peter Hulme, "emblematic of the founding years of England's colonialism".{{sfn|Singh|2019|p=24, citing Peter Hulme's 1986 ''Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean''}} From a postcolonial perspective, Prospero is seen as having imported to the island the social and moral structures of Milan (meaning, for early audiences, of London) by seizing rule, and making slaves of its inhabitants Caliban and Ariel.{{sfn|Foakes|2003|p=258}} 

Traditionally, it was common to view ''The Tempest'' as an allegory of artistic creativity, with Prospero as all-knowing and benevolent.{{sfn|Singh|2003|p=501}} Beginning in about 1950, with the publication of ''Psychology of Colonization'' by [[Octave Mannoni]], postcolonial theorists have increasingly appropriated ''The Tempest'' and reinterpreted it in light of postcolonial theory. This new way of looking at the text explored the effect of the "coloniser" (Prospero) on the "colonised" (Ariel and Caliban). Although Ariel is often overlooked in these debates in favour of the more intriguing Caliban, he is nonetheless an essential component of them.{{sfn|Cartelli|1995|pp=82–102}} So, in the 1960s and 1970s, Caliban's "This island's mine... which thou tak'st from me"<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.332-223</ref> became a rallying-cry for African and Caribbean intellectuals.{{sfn|Singh|2003|p=501}}

But critics such as Meredith Anne Skura have pointed out the limits of the postcolonial approach, referencing its projection backwards onto a play from the 1610s of historical events which happened later, and stressing the point that, in the story, Prospero does not choose to colonise the island, but runs aground there after being set adrift.{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=lxxxiii}}

=== Feminist ===
Feminist interpretations of ''The Tempest'' consider the play in terms of gender roles and relationships among the characters on stage, and consider how concepts of gender are constructed and presented by the text, and explore the supporting consciousnesses and ideologies, all with an awareness of imbalances and injustices.{{sfn|Dolan|1991|p=996}} Two early feminist interpretations of ''The Tempest'' are included in Anna Jameson's ''Shakespeare's Heroines'' (1832) and Mary Clarke's ''The Girlhood of Shakespeare's Heroines'' (1851).{{sfn|Auerbach|1982|p=210}}{{sfn|Disch|Hawkesworth|2018|p=1-16}}

[[File:William Hamilton Prospero and Ariel.jpg|thumb|Prospero, Ariel and sleeping Miranda from a painting by [[William Hamilton (painter)|William Hamilton]]]]

''The Tempest'' is a play created in a male dominated culture and society, a gender imbalance the play explores metaphorically by having only one major female role, Miranda. Miranda is fifteen, intelligent, naive, and beautiful. The only humans she has ever encountered in her life are male. Prospero sees himself as her primary teacher, and asks if she can remember a time before they arrived to the island—he assumes that she cannot. When Miranda has a memory of "four or five women" tending to her younger self (1.2.44–47), it disturbs Prospero, who prefers to portray himself as her only teacher, and the absolute source of her own history—anything before his teachings in Miranda's mind should be a dark "abysm", according to him. (1.2.48–50) The "four or five women" Miranda remembers may symbolize the young girl's desire for something other than only men.{{sfn|Boğosyan|2013|pp=67-69}}{{sfn|Orgel|1996|pp=13–25}}

Other women, such as Caliban's mother [[Sycorax]], Miranda's mother and Alonso's daughter Claribel, are only mentioned. Because of the small role women play in the story in comparison to other Shakespeare plays, ''The Tempest'' has attracted much feminist criticism. Miranda is typically viewed as being completely deprived of freedom by her father. Her only duty in his eyes is to remain chaste. Ann Thompson argues that Miranda, in a manner typical of women in a colonial atmosphere, has completely internalised the patriarchal order of things, thinking of herself as subordinate to her father.{{sfn|Coursen|2000|pp=87–88}}

== Legacy ==
=== Performance history ===

{{Main|Performance History of The Tempest}}

==== Shakespeare's day ====
A record exists of a performance of ''The Tempest'' on 1 November 1611 by the [[King's Men (playing company)|King's Men]] before [[King James I of England|James I]] and the English royal court at [[Whitehall Palace]] on [[All Saints' Day|Hallowmas]] night.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|p=1}} The play was one of the six Shakespeare plays (and eight others for a total of 14) acted at court during the winter of 1612–13 as part of the [[Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Frederick V of the Palatinate|festivities surrounding the marriage]] of [[Elizabeth of Bohemia|Princess Elizabeth]] with [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine|Frederick V]], the [[Elector of the Palatinate]] of the Rhine.{{sfn|Chambers|1930|p=343}} There is no further public performance recorded prior to the [[English Restoration|Restoration]]; but in his 1669 preface to the Dryden/Davenant version, John Dryden states that ''The Tempest'' had been performed at the [[Blackfriars Theatre]].{{sfn|Dymkowski|2000|p=5n}} Careful consideration of stage directions within the play supports this, strongly suggesting that the play was written with Blackfriars Theatre rather than the [[Globe Theatre]] in mind.{{sfn|Gurr|1989|pp=91–102}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=6–7}} But the mid-20th century critic Frank Kermode, while agreeing that ''The Tempest'' is a Blackfriars play, argued that it could easily have been accommodated at The Globe also, as others of Shakespeare's late romances were.{{sfn|Kermode|1954|p=151}}

==== Restoration and 18th century ====
Adaptations of the play, not Shakespeare's original, dominated the performance history of ''The Tempest'' from the [[English Restoration]] until the mid-19th century.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=76}} Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, [[William Davenant|Sir William Davenant]]'s ''[[Duke's Company]]'' had the rights to perform ''The Tempest''.{{sfn|Marsden|2002|p=21}} In 1667 Davenant and [[John Dryden]] made heavy cuts and adapted it as ''[[The Tempest (Dryden)|The Tempest, or The Enchanted Island]]''<!-- yes, the comma is in the right place. -->. They tried to appeal to upper-class audiences by emphasising royalist political and social ideals: monarchy is the natural form of government; patriarchal authority decisive in education and marriage; and patrilineality preeminent in inheritance and ownership of property.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=76}} They also added characters and plotlines: Miranda has a sister, named Dorinda; Caliban also has a sister, named Sycorax. As a parallel to Shakespeare's Miranda/Ferdinand plot, Prospero has a foster-son, Hippolito, who has never set eyes on a woman.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=77}} Hippolito was a popular [[breeches role]], a man played by a woman, popular with Restoration theatre management for the opportunity to reveal actresses' legs.{{sfn|Marsden|2002|p=26}} Scholar Michael Dobson has described ''The Tempest, or The Enchanted Island'' by Dryden and Davenant as "the most frequently revived play of the entire Restoration" and as establishing the importance of enhanced and additional roles for women.{{sfn|Dobson|1992|pp=59–60}}

[[File:George Romney - Lady Hamilton (as Miranda) 2.jpg|thumb|left|Oil sketch of [[Emma, Lady Hamilton|Emma Hart]], as Miranda, by [[George Romney (painter)|George Romney]]]]
In 1674, [[Thomas Shadwell]] re-adapted Dryden and Davenant as an "opera" of the same name - meaning a play with sections that were to be sung or danced. Restoration playgoers appear to have regarded the Dryden/Davenant/Shadwell version as Shakespeare's: [[Samuel Pepys]], for example, described it as "an old play of Shakespeares" in [[Samuel Pepys#The diary|his diary]]. The opera was extremely popular, and "full of so good variety, that I cannot be more pleased almost in a comedy" according to Pepys.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=76–77}} Prospero in this version is very different from Shakespeare's: Eckhard Auberlen describes him as "reduced to the status of a [[Polonius]]-like overbusy father, intent on protecting the chastity of his two sexually naive daughters while planning advantageous dynastic marriages for them".{{sfn|Auberlen|1991}} The operatic ''Enchanted Island'' was successful enough to provoke a parody, ''[[The Mock Tempest|The Mock Tempest, or The Enchanted Castle]]'', written by Thomas Duffett for the King's Company in 1675. It opened with what appeared to be a tempest, but turned out to be a riot in a brothel.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=80}}

[[File:Drury Lane Playbill - The Tempest.jpg|thumb|A playbill for a 1757 production of ''The Tempest'' at the Drury Lane Theatre Royal]]

''The Tempest'' was one of the staples of the repertoire of [[Romanticism|Romantic Era]] theatres. [[John Philip Kemble]] produced an acting version which was closer to Shakespeare's original, but nevertheless retained Dorinda and Hippolito.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=82–83}} Kemble was much-mocked for his insistence on archaic pronunciation of Shakespeare's texts, including "aitches" for "aches". It was said that spectators "packed the pit, just to enjoy hissing Kemble's delivery of 'I'll rack thee with old cramps, / Fill all they bones with aches'."<ref>''The Tempest'' 1.2.370-371</ref>{{sfn|Moody|2002|p=44}}

==== 19th century ====
[[File:Angelica Kauffmann 007.jpg|thumb|left|Miranda and Ferdinand by [[Angelica Kauffman]], 1782]]
It was not until [[William Charles Macready]]'s influential production in 1838 that Shakespeare's text established its primacy over the adapted and operatic versions which had been popular for most of the previous two centuries. The performance was particularly admired for [[George John Bennett|George Bennett]]'s performance as Caliban; it was described by Patrick MacDonnell—in his "An Essay on the Play of ''The Tempest''" published in 1840—as "maintaining in his mind, a strong resistance to that tyranny, which held him in the thraldom of slavery".{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=89}}

The [[Victorian era]] marked the height of the movement which would later be described as "pictorial": based on lavish sets and visual spectacle, heavily cut texts making room for lengthy scene-changes, and elaborate stage effects.{{sfn|Schoch|2002|pp=58–59}} In [[Charles Kean]]'s 1857 production of ''The Tempest'', Ariel was several times seen to descend in a ball of fire.{{sfn|Schoch|2002|p=64}} The hundred and forty stagehands supposedly employed on this production were described by ''[[The Literary Gazette]]'' as "unseen&nbsp;... but alas never unheard". [[Hans Christian Andersen]] also saw this production and described Ariel as "isolated by the electric ray", referring to the effect of a [[carbon arc lamp]] directed at the actress playing the role.{{sfn|Schoch|2002|pp=67–68}} 

In these Victorian productions it was widely accepted that the spectacle of the opening sea-storm was the highlight of the show, with the custom developing of dropping Shakespeare's lines from the opening scene altogether.{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=lxvii}} The next generation of producers, which included [[William Poel]] and [[Harley Granville-Barker]], returned to a leaner and more text-based style.{{sfn|Halliday|1964|pp=486–487}}

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Caliban, not Prospero, was perceived as the star act of ''The Tempest'', and was the role which the actor-managers chose for themselves. [[Frank Benson (actor)|Frank Benson]] researched the role by viewing monkeys and baboons at the zoo. On stage, described by one reviewer as "half-monkey, half-coconut", he hung upside-down from a tree and gibbered.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=93–95}}{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=lxxii}}

At Benson's opening performance in 1891 a lecturer appeared before the play began, to explain the political resonances of the opening scene. However the actual scene was cut completely, to be replaced by a performance of [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]]'s ''Der Sturm''.{{sfn|Lindley|2002|p=7}}

==== 20th century ====
[[File:Herbert Beerbohm Tree as Caliban.jpg|thumb|A charcoal drawing by [[Charles Buchel]] of Herbert Beerbohm Tree as Caliban in the 1904 production.]]

Continuing the late-19th-century tradition, in 1904 [[Herbert Beerbohm Tree]] wore [[fur]] and [[seaweed]] to play [[Caliban]], with waist-length hair and [[ape]]like bearing, suggestive of a primitive part-animal part-human stage of [[evolution]].{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=93–95}} This "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links|missing link]]" portrayal of Caliban became the norm in productions until [[Roger Livesey]], in 1934, was the first actor to play the role with black makeup. In 1945 [[Canada Lee]] played the role at the [[Theatre Guild]] in New York, establishing a tradition of black actors taking the role, including [[Earle Hyman]] in 1960 and [[James Earl Jones]] in 1962.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=113}}

In 1916, [[Percy MacKaye]] presented a community [[masque]], ''[[Caliban by the Yellow Sands]]'', at the [[Lewisohn Stadium]] in New York. Amidst a huge cast of dancers and masquers, the [[Medieval pageant|pageant]] centres on the rebellious nature of Caliban but ends with his plea for more knowledge ("I yearn to build, to be thine Artist / And 'stablish this thine Earth among the stars- / Beautiful!") followed by Shakespeare, as a character, reciting Prospero's "Our revels now are ended" speech.<ref>''The Tempest'' 4.1.148-163</ref>{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=96–98}}

[[John Gielgud]] played [[Prospero]] numerous times, and is, according to Douglas Brode, "universally heralded as ... [the 20th] century's greatest stage Prospero".{{sfn|Brode|2001|p=229}} Scholar Martin Butler has described his Propspero as "a vigorous, forceful and intellectually alert individual, he always dominated the play, but was not easily likeable."{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=lxxi}}  

In spite of the existing tradition of a black actor playing Caliban opposite a white Prospero, [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] interpretations of the play did not find their way onto the stage until the 1970s.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=113–114}} Performances in England directed by [[Jonathan Miller]] and by [[Clifford Williams (actor)|Clifford Williams]] explicitly portrayed Prospero as [[coloniser]]. {{sfn|Hirst|1984|p=50}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=114}} And later, in 1993, [[Sam Mendes]] directed a 1993 [[Royal Shakespeare Company|RSC]] production in which [[Simon Russell Beale]]'s Ariel was openly resentful of the control exercised by [[Alec McCowen]]'s Prospero. Controversially, in the early performances of the run, Ariel spat at Prospero, once granted his freedom.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=116–117}}{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=liv}} {{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=121–123}} 

Psychoanalytic interpretations have proved more difficult to depict on stage.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=114}} [[Gerald Freedman]]'s production at the [[American Shakespeare Theatre]] in 1979 and Ron Daniels' [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] production in 1982 both attempted to depict Ariel and Caliban as opposing aspects of Prospero's psyche, but neither was regarded as wholly successful.{{sfn|Saccio|1980}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=114–115}} Productions in the late 20th-century have gradually increased the focus placed on sexual tensions between the characters, including Prospero/Miranda, Prospero/Ariel, Miranda/Caliban, Miranda/Ferdinand and Caliban/Trinculo.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=123}}

Italian director [[Giorgio Strehler]] directed a [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]]-inspired version of the Tempest from 1978 which proved influential in containing the much-copied image of Prospero at the centre of the play's opening storm scene, orchestrating the visual effects around him.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|pp=149-150}}

Japanese theatre styles have been applied to ''The Tempest''. In 1988 and again in 1992 [[Yukio Ninagawa]] brought his version of ''The Tempest'' to the UK. It was staged as a rehearsal of a [[Noh]] drama, with a traditional Noh theatre at the back of the stage, but also using elements which were at odds with Noh conventions.{{sfn|Dawson|2002|pp=179–180}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|pp=151-152}} In 1992, Minoru Fujita presented a [[Bunraku]] (Japanese puppet) version in [[Osaka]] and at the [[Panasonic Globe Theatre|Tokyo Globe]].{{sfn|Dawson|2002|p=181}}

==== 21st century ====

[[File:The Tempest, OVO, St Albans, June 2014.jpg|thumb|right|Caliban rants at Prospero while Ariel looks on, in a 2014 production by OVO theatre company, [[St Albans]], UK]]
''The Tempest'' was performed at the [[Globe Theatre]] in 2000 with [[Vanessa Redgrave]] as Prospero, playing the role as neither male nor female, but with "authority, humanity and humour&nbsp;... a watchful parent to both Miranda and Ariel".{{sfn|Gay|2002|pp=171–172}} While the audience respected Prospero, [[Jasper Britton]]'s Caliban "was their man" (in Peter Thomson's words), in spite of the fact that he spat fish at the [[groundling]]s, and singled some of them out for humiliating encounters.{{sfn|Thomson|2002|p=138}}

By the end of 2005, ''[[BBC Radio]]'' had aired 21 productions of ''The Tempest'', more than any other play by Shakespeare.{{sfn|Greenhalgh|2007|p=186}}

In 2016 ''The Tempest'' was produced by the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]. Directed by [[Gregory Doran]], and featuring [[Simon Russell Beale]] as Prospero, the RSC's version used motion capture to project Ariel in real time as a "pixelated humanoid sprite" on stage. The performance was in collaboration with [[The Imaginarium]] and [[Intel]], and featured (in the words of the London Standard's review) "some ... gorgeous, some interesting, and some gimmicky and distracting"{{sfn|Hitchings|2016}} use of light, special effects, and set design.{{sfn|Hitchings|2016}}{{sfn|Working|Loughnane|2024|pp=42-43}}

In 2019, [[Mohegan]] writer [[Madeline Sayet]]'s solo show ''Where We Belong'' at [[Shakespeare's Globe]] engaged in a [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] speculation about the European characters' abandonment of the island ad the play's end: wondering whether Caliban's native language would return to him.{{sfn|Working|Loughnane|2024|p=43}}

=== Music ===
[[File:Stephano, Trinculo and Caliban dancing from The Tempest by Johann Heinrich Ramberg.jpg|thumb|Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo dancing, detail of a painting by [[Johann Heinrich Ramberg]]]]

{{Main|The Tempest in Music, Literature and Art}}

''The Tempest'' has more music than any other Shakespeare play, and has proved more popular as a subject for composers than most of Shakespeare's plays. Scholar Julie Sanders ascribes this to the "perceived 'musicality' or lyricism" of the play.{{sfn|Sanders|2007|p=42}}

Two settings of songs from ''The Tempest'' which may have been used in performances during Shakespeare's lifetime have survived. These are "Full Fathom Five" and "Where The Bee Sucks There Suck I" in the 1659 publication ''Cheerful Ayres or Ballads'', in which they are attributed to [[Robert Johnson (English composer)|Robert Johnson]], who regularly composed for the King's Men.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=18–20}} It has been common throughout the history of the play for the producers to commission contemporary settings of these two songs, and also of "Come Unto These Yellow Sands".{{sfn|Sanders|2007|p=31}}

Among those who wrote incidental music to ''The Tempest'' are:
* [[Arthur Sullivan]]: his graduation piece, completed in 1861, was a set of [[incidental music]] to "[[The Tempest (Sullivan)|The Tempest]]".{{sfn|Jacobs|1986|p=24}} His score was still in use half a century later to add atmosphere the Old Vic's 1914 production.{{sfn|Orgel|1987|pp=74-75}} 
* [[Ernest Chausson]]: in 1888 he wrote incidental music for ''La tempête'', a French translation by [[Maurice Bouchor]]. This is believed to be the first orchestral work that made use of the [[celesta]].{{sfn|Blades|Holland|2020}}{{sfn|Gallois|2001}}
* [[Jean Sibelius]]: his [[The Tempest (Sibelius)|1926 incidental music]] was written for a lavish production at the [[Royal Danish Theatre|Royal Theatre]] in Copenhagen. An epilogue was added for a 1927 performance in Helsinki.{{sfn|Ylirotu|2005}} He represented individual characters through instrumentation choices: particularly admired was his use of harps and percussion to represent Prospero, said to capture the "resonant ambiguity of the character".{{sfn|Sanders|2007|p=36}}

Ballet sequences have been used in many performances of the play since Restoration times.{{sfn|Sanders|2007|p=60}}

At least forty-six operas or [[semi-opera]]s based on ''The Tempest'' exist.{{sfn|Wilson|Sternfeld|White|2022}} [[Michael Tippett]]'s 1971 opera ''[[The Knot Garden]]'' contains various allusions to ''The Tempest''. In Act 3, a psychoanalyst, Mangus, pretends to be Prospero and uses situations from Shakespeare's play in his therapy sessions.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=112}} [[Michael Nyman]]'s 1991 opera ''[[Noises, Sounds & Sweet Airs]]'' was first performed as an [[opera-ballet]] choreographed by [[Karine Saporta]]. The three vocalists, a [[soprano]], [[contralto]], and [[tenor]], are voices rather than individual characters, with the tenor just as likely as the soprano to sing Miranda, or all three sing as one character.{{sfn|Tuttle|1996}}{{sfn|Johnson|1996}}

The soprano who sings the part of Ariel in [[Thomas Adès]]'s 2004 opera ''[[The Tempest (opera)|The Tempest]]'' is stretched at the higher end of the register, highlighting the [[androgyny]] of the role.{{sfn|Sanders|2007|p=99}}{{sfn|Halliday|1964|pp=410, 486}}{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=lxviii}} [[Luca Lombardi (composer)|Luca Lombardi]]'s ''Prospero'' was premiered in April 2006 at [[Staatstheater Nürnberg|Nuremberg Opera House]]. Ariel is sung by 4 female voices ([[soprano|S,S]],[[mezzo-soprano|MS]],[[alto|A]]) and has an instrumental alter ego on stage (flute). There is an instrumental alter ego (cello) also for Prospero.{{sfn|Griffel|2018|p=381}}{{sfn|Tholl|2006}}

Stage musicals derived from ''The Tempest'' have been produced. A production called ''The Tempest: A Musical'' was produced at the [[Cherry Lane Theatre]] in New York City in December 2006, with a concept credited to [[Thomas Meehan (writer)|Thomas Meehan]] and a script by Daniel Neiden (who also wrote the songs) and [[Ryan Knowles]].{{sfn|McElroy|2006}} Neiden had previously been connected with another musical, entitled ''Tempest Toss'd''.{{sfn|Avery|2006}} In September 2013, [[The Public Theater]] produced a new large-scale stage musical at the [[Delacorte Theater]] in [[Central Park]], directed by Lear deBessonet with a cast of more than 200.{{sfn|La Rocco|2013}}{{sfn|Simon|2013}}

''The Tempest'' has also influenced songs written in the [[Folk music|folk]] and [[hippie]] traditions: for example, versions of "Full Fathom Five" were recorded by [[Marianne Faithfull]] for ''[[Come My Way]]'' in 1965 and by [[Pete Seeger]] for ''Dangerous Songs!?'' in 1966.{{sfn|Sanders|2007|p=189}}

=== Literature ===
[[File:Shakespeare's Heroines - Miranda.jpg|thumb|"Miranda" by [[Frederick Goodall]], from ''the Graphic Gallery of Shakespeare's Heroines'']]

{{Main|The Tempest in Music, Literature and Art}}

[[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] was one of the earliest poets to be influenced by ''The Tempest''. His "With a Guitar, To Jane" identifies Ariel with the poet and his songs with poetry. The poem uses simple diction to convey Ariel's closeness to nature and "imitates the straightforward beauty of Shakespeare's original songs".{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=87–88}} Following the publication of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s ideas on [[evolution]], writers began to question mankind's place in the world and its relationship with God. One writer who explored these ideas was [[Robert Browning]], whose poem "[[Caliban upon Setebos]]" (1864) sets Shakespeare's character pondering theological and philosophical questions.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=91}} The French philosopher [[Ernest Renan]] wrote a closet drama, ''Caliban: Suite de La Tempête'' (''Caliban: Sequel to The Tempest''), in 1878. This features a female Ariel who follows Prospero back to Milan, and a Caliban who leads a coup against Prospero, after the success of which he actively imitates his former master's virtues.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=92}} [[W. H. Auden]]'s long poem ''[[The Sea and the Mirror]]'' is in three parts, Prospero's farewell to Ariel referring to the matters unresolved at the end of the play; a reflection by each of the supporting characters on their experiences and intentions; then a prose narrative "Caliban to the Audience" which takes a [[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]] viewpoint, seeing Caliban as Prospero's [[libido|libidinous]] secret self.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=110–111}}{{sfn|Mowat|Werstine|2015|pp=201-202}}

The book ''[[Brave New World]]'' by [[Aldous Huxley]] references ''The Tempest'' in the title, and explores [[Genetically modified organism|genetically modified]] citizens and the subsequent social effects. The novel and the phrase from ''The Tempest'', Barclay"brave new world",<ref>''The Tempest'' 5.1.183</ref> have since been associated with public debate about humankind's understanding and use of genetic modification, in particular with regards to humans.{{sfn|Barclay|2020}}

Postcolonial ideas influenced late 20th-century writings. [[Aimé Césaire]] of Martinique, in his 1969 French-language play ''[[Une Tempête]]'' sets ''The Tempest'' in a colony suffering unrest, and prefuiguring black independence. The play portrays Ariel as a [[mulatto]] who, unlike the more rebellious black Caliban, feels that negotiation and partnership is the way to freedom from the colonisers.{{sfn|Singh|2003|pp=501-503}}{{sfn|Singh|2019|p=84}} Roberto Fernandez Retamar sets his version of the play in [[Cuba]], and portrays Ariel as a wealthy Cuban (in comparison to the lower-class Caliban) who also must choose between rebellion or negotiation.{{sfn|Nixon|1987|pp=557–578}}{{sfn|Singh|2019|pp=88-89}} Barbadian poet [[Kamau Brathwaite|E. P. Kamau Brathwaite]] in his 1969 poem "Caliban" identifies the character with the history of colonialism, between the [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|first voyage of Columbus]] through to the [[Cuban Revolution]].{{sfn|Singh|2019|pp=89-91}} Jamaican-American author [[Michelle Cliff]]'s ''[[No Telephone to Heaven]]'' has a protagonist who identifies with both Caliban and Miranda.{{sfn|Cartelli|1995|pp=89, 90-91}} And the figure of Caliban influenced numerous works of African literature in the 1970s, including [[Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o]] of Kenya's ''[[A Grain of Wheat]]'', and David Wallace of Zambia's ''Do You Love Me, Master?''{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=107}}{{sfn|Singh|2003|p=503}} In 1995, Sierra Leonean [[Lemuel Adolphus Johnson|Lemuel Johnson]]'s ''Highlife for Caliban'' imagined Caliban as king of his own kingdom.{{sfn|Butler|2007|p=xxix}}

A similar phenomenon occurred in relation to feminist ideas in late 20th-century Canada, where several writers produced works inspired by Miranda, including ''[[The Diviners]]'' by [[Margaret Laurence]], ''Prospero's Daughter'' by Constance Beresford-Howe and ''The Measure of Miranda'' by Sarah Murphy.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=109}} Other writers have feminised Ariel (as in [[Marina Warner]]'s novel ''[[Indigo (Marina Warner novel)|Indigo]]'') or Caliban (as in [[Suniti Namjoshi]]'s sequence of poems ''Snapshots of Caliban'').{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=109–110}}

=== Art ===

{{Main|The Tempest in Music, Literature and Art}}

[[File:William Hogarth 017.jpg|left|thumb|[[William Hogarth]]'s painting of ''The Tempest'' {{circa|1735}}.]]
From the mid-18th century, Shakespeare's plays, including ''The Tempest'', began to appear as the subject of paintings.{{sfn|Orgel|2007|p=72}} In around 1735, [[William Hogarth]] produced his painting [[Scene from Shakespeare's The Tempest|''A Scene from The Tempest'']]: "a baroque, sentimental fantasy costumed in the style of Van Dyck and Rembrandt".{{sfn|Orgel|2007|p=72}} The painting is based upon Shakespeare's text, containing no representation of the stage, nor of the (Davenant-Dryden centred) stage tradition of the time.{{sfn|Orgel|2007|pp=72–73}} [[Henry Fuseli]], in a painting commissioned for the [[Boydell Shakespeare Gallery]] (1789) modelled his Prospero on [[Leonardo da Vinci]].{{sfn|Orgel|2007|p=76}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=83–85}} These two 18th-century depictions of the play indicate that Prospero was regarded as its moral centre: viewers of Hogarth's and Fuseli's paintings would have accepted Prospero's wisdom and authority.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=83–84}} [[John Everett Millais]]'s ''[[Ferdinand Lured by Ariel]]'' (1851) is among the [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood|Pre-Raphaelite]] paintings based on the play. In the late 19th century, artists tended to depict Caliban as a [[Charles Darwin|Darwinian]] "missing-link", with fish-like or ape-like features, as evidenced in [[Joseph Noel Paton]]'s ''Caliban'', and discussed in [[Daniel Wilson (academic)|Daniel Wilson's]] book ''Caliban: The Missing Link'' (1873).{{sfn|Wilson|1873|p=32}}{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=92}}{{sfn|Tyrwhitt|1869|p=364}}
[[File:Caliban-paton.jpg|thumb|[[Joseph Noel Paton]]'s ''Caliban'']]

[[Charles Knight (publisher)|Charles Knight]] produced the ''Pictorial Edition of the Works of Shakespeare'' in eight volumes (1838–43). The work attempted to translate the contents of the plays into pictorial form. This extended not just to the action, but also to images and metaphors: Gonzalo's line about "mountaineers dewlapped like bulls" is illustrated with a picture of a Swiss peasant with a [[goitre]].{{sfn|Orgel|2007|p=81}} In 1908, [[Edmund Dulac]] produced an edition of ''Shakespeare's Comedy of The Tempest'' with a scholarly plot summary and commentary by [[Arthur Quiller-Couch]], lavishly bound and illustrated with 40 watercolour illustrations. The illustrations highlight the fairy-tale quality of the play, avoiding its dark side. Of the 40, only 12 are direct depictions of the action of the play: the others are based on action before the play begins, or on images such as "full fathom five thy father lies" or "sounds and sweet airs that give delight and hurt not".{{sfn|Orgel|2007|pp=85–88}}

In 2015 [[Charmaine Lurch]]'s installation ''Revisiting Sycorax'' gave a physical form to a figure only spoken about in Shakespeare's play, and intended to draw attention to the discrepancy between the presence of African women in the world and the way they are spoken of in European male dialogue.{{sfn|Working|Loughnane|2024|p=27}}

=== Screen ===

{{Main|The Tempest on Screen}}

[[File:The Tempest (1908).webm|thumb|thumbtime=1|''[[The Tempest (1908 film)|The Tempest]]'' (1908)]]
[[File:Alexandrov Caliban.jpg|thumb|Fyodor Paramonov as Caliban, [[Maly Theatre (Moscow)]], 1905]]
''The Tempest'' first appeared on the screen in 1905. [[Charles Urban]] filmed the opening storm sequence of [[Herbert Beerbohm Tree]]'s version at [[Her Majesty's Theatre]] for a {{frac|2|1|2}}-minute ''flicker'', whose individual frames were hand-tinted, long before the invention of colour film. In 1908 [[Percy Stow]] directed ''[[The Tempest (1908 film)|The Tempest]]'' running a little over ten minutes, which is now a part of the [[British Film Institute]]'s compilation ''Silent Shakespeare''. It portrays a condensed version of Shakespeare's play in a series of short scenes linked by [[intertitle]]s. At least two other silent versions, [[The Tempest (1911 film)|one from 1911]] by [[Edwin Thanhouser]], are known to have existed, but have been lost.{{sfn|Brode|2001|pp=222–223}} 

The plot was adapted for the Western ''[[Yellow Sky]]'', directed by [[William A. Wellman]], in 1946.{{sfn|Howard|2000|p=296}} The 1956 science fiction film ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'' set the story on a planet in space, Altair IV, instead of an island. Professor Morbius ([[Walter Pidgeon]]) and his daughter Altaira ([[Anne Francis]]) are the Prospero and Miranda figures, whose lives are disrupted by the arrival of a spaceship from Earth. Ariel is represented by the helpful [[Robby the Robot]]. Caliban is represented by the dangerous and invisible "monster from the [[Id (psychology)|id]]", a technologically-enhanced projection of Morbius' psyche.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=111–112}}

Writing in 2000, Douglas Brode expressed the opinion that there had only been one screen "performance" of ''The Tempest'' since the silent era: he describes all other versions as "variations". That one performance is the [[Hallmark Hall of Fame]] version from 1960, directed by [[George Schaefer (television)|George Schaefer]], and starring [[Maurice Evans (actor)|Maurice Evans]] as Prospero, [[Richard Burton]] as Caliban, [[Lee Remick]] as Miranda, and [[Roddy McDowall]] as Ariel. It cut the play to slightly less than ninety minutes. Critic Virginia Vaughan praised it as "light as a [[soufflé]], but&nbsp;... substantial enough for the main course".{{sfn|Brode|2001|pp=222–223}}

In 1979, [[Derek Jarman]] produced the homoerotic film ''[[The Tempest (1979 film)|The Tempest]]'' that used Shakespeare's language, but was most notable for its deviations from Shakespeare. One scene shows a corpulent and naked Sycorax ([[Claire Davenport]]) breastfeeding her adult son Caliban ([[Jack Birkett]]). The film reaches its climax with [[Elisabeth Welch]] belting out "[[Stormy Weather (song)|Stormy Weather]]".{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|pp=118–119}}{{sfn|Brode|2001|pp=224–226}} The central performances were [[Toyah Willcox]]'s Miranda and [[Heathcote Williams]]'s Prospero, a "dark brooding figure who takes pleasure in exploiting both his servants".{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=118}}

[[Paul Mazursky]]'s 1982 modern-language adaptation ''[[Tempest (1982 film)|Tempest]]'', with Philip Dimitrius (the Prospero character, played by [[John Cassavetes]]) as a disillusioned New York architect who retreats to a lonely Greek island with his daughter Miranda after learning of his wife Antonia's infidelity with Alonzo, dealt frankly with the sexual tensions of the characters' isolated existence. The Caliban character, the goatherd Kalibanos, asks Philip which of them is going to have sex with Miranda.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|1999|p=118}}

[[John Gielgud]] wrote that playing Prospero in a film of ''The Tempest'' was his life's ambition. Eventually, the project was taken on by [[Peter Greenaway]], who directed ''[[Prospero's Books]]'' (1991) featuring "an 87-year-old John Gielgud and an impressive amount of nudity".{{sfn|Rozakis|1999|p=275}} Prospero is reimagined as the author of ''The Tempest'', speaking the lines of the other characters, as well as his own.{{sfn|Brode|2001|p=229}} Although the film was acknowledged as innovative for its "unprecedented visual complexity",{{sfn|Howard|2003|p=612}} critical responses were frequently negative: [[John Simon (critic)|John Simon]] called it "contemptible and pretentious".{{sfn|Forsyth|2000|p=291}}{{sfn|Brode|2001|pp=229–231}}

Closer to the spirit of Shakespeare's original, in the view of critics such as Brode, is [[Leon Garfield]]'s abridgement of the play for [[S4C]]'s 1992 ''[[Shakespeare: The Animated Tales]]'' series. The 29-minute production, directed by [[Stanislav Sokolov]] and featuring [[Timothy West]] as the voice of Prospero, used [[Stop motion|stop-motion puppets]] to capture the fairy-tale quality of the play.{{sfn|Brode|2001|p=232}}<!-- Oddly, this source, apparently incorrectly, credits the director as Vladimir Naslov (whoever he may be). The film itself (like our article) credits [[Stanislav Sokolov]]--> Another "offbeat variation" (in Brode's words) was produced for [[NBC]] in 1998: [[Jack Bender]]'s ''[[The Tempest (1998 film)|The Tempest]]'' featured [[Peter Fonda]] as Gideon Prosper, a Southern slave-owner forced off his plantation by his brother shortly before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. A magician who has learned his art from one of his slaves, Prosper uses his magic to protect his teenage daughter and to assist the Union Army.{{sfn|Brode|2001|pp=231–232}}

Director [[Julie Taymor]]'s 2010 adaptation ''[[The Tempest (2010 film)|The Tempest]]'' starred [[Helen Mirren]] as Prospera, a female Prospero character: with the text adapted to establish a different backstory between Prospera and Antonio. The film was praised for its powerful visual imagery used in place of Shakespearean language.{{sfn|Vaughan|Vaughan|2011|pp=157-159}}

==Citations==

===References===
References to ''The Tempest'' are to the Arden Third Series edition (i.e. ''Vaughan and Vaughan 1999''). Under its numbering system 4.1.148 means act 4, scene 1, line 148; and 5.E.20 means the epilogue following act 5, line 20.

{{reflist}}

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  |first = Arthur
  |year = 1986
  |publisher = Oxford University Press
  |location = Oxford
  |isbn = 0-19-282033-8
}}
* {{cite news |last1=Johnson |first1=Phil |title=Drowning by numbers |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/drowning-by-numbers-1316875.html |access-date=21 April 2025 |agency=The Independent |publisher=Independent Digital News & Media Ltd |date=2 February 1996}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Tempest
  |last = Shakespeare
  |first = William
  |author-link = William Shakespeare
  |display-authors = 0
  |editor1-last = Kermode
  |editor1-first = Frank
  |editor1-link = Frank Kermode
  |series = [[The Arden Shakespeare]], second series
  |publisher = [[Methuen Publishing|Methuen]]
  |edition=6th
  |year = 1954
  |ol = 6244436M
  |oclc=876474007
  |ref = {{harvid|Kermode|1954}}
}}
* {{cite news
  |title = On a Diverse Island, a Play About a Magical One
  |last = La Rocco
  |first = Claudia
  |newspaper = [[The New York Times]]
  |date = 10 September 2013
  |page = C3
  |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/10/theater/reviews/the-tempest-at-the-delacorte-enlists-200-new-yorkers.html
  }}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Tempest
  |series = The New Cambridge Shakespeare
  |last = Lindley
  |first = David
  |publisher = Cambridge University Press
  |year = 2002
  |isbn = 0-521-29374-X
}}
* {{harvc
  |chapter = Improving Shakespeare: From the Restoration to Garrick
  |last = Marsden
  |first = Jean I.
  |pages = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well_687/page/n37 21]–36
  |in1 = Wells
  |in2 = Stanton
  |year = 2002
  }}
* {{cite news
  |title = A New Theater Company Starts Big
  |last = McElroy
  |first = Steven
  |newspaper = [[The New York Times]]
  |department = Arts, Briefly
  |date = 24 November 2006
  |page = E2
  |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/24/arts/24arts.html
  }}
* {{harvc
  |chapter = Romantic Shakespeare
  |last = Moody
  |first = Jane
  |pages = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well_687/page/n53 37]–57
  |in1 = Wells
  |in2 = Stanton
  |year = 2002
  }}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Tempest
  |series = Folger Shakespeare Library
  |last1 = Mowat
  |first1 = Barbara A.
  |last2 = Werstine
  |first2 = Paul
  |publisher = Simon & Schuster
  |location = New York
  |year = 2015
  |isbn = 978-1-5011-3001-4
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Sources of Shakespeare's Plays
  |series = Routledge Library Editions – Shakespeare
  |last = Muir
  |first = Kenneth
  |year = 2005
  |publisher = Routledge
  |isbn = 0-415-35299-1
  |oclc=56807095
}}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1086/448408 | title = Caribbean and African Appropriations of ''The Tempest''
  |last = Nixon
  |first = Rob
  |journal = Critical Inquiry
  |year = 1987
  |volume = 13
  |issue = 3
  |pages = 557–578
  |publisher = The University of Chicago Press
  | s2cid = 155000165
 |issn = 0093-1896
  |oclc = 37521707
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Tempest
  |url = https://archive.org/details/tempest00will
  |url-access = registration
  |series = The Oxford Shakespeare
  |last = Orgel
  |first = Stephen
  |publisher = Oxford University Press
  |year = 1987
  |location = Oxford
  |isbn = 978-0-19-953590-3
  |oclc=441786012
  }}
* {{cite book |last1=Orgel |first1=Stephen |title=Impersonations: The Performance of Gender in Shakespeare's England |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9780521560566 |edition=Reprint|oclc=33281278}}
* {{harvc
  |chapter = Shakespeare Illustrated
  |last = Orgel
  |first = Stephen
  |pages = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00shau/page/n77 67]–92
  |in = Shaughnessy
  |year = 2007
  }}
* {{harvc
  |chapter = Shakespearean Genres: Introduction
  |last = Orlin
  |first = Lena Cowen
  |pages = 167-174
  |in1 = Wells
  |in2 = Orlin
  |year = 2003
  }}
*{{cite book
 |author=Ovid
 |date=1567
 |translator=Arthur Golding
 |chapter=[[s:Metamorphoses_(tr._Golding)/Book_7|The Seventh Booke of Ouids Metamorphosis]]
 |title=The. xv. Bookes of P. Ouidius Naso, Entytuled Metamorphosis, Translated Oute of Latin into English Meeter
 |location=London
 |publisher=Willyam Seres
 |via=[[Wikisource]]
 }}
*{{cite book 
 |title= Shakespeare: The Tempest 
 |editor-last= Palmer
 |editor-first= D. J.
 |publisher= Palgrave
 |series= Casebook Series
 |year= 1991
 |isbn= 0-333-53362-3
 |oclc=612463655
 }}
* {{cite book
  |title = Shakespeare Folios and Quartos: A Study in the Bibliography of Shakespeare's Plays, 1594–1685
  |last = Pollard
  |first = Alfred W.
  |author-link = Alfred W. Pollard
  |edition = reprint
  |publisher = Martino
  |year = 2002
  |isbn = 978-1-57898-300-1
  |oclc=932535484
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Complete Idiot's Guide to Shakespeare
  |url = https://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu0000roza
  |url-access = registration
  |last = Rozakis
  |first = Laurie
  |year = 1999
  |location = New York
  |publisher = Alpha Books
  |isbn = 0-02-862905-1
  |oclc=41382482
  }}
* {{cite journal
  |title = American Shakespeare Theatre, Stratford, Connecticut
  |last = Saccio
  |first = Peter
  |year = 1980
  |journal = [[Shakespeare Quarterly]]
  |publisher = [[Johns Hopkins University Press]]
  |volume = 31
  |issue = 2
  |issn = 0037-3222
  |doi = 10.2307/2869526
  |pages = 187–191 
  | jstor = 2869526
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = Shakespeare and Music: Afterlives and Borrowings
  |last = Sanders
  |first = Julie
  |year = 2007
  |location = Cambridge
  |publisher = Polity Press
  |isbn = 978-0-7456-3297-1
  |oclc=144571464
}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shakespeare |first1=William |last2=Frye |first2=Northrop |title=The Tempest |date=1959 |publisher=Pelican Books |location=London |isbn=978-0140714159}}
* {{harvc
  |chapter = Pictorial Shakespeare
  |last = Schoch
  |first = Richard W.
  |pages = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well_687/page/n74 58]–75
  |in1 = Wells
  |in2 = Stanton
  |year = 2002
  }}
* {{cite book
  |title = William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life
  |last = Schoenbaum
  |first = Samuel
  |publisher = Oxford University Press
  |year = 1987
  |isbn = 0-19-505161-0
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare and Popular Culture
  |editor-last = Shaughnessy
  |editor-first = Robert
  |location = Cambridge
  |publisher = Cambridge University Press
  |year = 2007
  |isbn = 978-0-521-60580-9
  |oclc=1229716002
}}
* {{cite news
  |title = The Teeming ''Tempest''
  |last = Simon
  |first = Lizzie
  |newspaper = [[The Wall Street Journal]]
  |date = 2 September 2013
  |department = New York Culture
  |url = https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-teeming-tempest-1378161603
  }}
* {{cite book 
  |last= Singh
  |first= Jyotsna G.
  |date= 2019
  |title= Shakespeare and Postcolonial Theory
  |publisher= Bloomsbury, The Arden Shakespeare
  |isbn= 978-1-4081-8554-4
  |oclc=1078960250
  }}
* {{harvc
  |chapter = Post-colonial Criticism
  |last = Singh
  |first = Jyotsna
  |pages = 492-507
  |in1 = Wells
  |in2 = Orlin
  |year = 2003
  }}
* {{cite news |last1=Tholl |first1=Egbert |title=Prospero im Sturm der Sentimentalitäten |url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article212221/Prospero-im-Sturm-der-Sentimentalitaeten.html |access-date=23 March 2025 |agency=Die Welt |publisher=Axel Springer SE |date=24 April 2006 |location=Berlin |language=de}}
* {{harvc
  |chapter = The Comic Actor and Shakespeare
  |last = Thomson
  |first = Peter
  |pages = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well_687/page/n153 137]–154
  |in1 = Wells
  |in2 = Stanton
  |year = 2002
  }}
* {{Cite news 
  |last=Tommasini 
  |first=Anthony 
  |date=2015-03-29 
  |title=Review: 'The Tempest Songbook' Closes Gotham Chamber Opera's Season 
  |language=en-US |work=The New York Times 
  |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/30/arts/music/review-the-tempest-songbook-closes-gotham-chamber-operas-season.html
  |access-date=2023-12-19 
  |issn=0362-4331}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Tyrwhitt|first=John|title=Pictures of the Year|magazine=[[The Contemporary Review]]|volume=11|year=1869|publisher=Strahan and Co, Publishers|location=London}}
* {{cite web
  |title = Michael Nyman: Noises, Sounds & Sweet Airs
  |last = Tuttle
  |first = Raymond
  |year = 1996
  |url = http://www.classical.net/music/recs/reviews/a/arg40842a.php
  |access-date = 21 December 2008
  }}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Tempest
  |series = The Arden Shakespeare, Third Series
  |last1 = Vaughan
  |first1 = Virginia Mason
  |last2 = Vaughan
  |first2 = Alden T.
  |publisher = The Arden Shakespeare
  |year = 1999
  |isbn = 978-1-903436-08-0
  |oclc=1424207290
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Tempest: Revised Edition
  |series = The Arden Shakespeare, Third Series
  |last1 = Vaughan
  |first1 = Virginia Mason
  |last2 = Vaughan
  |first2 = Alden T.
  |publisher = The Arden Shakespeare
  |year = 2011
  |isbn = 978-1-4081-3347-7
  |oclc=761369508
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage
  |url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00well_687
  |url-access = limited
  |editor1-last = Wells
  |editor1-first = Stanley
  |editor1-link = Stanley Wells
  |editor2-last = Stanton
  |editor2-first = Sarah
  |year = 2002
  |location = Cambridge
  |publisher = Cambridge University Press
  |isbn = 0-521-79711-X
  |oclc=1327891559
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide
  |editor1-last = Wells
  |editor1-first = Stanley
  |editor2-last = Orlin
  |editor2-first = Lena Cowen
  |year = 2003
  |location = Oxford
  |publisher = Oxford University Press
  |isbn = 0-19-924522-3
  |oclc=50920674
}}
* {{cite book|last= Wilson|first= Daniel|author-link=Daniel Wilson (academic)|title=Caliban: The Missing Link|publisher= Macmillan & Co.|location=London |year=1873|volume=73|oclc=890854261}}
* {{cite Grove|chapter=Shakespeare, William|last1=Wilson|first1=Christopher R.|last2=Sternfeld|first2=F. W.|last3=White|first3=Eric Walter|year=2022|id=25567}}
*{{cite book
  |title = The Tempest
  |series = The New Oxford Shakespeare
  |last1 = Working
  |first1 = Lauren
  |last2 = Loughnane
  |first2 = Rory
  |publisher = Oxford University Press
  |year = 2024
  |isbn = 978-0-19-286587-8
  |oclc=1445769740
}}
* {{cite web
  |title = Sibelius: Incidental Music for the Tempest, op. 109
  |last = Ylirotu
  |first = Jeremias
  |year = 2005
  |url = http://www.sibelius.fi/english/musiikki/nayttamo_myrsky.htm
  |access-date = 7 December 2008
  |archive-date = 24 September 2015
  |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101650/http://www.sibelius.fi/english/musiikki/nayttamo_myrsky.htm
  |url-status = dead
  }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Alexander |first1=Peter |title=Comedies |date=1958 |publisher=The Heritage Press |location=New York |page=4 |edition=The Heritage Shakespeare |quote=Shakespeare himself was at the end of his career, and it is hardly possible not to see, as the poet Campbell suggested, in Prospero's resignation of his magic a reflection of Shakespeare's own farewell to his art.
}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bose|first=Siddhartha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZ7zBgAAQBAJ|title=Back and Forth: The Grotesque in the Play of Romantic Irony|date=2015|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-4438-7581-3|oclc=904425184|language=en}}
* {{cite news
  |title = In Britain, a Proliferation of Prosperos
  |last = Billington
  |first = Michael
  |author-link = Michael Billington (critic)
  |work = The New York Times
  |date = 1 January 1989
  |access-date = 20 December 2008
  |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1989/01/01/theater/stage-view-in-britain-a-proliferation-of-prosperos.html?sec=&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink
  |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal
  |title = The Theme of Natural Order in ''The Tempest''
  |last = Bowling
  |first = Lawrence E.
  |year = 1951
  |journal = [[College English]]
  |publisher = [[National Council of Teachers of English]]
  |volume = 12
  |issue = 4
  |pages = 203–209
  |doi = 10.2307/372626
  |issn = 0010-0994
  |jstor = 372626
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = Shakespeare on Film
  |last = Buchanan
  |first = Judith
  |publisher = [[Pearson plc|Pearson]]
  |location = Harlow
  |year = 2005
  |isbn = 0-582-43716-4
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = Shakespeare on Silent Film: An Excellent Dumb Discourse
  |last = Buchanan
  |first = Judith
  |publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
  |location = Cambridge
  |year = 2009
  |isbn = 978-0-521-87199-0
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = Romances: ''Cymbeline'', ''The Winter's Tale'', ''The Tempest''
  |last = Bullough
  |first = Geoffrey
  |author-link = Geoffrey Bullough
  |series = Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare
  |publisher = [[Routledge and Kegan Paul]]
  |location=London
  |year = 1975
  |isbn = 978-0-7100-7895-7
  |oclc=59865814
  |ref=none
  }}
* {{cite journal
  |title = Shakespeare's ''The Tempest'': The Wise Man as Hero
  |last = Cantor
  |first = Paul A.
  |author-link = Paul Cantor
  |year = 1980
  |journal = [[Shakespeare Quarterly]]
  |publisher = [[Folger Shakespeare Library]]
  |volume = 31
  |issue = 1
  |pages = 64–75
  |doi = 10.2307/2869370
  |issn = 0037-3222
  |jstor = 2869370
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite journal
  |title = Shakespeare for the 1990s: A Multicultural Tempest
  |last = Carey-Webb
  |first = Allen
  |journal = [[The English Journal]]
  |volume = 82
  |issue = 4
  |year = 1993
  |pages = 30–35
  |publisher = [[National Council of Teachers of English]]
  |issn = 0013-8274
  |doi = 10.2307/820844
  |oclc = 1325886
  |jstor = 820844
  |ref=none
}}
*  {{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Aaron I. |title=International Encyclopedia of Women Composers |date=1987 |publisher=Books & Music (USA) |isbn=978-0-9617485-0-0 |pages=596 |language=en|volume=1|oclc=778974417 |ref=none}}
* {{cite news
  |title = Obituary: John Wood: Ferociously Intelligent Actor Who Reigned Supreme in Stoppard and Shakespeare
  |last = Coveney
  |first = Michael
  |newspaper = [[The Guardian]]
  |date = 11 August 2011
  |page = 34
  |url = https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2011/aug/10/john-wood-obituary
  |ref = none
  }}
* {{cite magazine
  |title = Margaret Atwood Reveals Title and Jacket for ''Hag-Seed''
  |last = Cowdrey
  |first = Katherine
  |date = 23 February 2016
  |magazine = [[The Bookseller]]
  |url = http://www.thebookseller.com/news/margaret-atwood-announces-hag-seed-322956
  |ref = none
  }}
* {{cite journal
  |title = Peter Brook's ''Tempest''
  |last = Croyden
  |first = Margaret
  |journal = The Drama Review
  |volume = 13
  |issue = 3
  |year = 1969
  |pages = 125–128
  |doi = 10.2307/1144467 | jstor = 1144467
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite journal|last=Dolan|first=Frances E.|title=The Subordinate('s) Plot: Petty Treason and the Forms of Domestic Rebellion|year=1992|journal=[[Shakespeare Quarterly]]|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|volume=43|issue=3|pages=317–340|issn=0037-3222|oclc=39852252|doi=10.2307/2870531|jstor=2870531|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|title=Sir John Gielgud: A Life in Letters|last=Gielgud|first=John|author-link=John Gielgud|editor-last=Mangan|editor-first=Richard|publisher=Arcade Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-1-55970-755-8|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book|last=Gayley|first=Charles Mills|author-link=Charles Mills Gayley|title=Shakespeare and the Founders of Liberty in America |publisher=Macmillan |year=1917 |isbn=978-1-40869-223-3 |location=New York|ref = none}}
* {{cite journal
  |title = 'All eyes': Prospero's Inverted Masque
  |last = Gilman
  |first = Ernest B.
  |journal = [[Renaissance Quarterly]]
  |volume = 33
  |issue = 2
  |pages = 214–230
  |year = 1980
  |publisher = [[The University of Chicago Press]]
  |doi = 10.2307/2861118
  |issn = 0034-4338
  |oclc = 37032182
  |jstor = 2861118
  |s2cid = 163684931
 |ref = none
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = ''The Tempest'': A Case Study in Critical Controversy
  |editor-last1 = Graff
  |editor-first1 = Gerald
  |editor-last2 = Phelan
  |editor-first2 = James
  |publisher = Bedford/St. Martin's
  |location = London
  |year = 2008
  |edition = 2nd
  |isbn = 978-0-312-45752-5
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite journal
  |title = The Magic of Charity: A Background to Prospero
  |last = Grant
  |first = Patrick
  |year = 1976
  |journal = The Review of English Studies
  |publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
  |volume = XXVII
  |issue = 105
  |pages = 1–16
  |doi = 10.1093/res/XXVII.105.1
  |issn = 1471-6968
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite journal|last= Howell|first= Peter|title=Tis a mad world at Hogsdon: Leisure, Licence and the Exoticism of Suburban Space in Early Jacobean London|journal= The Literary London Journal|volume= 10| issue = 2 |date= 2013|url=http://www.literarylondon.org/london-journal/autumn2013/howell.html|ref = none}}
* {{cite news
  |title = ''The Tempest'' Casts Strange Spells at the Cinema
  |last = Jordison
  |first = Sam
  |newspaper = [[The Guardian]]
  |date = 24 April 2014
  |url = https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2014/apr/24/the-tempest-cinema-shakespeare-reading-group
  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250323083723/https://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2014/apr/24/the-tempest-cinema-shakespeare-reading-group
  |archive-date=23 March 2025
  |ref = none
  }}
* {{cite book|last=Kennedy|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Kennedy (music critic)|title=The Works of Ralph Vaughan Williams|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|year=1992|isbn=0-19-816330-4|ref=none}}
* {{cite book <!-- Note that this work appears almost impossible to find now. -->
  |title = Shakespearean Dimensions
  |last1 = Knight
  |first1 = G. Wilson
  |author-link = G. Wilson Knight
  |publisher = Harvester
  |year = 1984
  |isbn = 978-0-7108-0628-4
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite magazine
  |title = An Illustrated Interview with Sir Arthur Sullivan
  |last = Lawrence
  |first = Arthur H.
  |magazine = [[The Strand Magazine]]
  |year = 1897
  |volume = xiv
  |issue = 84
  |url = http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/interviews/lawrence.html
  |url-status = dead
  |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141213011108/http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/interviews/lawrence.html
  |archive-date = 13 December 2014
  |ref = none
  }}
* {{cite news|last=Macaulay|first=Alastair|title=American Ballet Theater Opens Its Fall Season|author-link=Alastair Macaulay|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=31 October 2013|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/01/arts/dance/american-ballet-theater-opens-its-fall-season.html|ref=none}}
* {{cite book
  |title = An Account of the Incidents, from Which the Title and Part of the Story of Shakespeare's ''Tempest'' Were Derived, and Its True Date Ascertained
  |last = Malone
  |first = Edmond
  |author-link = Edmond Malone
  |year = 1808
  |location = London
  |publisher = C. and R. Baldwin, New Bridge-Street
  |ref = none
  |oclc=5294539
}}
* {{cite journal
  |title = Monsters, Magicians, Movies: ''The Tempest'' and the Final Frontier
  |last = Morse
  |first = Ruth
  |year = 2000
  |journal = [[Shakespeare Survey]]
  |publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
  |volume = 53, Shakespeare and Narrative
  |pages = 164–174
  |issn = 0080-9152
  |doi = 10.1017/CCOL0521781140.014
  |isbn = 978-1-139-05274-0
  |via = [[Cambridge Core]]
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite journal
  |title = Prospero's Wife
  |last = Orgel
  |first = Stephen
  |author-link = Stephen Orgel
  |journal = Representations
  |volume = 8
  |issue = October
  |year = 1984
  |pages = 1–13
  |doi = 10.1525/rep.1984.8.1.99p00753
  |doi-broken-date = 12 July 2025
  |ref = none
 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Phillips|first=James E.|title=''The Tempest'' and Renaissance Idea of Man|year=1964|journal=[[Shakespeare Quarterly]]|publisher=[[Folger Shakespeare Library]]|volume=15|issue=2|issn=1538-3555|doi=10.2307/2867886|pages=147–159|jstor=2867886|ref=none}}
* {{cite book
  |chapter = Forbidden Planet: Aliens, Monsters and Fictions of Nuclear Disaster
  |last = Pilkington
  |first = Ace G.
  |pages = 43–59
  |title = The Fantastic Made Visible: Essays on the Adaptation of Science Fiction and Fantasy from Page to Screen
  |editor1-last = Kapell
  |editor1-first = Matthew Wilhelm
  |editor2-last = Pilkington
  |editor2-first = Ace G.
  |publisher = [[McFarland & Company]]
  |year = 2015
  |isbn = 978-0-7864-9619-8
  |oclc=907942426
  |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Ruffo|first1=Sandra|last2=Krapp|first2=Traudl|last3=Gable|first3=Michael F.|title=The genus ''Maera'' (Crustacea: Amphipoda: Nelitidae) from Bermuda|journal=Postilla|year=2000|issue=221|pages=1–35|url=http://peabody.yale.edu/sites/default/files/documents/scientific-publications/ypmP221_2000.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629160354/http://www.peabody.yale.edu/sites/default/files/documents/scientific-publications/ypmP221_2000.pdf|archive-date=29 June 2016|ref=none}}
* {{cite book
  |chapter = The Crime Against Caliban
  |last = Sagar
  |first = Keith
  |title = Literature and the Crime Against Nature
  |location = London
  |publisher = Chaucer Press
  |year = 2005
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite web
  |title = A Most Magical Prospero
  |last = Spencer
  |first = Charles
  |date = 23 January 2003
  |website = [[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]
  |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/drama/3588941/A-most-magical-Prospero.html
  |ref=none
  }}
* {{cite news
 |title = English Composers and Musicians
 |last = Sullivan
 |first = Arthur
 |newspaper = [[The Times]]
 |date = 27 October 1881
 |issue = 30336
 |at = p. 8, col. C
 |url = http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/letters/001.html
 |access-date = 4 April 2012
 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150319222426/http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/sullivan/letters/001.html
 |archive-date = 19 March 2015
 |url-status = dead
 |ref=none
 }}
* {{cite book
  |title = A Companion to Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas
  |url = https://archive.org/details/companiontobeeth0000tove
  |url-access = registration
  |last = Tovey
  |first = Donald Francis
  |publisher = Ams Pr
  |year = 1931
  |isbn = 978-0-404-13117-3
  |oclc=2749943
  |ref=none
  }}
* {{cite journal|last=Vaughan|first=Alden T.|title=William Strachey's "True Reportory" and Shakespeare: A Closer Look at the Evidence|year=2008|journal=[[Shakespeare Quarterly]]|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|volume=59|issue=3|issn = 1538-3555|doi=10.1353/shq.0.0017|page=245|s2cid=161199723|ref=none}}
* {{cite book
  |title = Shakespeare's Last Plays: A New Approach
  |url = https://archive.org/details/shakespeareslast0000yate
  |url-access = registration
  |last = Yates
  |first = Frances A.
  |publisher = [[Routledge & Kegan Paul]]
  |location = London
  |year = 1975
  |isbn = 978-0-7100-8100-1
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite book
  |title = The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age
  |last = Yates
  |first = Frances A.
  |publisher = [[Routledge & Kegan Paul]]
  |location = London
  |year = 1979
  |isbn = 978-0-415-25409-0
  |ref = none
}}
* {{cite journal
  |title = Form and Disorder in ''The Tempest''
  |last = Zimbardo
  |first = Rose Abdelnour
  |year = 1963
  |journal = [[Shakespeare Quarterly]]
  |publisher = [[Folger Shakespeare Library]]
  |volume = 14
  |issue = 1
  |pages = 49–56
  |doi = 10.2307/2868137
  |issn = 0037-3222
  |jstor = 2868137
  |ref = none
}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sisterlinks
  |wikt = no
  |b = William Shakespeare's Works/Comedies/The Tempest
  |commons = Category:The Tempest
  |n = no
  |s = Tempest (Shakespeare)
  |v = no
}}
* [http://www.bl.uk/works/the-tempest ''The Tempest''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626194831/http://www.bl.uk/works/the-tempest |date=26 June 2017 }} at the British Library
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/william-shakespeare/the-tempest}}
* {{gutenberg|no=1540|name= The Tempest}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140816064016/http://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/facsimile/bookplay/Bran_F1/Tmp/ The entire First Folio owned by Brandeis University] at ''Internet Shakespeare Editions''
* [http://www.shakespeare-navigators.com/tempest/ ''The Tempest'' Navigator] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102132432/http://www.shakespeare-navigators.com/tempest/ |date=2 November 2018 }}, including annotated text, line numbers, scene summaries, and text search
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101128131847/http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/eng366/lectures/tempest.htm Printed introductory lecture on ''The Tempest'' by Ian Johnston of Malaspina-University College]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629160829/http://www.webenglishteacher.com/tempest.html Lesson plans for ''The Tempest''] at Web English Teacher
* An [http://www.virtualjamestown.org/TR%20original.doc original-spelling version] ([[.doc]] format) of [[William Strachey]]'s ''True Reportory of the Wracke and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight'', hosted by Virtual Jamestown
* [http://collections.shakespeare.org.uk/ Shakespeare Birthplace Trust web site]
* {{librivox book | title=The Tempest | author=William Shakespeare}}
* [https://decameron.puppetco-op.org/pgtempest.htm Animated version of ''The Tempest''], The Puppeteers Cooperative

{{Shakespeare}}
{{The Tempest}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Good article}}
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