View source for Virtue

{{short description|Positive trait or quality deemed to be morally good}}
{{Redirect|Virtuous|the 2014 US Christian drama film|Virtuous (film){{!}}''Virtuous'' (film)}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Raphael - Cardinal and Theological Virtues.jpg|thumb|''Cardinal and Theological Virtues'' a 1511 portrait by [[Raphael]]]]
A '''virtue''' ({{langx|la|[[virtus]]}}) is a trait of excellence, including traits that may be [[morality|moral]], social, or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "[[good]] of humanity" and thus is [[Value (ethics)|valued]] as an [[Telos|end purpose]] of life or a foundational [[principle]] of being. In human practical ethics, a virtue is a disposition to choose actions that succeed in showing high moral standards: doing what is said to be right and avoiding what is wrong in a given field of endeavour, even when doing so may be unnecessary from a [[utilitarianism|utilitarian]] perspective. When someone takes pleasure in doing what is right, even when it is difficult or initially unpleasant, they can establish virtue as a habit. Such a person is said to be '''virtuous''' through having cultivated such a disposition. The opposite of virtue is [[vice]].

Other examples of this notion include the concept of [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] in Asian traditions as well as {{transliteration|zh|[[De (Chinese)|De]]}} ([[Chinese language|Chinese]] {{lang|zh|德}}).

==Etymology==
The ancient Romans used the Latin word {{lang|la|[[virtus]]}} (derived from {{lang|la|vir}}, their word for ''man'') to refer to all of the "excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude". The French words {{lang|fr|vertu}} and {{lang|fr|virtu}} came from this Latin [[Root (linguistics)|root]]. The word ''virtue'' "was [[borrowed word|borrowed]] into English in the 13th century".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/merriamwebsterne00merr/page/496/mode/1up|title=The Merriam-Webster new book of word histories|publisher=Merriam-Webster Inc.|year=1991|page=496|isbn=9780877796039 }}</ref>

==History==

===Ancient Egypt===
[[File:Maat.svg|thumb|upright|[[Maat]], to [[ancient Egypt]]ians, personified the virtue of [[truth]] and justice. Her feather represents truth.<ref>{{cite book|last=Karenga|first=Maulana|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|title=Maat, the Moral Ideal in Ancient Egypt: A study in classical African ethics|isbn=9780415947534}}</ref>]]
[[Maat]] (or Ma'at) was the [[ancient Egypt]]ian goddess of [[truth]], [[balance (metaphysics)|balance]], [[Natural order (philosophy)|order]], [[law]], [[morality]], and [[justice]]. The word {{lang|egy|maat}} was also used to refer to these concepts. Maat was also portrayed as regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was [[Isfet (Egyptian mythology)|Isfet]], who symbolized [[chaos (mythology)|chaos]], lies, and injustice.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book| first = Norman Rufus Colin|last= Cohn| title = Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith| year = 1993|publisher= Yale University Press| isbn = 978-0-300-05598-6| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/cosmoschaosworld00cohn}}
|2={{cite book | last=Assmann | first=Jan | author-link=Jan Assmann| translator-last=Livingstone | translator-first=Rodney | title=Religion and Cultural Memory | publisher=Stanford University Press | date=2006 | isbn=0-8047-4523-4|url=https://archive.org/details/religioncultural0000assm|url-access=registration}}
}}</ref>

===Greco-Roman antiquity===
[[File:Arete - Areté- Éfeso.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Personification]] of virtue ([[wikt:ἀρετή|Ἀρετή]]) in [[Celsus Library]] in [[Ephesos]], [[Turkey]]]]
{{See also|Arete|Aretology|Hospitium|Paideia}}

===Platonic virtue===
The four classic [[cardinal virtues]] are:<ref>{{cite journal|first=Stanley B.|last=Cunningham|title=Review of ''Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy''|journal=Dialogue|volume=21|number=1|year=1982|pages=133–37|doi=10.1017/S001221730001742X |s2cid=170202878 }}</ref>
* [[Prudence]] ({{lang|grc|φρόνησις}}, {{transliteration|grc|phrónēsis}}; {{langx|la|prudentia}}; also [[Wisdom]], {{transliteration|grc|[[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]]}}, {{lang|la|sapientia}}), the ability to discern the appropriate course of action to be taken in a given situation at the appropriate time.
* [[Courage|Fortitude]] ({{lang|grc|ἀνδρεία}}, {{transliteration|grc|andreía}}; {{langx|la|fortitudo}}): also termed courage, forbearance, strength, endurance, and the ability to confront fear, uncertainty, and intimidation.
* [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]] ({{lang|grc|σωφροσύνη}}, {{transliteration|grc|sōphrosýnē}}; {{langx|la|temperantia}}): also known as restraint, the practice of self-control, abstention, discretion, and moderation tempering the [[appetition]]. Plato considered {{transliteration|grc|sōphrosynē}}, which may also be translated as sound-mindedness, to be the most important virtue.
* [[Justice (virtue)|Justice]] ({{lang|grc|δικαιοσύνη}}, {{transliteration|grc|dikaiosýnē}}; {{langx|la|iustitia}}): also considered as fairness;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplatonist.com/cardinal_virtues.htm|title=Cardinal Virtues of Plato, Augustine and Confucius|work=theplatonist.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074259/http://www.theplatonist.com/cardinal_virtues.htm|archive-date=2016-03-04}}</ref> the Greek word also having the meaning of righteousness.

This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by [[Plato]] who also added [[piety]] ({{lang|grc|ὁσιότης}}, {{transliteration|grc|hosiotēs}}) and replaced prudence with [[wisdom]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Den Uyl|first=D.J.|year=1991|title=The Virtue of Prudence|publisher=Peter Lang|series=Studies in Moral Philosophy|volume=5|isbn=9780820415048|lccn=90025008}}</ref> Some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=D.|year=1988|title=The cardinal virtues and Plato's moral psychology|journal=The Philosophical Quarterly|volume=38|number=151|pages=186–200|doi=10.2307/2219923 |jstor=2219923 }}</ref>

It is unclear whether Plato subscribed to a unified view of virtues.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Gregory|last=Vlastos|title=The Unity of the Virtues in the ''Protagoras''|journal=The Review of Metaphysics|volume=25|number=3|date=March 1972|pages=415–458|jstor=20126056}}</ref> In ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'' and ''[[Meno]]'' he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom. The narrative in the ''Meno'' commences with [[Meno (general)|the eponymous character]] asking about virtue, but when [[Socrates]] asks him "What is virtue?", he replies with a list of virtues displayed in different ways.<ref>Plato, ''Meno'', 71e-72b</ref>

==== Aristotelian virtue ====
{{see also|Virtue ethics#Lists of virtues}}
In his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', [[Aristotle]] defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait.<ref name=NE26>{{cite book |author=[[Aristotle]] |title=[[Nicomachean Ethics]] |at=[https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle/nicomachean-ethics/f-h-peters/text/book-2#chapter-2-1-6 II.6] }}</ref> The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a [[Golden mean (philosophy)|golden mean]] sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. This golden mean obtains at a desirable middle between excess and deficiency. For Aristotle, the desirableness of the trait at the golden mean—that which makes it a virtue—consists in its disposition to be "chosen under the proper guidance of reason."<ref>{{cite book |last=Audi |first=Robert |author-link= |date=2015 |title=The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy |url= |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=1114 |isbn=9781107015050}}</ref> That is, in its disposition to foster human flourishing, a state defined with respect to human nature conceived [[teleology|teleologically]], or as an end to be realized instead of a descriptive fact to be understood.

However, the virtuous action is not simply the "mean" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'': "at the right times, and on the right occasions, and towards the right persons, and with the right object, and in the right fashion, is the mean course and the best course, and these are characteristics of virtue."<ref name=NE26 /> For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include courage between cowardice and foolhardiness and confidence between [[self-deprecation]] and conceit. In Aristotle's sense, a virtue is an excellence at being human.

===== Intellectual virtues =====
Aristotle also identifies the [[Nicomachean_Ethics#Book_VI:_Intellectual_virtues|"intellectual virtues"]] of knowledge, art, practical judgement, intuition, and wisdom.

====Roman virtues====
The term ''virtue'' itself is derived from the Latin "{{lang|la|[[Virtus (virtue)|virtus]]}}" (the personification of which was the deity [[Virtus (deity)|Virtus]]), and had connotations of "[[manliness]]", "[[honour]]", worthiness of deferential respect, and civic duty as both [[Cincinnatus|citizen and soldier]]. This virtue was but one of many virtues which Romans of good character were expected to exemplify and pass on through the generations, as part of the {{lang|la|[[mos maiorum]]}}; ancestral traditions which defined [[Romanitas|"Roman-ness"]]. Romans distinguished between the spheres of private and public life, and thus, virtues were also divided between those considered to be in the realm of private family life (as lived and taught by the [[paterfamilias]]) and those expected of an upstanding Roman [[Citizenship#Roman ideas|citizen]].

Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a [[numina|numinous deity]]. The primary Roman virtues,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman virtues |url=http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Roman_virtues |access-date=2022-05-04 |website=Nova Roma}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2023}} both public and private, were:
{| class="wikitable"
! Latin
! English
! Description
|-
|{{lang|la|Abundantia}}
|Abundance or Prosperity
|The ideal of there being enough food and prosperity for all segments of society, personified by Abundantia. A public virtue.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Auctoritas]]}} 
|Spiritual Authority
|The sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order.
|-
|{{lang|la|Comitas}}
|Humour
|Ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Courage|Constantia]]}}
|Perseverance or Courage
|Military stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship.
|-
|{{lang|la|Clementia}}
|Mercy
|Mildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions, personified by Clementia.
|-
|{{lang|la|Dignitas}}
|Dignity
|A sense of self-worth, personal self-respect, and self-esteem.
|-
|{{lang|la|Disciplina}}
|Discipline
|Considered essential to military excellence; also connotes adherence to the legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship, personified by Disciplina.
|-
|{{lang|la|Fides}}
|Good Faith
|Mutual trust and reciprocal dealings in both government and commerce (public affairs), a breach meant legal and religious consequences, personified by Fides.
|-
|{{lang|la|Firmitas}}
|Tenacity
|Strength of mind, and the ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without wavering.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Frugality|Frugalitas]]}}
|Frugality
|Economy and simplicity in lifestyle.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Gravitas]]}}
|Gravity
|A sense of the importance of the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest.
|-
|{{lang|la|Honestas}} 
|Respectibility
|The image and honor that one presents as a respectable member of society.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Humanitas]]}}
|Humanity
|Refinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Diligence|Industria]]}} 
|Industriousness or Diligence
|Hard work.
|-
|{{lang|la|Innocencia}}
|Selflessness
|Giving without anticipating recognition or personal gain. Central to this concept was an unwavering commitment to incorruptibility, avoiding the misuse of public office for personal benefit, as that was considered a grave affront to Roman values, detrimental to both individual and communal well-being.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Joy|Laetitia]]}}
|Joy or Gladness
|The celebration of thanksgiving, often of the resolution of crisis, a public virtue.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Nobilitas]]}} 
|Nobility
|Man of fine appearance, deserving of honor, highly esteemed social rank, and, or, nobility of birth, a public virtue.
|-
|{{lang|la|Justitia}}
|Justice
|Sense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis.
|-
|{{lang|la|Pietas}}
|Dutifulness
|More than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the [[Patronage in ancient Rome|patron and client relationship]] considered essential to an orderly society.
|-
|{{lang|la|Prudentia}} 
|Prudence
|Foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Salus|Salubritas]]}} 
|Wholesomeness
|General health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus.
|-
|{{lang|la|Severitas}} 
|Sternness
|Self-control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas.
|-
|{{lang|la|Veritas}} 
|Truthfulness
|Honesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous.
|-
|{{lang|la|[[Virtus (virtue)|Virtus]]}} 
|Manliness
|Valor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. {{lang|la|Vir}} is Latin for "man".
|}

===Ancient India===
[[File:இலண்டன் திருவள்ளுவர்.JPG|thumb|right|Valluvar (Statue at SOAS, [[University of London]]).]]
While religious scriptures generally consider {{transliteration|sa|[[dharma]]}} or {{transliteration|ta|aṟam}} (the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] term for virtue) as a divine virtue, [[Valluvar]] describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness.<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers">{{cite book |author= N. Sanjeevi |title= First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers |year= 1973 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Madras | location=Chennai |pages= xxiii–xxvii}}</ref> For this reason, Valluvar keeps {{transliteration|ta|aṟam}} as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the [[Tirukkural|Kural literature]].<ref name="UMI_WhyNationalBook?">{{cite book
 | last = N. Velusamy and Moses Michael Faraday (Eds.)
 | title = Why Should Thirukkural Be Declared the National Book of India?
 | publisher = Unique Media Integrators
 | edition = First
 | date = February 2017
 | location = Chennai
 | pages = 55
 | language = ta, en
 | isbn = 978-93-85471-70-4
 }}</ref> Valluvar considered [[justice]] as a facet or product of {{transliteration|ta|aṟam}}.<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers"/> While many before his time opined that justice cannot be defined and that it was a divine mystery, Valluvar suggested that a divine origin is not required to define the concept of justice.<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers"/> In the words of [[V. R. Nedunchezhiyan]], justice according to Valluvar "dwells in the minds of those who have knowledge of the standard of right and wrong; so too deceit dwells in the minds which breed fraud."<ref name="Sanjeevi_SeminarPapers"/>

===Chivalric virtues in medieval Europe===
{{Main|Chivalry}}
In the {{CE|8th century}}, upon the occasion of his coronation as [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Charlemagne]] published a list of [[knightly virtues]]:
* Love God
* Love your neighbor
* Give alms to the poor
* Entertain strangers
* Visit the sick
* Be merciful to prisoners
* Do ill to no man, nor consent unto such
* Forgive as ye hope to be forgiven
* Redeem the captive
* Help the oppressed
* Defend the cause of the widow and orphan
* Render righteous judgement
* Do not consent to any wrong
* Persevere not in wrath
* Shun excess in eating and drinking
* Be humble and kind
* Serve your liege lord faithfully
* Do not steal
* Do not perjure yourself, nor let others do so
* Envy, hatred, and violence separate men from the Kingdom of God
* Defend the Church and promote her cause.<ref>{{cite web |title=The origins of Chivalry |url=http://www.baronage.co.uk/chivalry/chival1a.html |website=Baronage |access-date=17 November 2018|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305035824/http://www.baronage.co.uk/chivalry/chival1a.html|archive-date=2022-03-05}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=website, no references, no author|date=July 2023}}

== Religious traditions ==
{{See also|Religion (virtue)}}

===Abrahamic religions===
====Bahá'í Faith====
{{Expand section|date=September 2020}}
The [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]] teachings speak of a "Greater [[Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh|Covenant]]",<ref>{{cite book |last=Balyuzi |first=Hasan |author-link=Hasan M. Balyuzi |year=2001 |title=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá: The Centre of the Covenant of Baháʼu'lláh |edition=Paperback |publisher=George Ronald |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=0-85398-043-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/abdulbahacentreo0000baly }}</ref> being universal and endless, and a "Lesser Covenant" specific to each religion. Baháʼís view [[Baháʼu'lláh]]'s revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers. In the [[Baháʼí writings]] being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue.<ref>{{cite web |last=Momen |first=Moojan |author-link=Moojan Momen |date=1995 |title=The Covenant and Covenant-breaker |access-date=14 June 2006 |url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_encyclopedia_covenant#3.%20The%20Lesser%20Covenant }}</ref>

====Christianity====
[[File:Stiftskirche Niederhaslach Glasfenster (Kampf der Tugenden mit dem Laster).jpg|thumb|upright|Virtues fighting vices, stained glass window (14th century) in the [[Niederhaslach Church]]]]
{{main|Christian ethics#Virtues and principles}}
{{See also|Seven virtues|Evangelical counsels|Catalogue of Vices and Virtues|Tree of virtues and tree of vices}}
In [[Christianity]], the three [[theological virtues]] are [[Faith in Christianity|faith]], [[Hope (virtue)|hope]], and [[Agape|love]], a list which comes from {{Bibleverse|1 Corinthians|13:13}} ({{lang|grc|νυνὶ δὲ μένει πίστις}} {{transliteration|grc|pistis}} (faith), {{lang|grc|ἐλπίς}} {{transliteration|grc|elpis}} (hope), {{lang|grc|ἀγάπη}} {{transliteration|grc|agape}} (love), {{lang|grc|τὰ τρία ταῦτα· μείζων δὲ τούτων ἡ ἀγάπη}}). The same chapter describes love as the greatest of the three, and further defines love as "patient... kind... not envious, or boastful, or arrogant, or rude." (The Christian virtue of love is sometimes called [[Charity (virtue)|charity]] and at other times a Greek word {{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}} is used to contrast the love of God and the love of humankind from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection.)

Christian scholars frequently add the four classic [[cardinal virtues]] (prudence, justice, temperance, and courage) to the theological virtues to give the [[Seven Heavenly Virtues|seven heavenly virtues]]; for example, these seven are the ones described in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'', sections 1803–1829. In Christian tradition courage or fortitude is a gift of the Holy Spirit. 

In {{CE|410}}, [[Prudentius|Aurelius Prudentius Clemens]] listed seven "heavenly virtues" in his book ''[[Psychomachia]]'' (''Battle of Souls'') which is an allegorical story of conflict between vices and virtues. Among the virtues were {{lang|la|fides}} (faith), {{lang|la|pudicitia}} (chastity), {{lang|la|paciencia}} (endurance), {{lang|la|mens humilis}} (humility), {{lang|la|spes}} (hope), {{lang|la|sobrietas}} (sobriety), {{lang|la|ratio}} (reason), {{lang|la|operatio}} (devotion), {{lang|la|pax}} (peace), {{lang|la|concordia}} (harmony), and {{lang|la|sapientia}} (wisdom).<ref>{{cite book|title=Allegories of the Virtues and Vices in Mediaeval Art|first=Adolf|last=Katzenellenbogen|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|location=New York|year=1964|translator-first=Alan J.P.|translator-last=Crick|orig-year=1939|pages=1–2|url=https://archive.org/details/allegoriesofvirt0000katz}}</ref>

The medieval and renaissance periods saw a number of models of sin, listing the [[seven deadly sins]] and the [[Seven Capital Virtues|seven capital virtues]] opposed to each.
{| class="sortable wikitable"
!Vice
!Latin
!Virtue
!Latin
|-
|[[Pride]]
|{{lang|la|Superbia}}
|[[Humility]]
|{{lang|la|Humilitas}}
|-
|[[Envy]]
|{{lang|la|Invidia}}
|[[Kindness]]
|{{lang|la|Benevolentia}}
|-
|[[Gluttony]]
|{{lang|la|Gula}}
|[[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]]
|{{lang|la|Temperantia}}
|-
|[[Lust]]
|{{lang|la|Luxuria}}
|[[Chastity]]
|{{lang|la|Castitas}}
|-
|[[Wrath]]
|{{lang|la|Ira}}
|[[Patience]]
|{{lang|la|Patientia}}
|-
|[[Greed]]
|{{lang|la|Avaritia}}
|[[Charity (virtue)|Charity]]
|{{lang|la|Caritas}}
|-
|[[Sloth (deadly sin)|Sloth]]
|{{lang|la|Acedia}}
|[[Diligence]]
|{{lang|la|Industria}}
|}

====Islam====
{{main|Islamic ethics|Thawab}}
In Islam, the [[Quran]] is believed to be the literal word of God, and the definitive description of virtue, and [[Muhammad]] is considered an ideal example of virtue in human form. The foundation of Islamic understanding of virtue was the understanding and interpretation of the Quran and the practices of Muhammad. Virtue is seen in the context of active submission to God performed by the community in unison.

Believers are to "[[Enjoining good and forbidding wrong|enjoin that which is virtuous and forbid that which is vicious]]" ({{transliteration|ar|al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-n-nahy ʿani-l-munkar}}) in all spheres of life ([[Quran 3:110]]). Muslims teach that mankind has been [[Fitra|granted the faculty to discern]] God's will and to abide by it.

Later [[Muslim scholars]] expanded the religious ethics of the scriptures in detail.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Bearman |editor-first1=P.J. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C.E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W.P. |date=2009 |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online]] |publisher=Brill Publishers |issn=1573-3912 |chapter=Akhlaq}}</ref>

In the [[Hadith]] (Islamic traditions), it is reported by An-Nawwas bin Sam'an:
{{blockquote|"The Prophet Muhammad said, 'Virtue is good manner, and sin is that which creates doubt and you do not like people to know it.'"|{{Hadith-usc|usc=yes|muslim|32|6195}}, {{Hadith-usc|usc=yes|muslim|32|6196}}}}

Wabisah bin Ma'bad reported:
{{blockquote|"I went to Messenger of God and he asked me: 'Have you come to inquire about virtue?' I replied in the affirmative. Then he said: 'Ask your heart regarding it. Virtue is that which contents the soul and comforts the heart, and sin is that which causes doubts and perturbs the heart, even if people pronounce it lawful and give you verdicts on such matters again and again.'"|''[[Sunan al-Darimi]]'', 2533}}

Virtue, as seen in opposition to sin, is termed {{transliteration|ar|[[Thawab|thawāb]]}} (spiritual merit or reward) but there are other Islamic terms to describe virtue such as {{transliteration|ar|faḍl}} ("bounty"), {{transliteration|ar|[[taqwa]]}} ("piety"), and {{transliteration|ar|ṣalāḥ}} ("righteousness"). According to Muslim beliefs, God will forgive individual sins but the bad treatment of people and injustice toward others can only be pardoned by the victims and not by God.

====Judaism====
{{main|Jewish ethics}}
Loving God and obeying his laws, in particular the [[Ten Commandments]], are central to Jewish conceptions of virtue. Wisdom is personified in the first eight chapters of the [[Book of Proverbs]] and is not only the source of virtue but is depicted as the first and best creation of God ({{Bibleverse|Proverbs|8:12–31}}).

A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century [[Hillel the Elder|Rabbi Hillel the Elder]]. Renowned in the Jewish tradition, he is associated with the development of the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]] and, as such, is one of the most important figures in [[Jewish history]]. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; go and learn."<ref>[[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]], tractate Shabbat 31a. See also the [[ethic of reciprocity]] or "The [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden rule]]."</ref>

===Eastern religions===
====Buddhism====
{{main|Buddhist ethics}}
{{See also|Five precepts}}
Buddhist practice as outlined in the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sponberg|first=Alan|chapter=Bodhisattva Path|editor-last1=Keown|editor-first1=Damien|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NFpcAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA89 89]|title=Encyclopedia of Buddhism|editor-last2=Prebish|editor-first2=Charles S.|year=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-98588-1|language=en}}</ref>
# Right View – realizing the [[Four Noble Truths]] ({{transliteration|sa|samyag-vyāyāma}}, {{transliteration|pi|sammā-vāyāma}}).
# Right Mindfulness – mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness ({{transliteration|sa|samyak-smṛti}}, {{transliteration|pi|sammā-sati}}).
# Right Concentration – wholesome one-pointedness of mind ({{transliteration|sa|samyak-samādhi}}, {{transliteration|pi|sammā-samādhi}}).

Buddhism's four {{transliteration|pi|[[brahmavihara]]}} ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are:
# {{transliteration|pi|[[Maitrī|Mettā]]}}/{{transliteration|sa|Maitrī}}: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm |title=Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables |publisher=Buddhanet.net |access-date=2014-01-01}}</ref>
# {{transliteration|sa|[[Karuṇā]]}}: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering.<ref name="autogenerated2" />
# {{transliteration|pi|[[Muditā]]}}: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings.<ref name="autogenerated2" />
# {{transliteration|pi|Upekkhā}}/{{transliteration|sa|[[Upekṣā]]}}: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, [[praise]] and [[blame]], success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others. Equanimity means not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but to regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind – not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness, or agitation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/immeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html |title=A View on Buddhism, The four immeasurables: Love, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity |access-date=2006-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060819075238/http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/immeasurables_love_compassion_equanimity_rejoicing.html |archive-date=2006-08-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2023}}

There are also the {{transliteration|pi|[[Pāramitā]]s}} ("perfections"), which are the culmination of having acquired certain virtues. In [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]]'s [[Pali Canon|canonical]] ''[[Buddhavaṃsa]]''<ref>Buddhavamsa, chapter 2. For an on-line reference to the Buddhavamsa's seminality in the Theravada notion of ''parami'', see {{cite web|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/wheel409.html|translator=Bikkhu Bodhi|title=A Treatise on the Paramis, from the Commentary to the Cariyapitaka|author=Acariya Dhammapala|date=2005}}<br>In terms of other examples in the [[Pali literature]], {{cite book|title=The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary|chapter=Pāramī|editor-first1=T.W.|editor-last1=Rhys Davids|editor-link1=Thomas William Rhys Davids|editor-first2=William|editor-last2=Stede|page=P77|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.228441/page/n497/mode/1up|date=1921|volume=1}} cites [[Jataka]] i.73 and [[Dhammapada]] [[Atthakatha]] i.84. Bodhi (2005) also mentions Acariya [[Dhammapala]]'s treatise in the [[Cariyapitaka]]-[[Atthakatha]] and the [[Brahmajala Sutta (Theravada)|Brahmajala Sutta]] [[Subcommentaries, Theravada|subcommentary (''tika'')]].</ref> there are Ten Perfections ({{transliteration|pi|dasa pāramiyo}}). In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, the [[Lotus Sutra]] (''Saddharmapundarika''), there are Six Perfections; while in the [[Dasabhumika Sutra|Ten Stages]] (''Dasabhumika'') Sutra, four more {{transliteration|pi|Paramitas}} are listed.

====Daoism====
{{see also|Three Treasures (Taoism)}}
"Virtue", translated from Chinese {{transliteration|zh|[[De (Chinese)|de]]}} ({{lang|zh|[[Wikt:德|德]]}}), is also an important concept in [[Chinese philosophy]], particularly [[Daoism]]. ''De'' ({{zh|c=德|p=''dé''| w=''te''}}) originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English ''[[Wikt:virtue|virtue]]'', with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}

In early periods of [[Confucianism]], moral manifestations of "virtue" include {{transliteration|zh|ren}} ("[[Human nature|humanity]]"), ''xiao'' ("[[filial piety]]"), and {{transliteration|zh|li}} ("[[Li (Confucian)|proper behavior, performance of rituals]]"). The notion of {{transliteration|zh|[[Confucianism#Humaneness|ren]]}} – according to Simon Leys – means "humanity" and "goodness". {{transliteration|zh|Ren}} originally had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", but progressively took on shades of ethical meaning.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/02549948.1974.11731098|jstor=40726170|author1-link=Lin Yu-sheng|author=Lin Yu-sheng|s2cid=170207315|title=The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy|journal=Monumenta Serica|volume=31|year=1974–75|pages=172–204 }}</ref> Some scholars consider the virtues identified in early Confucianism as non-theistic philosophy.<ref name="autogenerated1971">{{cite book | last=Yang | first=C. K. | title=Religion in Chinese Society: a study of contemporary social functions of religion and some of their historical factors | publisher=University of California Press | date=1961 | isbn=978-0-88133-621-4 | page=}}</ref>

The Daoist concept of {{transliteration|zh|De}}, compared to Confucianism, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the {{transliteration|zh|[[Tao|Dao]]}} ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. In the ''[[Analects]]'', [[Confucius]] explains {{transliteration|zh|de}} as follows: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?no=17&l=Lunyu|url-status=dead|title=The Analects of Confucius: Lunyu II.1 (17)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005031/http://www.afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?no=17&l=Lunyu |archive-date=2007-09-27|translator-link=James Legge|translator-first=James|translator-last=Legge}}</ref> In later periods, particularly from the Tang dynasty period, Confucianism  absorbed and melded its own concepts of virtues with those from Daoism and Buddhism.<ref name="autogenerated1971"/>

There are symbols that represent virtue in Chinese Culture. Chinese classic paintings have many symbols representing virtue. Plum blossom represents resilience and perseverance. Orchid represents elegance, gentleness, and quietness. Bamboo represents loyalty, trust-worthiness, and humility. Chrysanthemum represents genuineness and simplicity.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

====Hinduism====
{{main|Hindu ethics}}Virtue is a much debated<ref>{{cite book | last=Hindery | first=Roderick | title=Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. | date=1978 | isbn=978-81-208-0866-9|pages=268–272|quote=[T]he ''srutis'' did not pretend to deal with all situations or irregularities in the moral life, leaving these matters to human reasons ([[Mahabharata]] XII.109); Accordingly, 'that again which is virtue may, according to time and place, be sin'.... Under certain conditions, 'acts that are apparently evil' can be permitted if they 'produce consequences that are good' (Mahabharata XII.37).... [Hindu scripture] notes the interrelationship of several virtues, consequentially. 'Anger springs from covetousness.' Envy 'disappears in consequence of compassion and knowledge of self' (Mahabharata XII.163).}}</ref> and an evolving concept in ancient scriptures of Hinduism.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Crawford|first=S. Cromwell|year=1982|title=The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|series=Asian Studies|volume=28|isbn=978-0-8248-0782-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionofhindu0000craw|url-access=registration}}
|2={{cite book|editor-last1=Becker|editor-last2=Becker|editor-first1=Lawrence C.|editor-first2=Charlotte B.|year=2001|title=Encyclopedia of Ethics|isbn=978-0415936729|edition=2nd|publisher=Routledge|volume=II|pages=845–848}}
}}</ref> The essence, need and value of virtue is explained in Hindu philosophy as something that cannot be imposed, but something that is realized and voluntarily lived up to by each individual. For example, [[Apastamba]] explained it thus: "virtue and vice do not go about saying—here we are!; neither the Gods, Gandharvas, nor ancestors can convince us—this is right, this is wrong; virtue is an elusive concept, it demands careful and sustained reflection by every man and woman before it can become part of one's life.<ref>{{cite book|first=Phillip|last=Wagoner|chapter=Foreword|title=Dharma: Hindu Approach to a Purposeful Life|date=November 2013 |publisher=Periplus Line LLC |isbn=978-1-62209-672-5}}
* See also: ''[[Apastamba Dharmasutra|Āpastamba Dharmasūtra]]'' 1.20.6</ref>

Virtues lead to {{transliteration|sa|[[Punya (Hinduism)|punya]]}} ({{lang|sa|पुण्य}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=puNya&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0|title=puNya|website=Spoken Sanskrit English Dictionary|date=2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126030805/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=puNya&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0|archive-date=2017-01-26}}</ref> holy living) in Hindu literature; while vices lead to {{transliteration|sa|pap}} ({{lang|sa|पाप}}, [[sin]]). Sometimes, the word {{transliteration|sa|punya}} is used interchangeably with virtue.<ref>{{cite book | title=What Is Hinduism? | publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications | year=2007 | isbn=978-1-934145-00-5 | page=377}}</ref>

The virtues that constitute a [[dharma|dharmic]] life – that is a moral, ethical, virtuous life – evolved in [[veda]]s and [[upanishad]]s. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added by ancient Hindu scholars: some replaced, others merged. For example, [[Samhita|Manusamhita]] initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a dharmic life: {{transliteration|sa|[[Dhrti|Dhriti]]}} (courage), {{transliteration|sa|[[kshama]]}} ([[patience]] and [[forgiveness]]), {{transliteration|sa|[[Temperance (virtue)#Hinduism|dama]]}} ([[Temperance (virtue)|temperance]]), {{transliteration|sa|[[Achourya|asteya]]}} (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), {{transliteration|sa|[[Shaucha|saucha]]}} (inner purity), {{transliteration|sa|indriyani-graha}} (control of senses), {{transliteration|sa|[[Dhi (Hindu thought)|dhi]]}} (reflective prudence), {{transliteration|sa|[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidya]]}} (wisdom), {{transliteration|sa|[[satya]]m}} (truthfulness), and {{transliteration|sa|[[akrodha]]}} (freedom from anger).<ref>{{cite book | last=Tiwari | first=Kedar Nath | title=Classical Indian Ethical Thought: A Philosophical Study of Hindu, Jaina, and Buddhist Morals | year=1998 | isbn=978-81-208-1608-4 | pages=52–55|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|url=https://archive.org/details/nhAt_classical-indian-ethical-thought-kedar-nath-tiwari_202012}}</ref> In later verses, this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a broader concept. The shorter list of virtues became: {{transliteration|sa|Ahimsa}} ([[Ahimsa|Non-violence]]), {{transliteration|sa|dama}} (self restraint), {{transliteration|sa|asteya}} (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), {{transliteration|sa|saucha}} (inner purity), and {{transliteration|sa|satyam}} (truthfulness).<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|last=Gupta|first=B|year=2006|title=Bhagavad Gītā as Duty and Virtue Ethics|journal=Journal of Religious Ethics|volume=34|number=3|pages=373–395|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9795.2006.00274.x}}
|2={{cite book | last1=Mohapatra | first1=Amulya | last2=Mohapatra | first2=Bijaya | title=Hinduism | publisher=Mittal Publications | date=1 January 1993 | isbn=978-81-7099-388-9 | pages=37–40}}
}}</ref>

The [[Bhagavad Gita]] – considered one of the epitomes of historic Hindu discussion of virtues and an allegorical debate on what is right and what is wrong – argues some virtues are not necessarily always absolute, but sometimes relational. For example, it explains that a virtue such as {{transliteration|sa|[[Ahimsa]]}} must be re-examined when one is faced with war or violence from the aggressiveness, immaturity, or ignorance of others.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|last=Subedi|first=S.P.|year=2003|title=The Concept in Hinduism of 'Just War'|journal=Journal of Conflict and Security Law|volume=8|number=2|pages=339–361|doi=10.1093/jcsl/8.2.339 }}
|2={{cite journal|last=Bakker|first=F.L.|year=2013|title=Comparing the Golden Rule in Hindu and Christian Religious Texts|journal=Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses|volume=42|number=1|pages=38–58|doi=10.1177/0008429812460141 |s2cid=170723697 }}
}}</ref><ref name=klos1996>{{cite book | author-link=Klaus K. Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|last=Klostermaier|chapter=Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism|editor-first1=Harvey Leonard|editor-last1=Dyck | editor-last2=Brock | editor-first2=Peter | title=The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective | publisher=University of Toronto Press | date=1 January 1996 | isbn=978-0-8020-0777-3 | pages=230–234}}</ref>

====Jainism====
[[File:India, madhya pradesh, jina parshvanatha dalla tempèesta, 600-700.JPG|thumb|200px|upright|[[Parshwanatha]], the torch bearer of [[ahimsa]].]]
In [[Jainism]], attainment of ''[[kaivalya]]'' is possible only if the seeker possesses certain virtues. All [[Jains]] are supposed to take up the five vows of {{transliteration|sa|[[ahimsa]]}} (non violence), {{transliteration|sa|[[satya]]}} (truthfulness), {{transliteration|sa|[[asteya]]}} (non stealing), {{transliteration|sa|[[aparigraha]]}} (non attachment), and {{transliteration|sa|[[brahmacharya]]}} (celibacy) before becoming a monk. These vows are laid down by the {{transliteration|sa|[[Tirthankaras|Tīrthaṅkaras]]}}. Other virtues which are supposed to be followed by both monks as well as laypersons include forgiveness, humility, self-restraint, and straightforwardness. These vows assist the seeker to escape from the karmic bondages thereby escaping the cycle of birth and death to attain liberation.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Sri Ben Prabhu |title=5 Fundamentals of Jainism Sri |url=https://medium.com/bliss-of-wisdom/5-fundamentals-of-jainism-d61e82304b29 |website=medium.com |access-date=17 August 2021 |date=June 3, 2017}}</ref>

====Sikhism====
{{See also|Five Virtues}}
[[Sikhism|Sikh]] ethics emphasize the congruence between spiritual development and everyday moral conduct. Its founder [[Guru Nanak]] summarized this perspective:<blockquote>Truth is the highest virtue, but higher still is truthful living.<ref name="Singh">{{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Pashaura|editor-last1=Singh|editor-first1=Pashaura|editor-first2=Louis E.|editor-last2=Fenech|year=2014|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234|title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies|chapter=Ethical Living|page=234|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199699308}}</ref></blockquote>The [[Five Virtues]] of Sikhism are {{transliteration|pa|[[Sat (Sikhism)|Sat]]}} (truth), {{transliteration|pa|[[Daya (Sikhism)|Daya]]}} (compassion), {{transliteration|pa|[[Santokh]]}} (contentment), {{transliteration|pa|[[Nimrata]]}} (humility), and {{transliteration|pa|[[Pyaar]]}} (love).

==Modern philosophers' views==
===René Descartes===
For the [[Rationalism|Rationalist]] philosopher [[René Descartes]], virtue consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Men should seek the [[summum bonum|sovereign good]] that Descartes, following [[Zeno of Citium|Zeno]], identifies with virtue, as this produces a {{clarify|text=solid|date=July 2023}} blessedness or pleasure. For [[Epicurus]] the sovereign good was pleasure, and Descartes says that in fact this is not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily pleasure. Regarding [[Aristotle]]'s opinion that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny that these goods contribute to happiness, but remarks that they are in great proportion outside one's own control, whereas one's mind is under one's complete control.<ref name="Blom">{{cite book|last=Blom|first=John J.|title=Descartes. His moral philosophy and psychology|publisher=New York University Press|year=1978|isbn=0-8147-0999-0|url=https://archive.org/details/descarteshismora0000desc_l9t8|url-access=registration}}</ref>

===Immanuel Kant===
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2020}}
[[Immanuel Kant]], in his ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'', says true virtue is different from what commonly is believed about it. In Kant's view, to be goodhearted, benevolent and sympathetic is not true virtue. What makes a person truly virtuous is to behave in accordance with moral principles.

Kant presents an example: suppose that you come across a needy person in the street; if your [[sympathy]] leads you to help that person, your response does not illustrate your virtue. {{clarify|text=In this example, since you do not afford helping all needy ones, you have behaved unjustly, and it is out of the domain of principles and true virtue.|date=July 2023}} Kant applies the approach of [[four temperaments]] to distinguish truly virtuous people. According to Kant, among all people with diverse temperaments, a person with a [[Depression (mood)|melancholic]] frame of mind is the most virtuous, whose thoughts, words, and deeds are principled.

=== Friedrich Nietzsche ===
[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s view of virtue is based on the idea of an order of rank among people.{{citation needed|date=January 2025}} For Nietzsche, the virtues of the strong are seen as vices by the weak and slavish, thus Nietzsche's virtue ethics is based on his distinction between [[master and slave morality|master morality and slave morality]]. Nietzsche promotes the virtues of those he calls "higher men", people like Goethe and Beethoven. The virtues he praises in them are their creative powers ("the men of great creativity, the really great men according to my understanding"<ref name=WP>{{cite book|last=Nietzsche|first=Friedrich|title=The Will to Power|orig-year=1901|year=1968|translator-first1=W.|translator-last1=Kaufmann|translator-first2=R.J.|translator-last2=Hollingdale|location=New York|publisher=Vintage}}</ref>{{rp|957}}).
According to Nietzsche these higher types are solitary, pursue a "unifying project", revere themselves and are healthy and life-affirming.<ref name="Leiter">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche-moral-political/#NietPosiEthiVisi |last= Leiter |first=Brian |title=Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy |encyclopedia= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|edition=Spring 2013 |editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last= Zalta|year= 2020 }}</ref> Because mixing with the herd makes one base, the higher type "strives instinctively for a citadel and a secrecy where he is saved from the crowd, the many, the great majority…".<ref name=BGE>{{cite book|translator-first=W.|translator-last=Kaufmann|location=New York|publisher=Vintage|year=1966|orig-year=1886|last=Nietzsche|first=Friedrich|title=Beyond Good and Evil|page=26}}</ref> The "Higher type" also "instinctively seeks heavy responsibilities"{{r|WP|page=944}} in the form of an "organizing idea" for their life, which drives them to artistic and creative work and gives them psychological health and strength.<ref name="Leiter"/> The fact that the higher types are "healthy" for Nietzsche does not refer to physical health as much as a psychological resilience and fortitude. Finally, someone of the "Higher type" affirms life because he is willing to accept the [[eternal return]] of his life and affirm this forever and unconditionally.

In the last section of ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'', Nietzsche outlines his thoughts on the noble virtues and places [[solitude]] as one of the highest virtues:

<blockquote>And to keep control over your four virtues: courage, insight, sympathy, solitude. Because solitude is a virtue for us, since it is a sublime inclination and impulse to cleanliness which shows that contact between people ("society") inevitably makes things unclean. Somewhere, sometime, every community makes people – "base."{{r|BGE|at=§284}}</blockquote>

Nietzsche also sees truthfulness as a virtue:

<blockquote>Genuine honesty, assuming that this is our virtue and we cannot get rid of it, we free spirits – well then, we will want to work on it with all the love and malice at our disposal and not get tired of 'perfecting' ourselves in our virtue, the only one we have left: may its glory come to rest like a gilded, blue evening glow of mockery over this aging culture and its dull and dismal seriousness!{{r|BGE|at=§227}}</blockquote>

=== Benjamin Franklin ===
[[File:Seal of Virginia.svg|thumb|upright|Virtue, spear in hand, with her foot on the prostrate form of [[Tyranny]] on the [[Sic Semper Tyrannis|Great Seal of Virginia]]]]
These are the virtues that [[Benjamin Franklin]] used to develop what he called "moral perfection".<ref>{{cite book|title-link=The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin|chapter-url=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/benjamin-franklin/the-autobiography-of-benjamin-franklin/text/chapter-9|chapter=Plan for Attaining Moral Perfection|title=The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin|last=Franklin|first=Benjamin|author-link=Benjamin Franklin|year=1791}}</ref> He had a checklist in a notebook to measure each day how he lived up to his virtues.

They became known through [[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin|Benjamin Franklin's autobiography]].

<blockquote>
# [[Temperance (virtue)|Temperance]]: Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation.
# Silence: Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself. Avoid trifling Conversation.
# [[Order (virtue)|Order]]: Let all your Things have their Places. Let each Part of your Business have its Time.
# [[Determination|Resolution]]: Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform without fail what you resolve.
# [[Frugality]]: Make no Expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e. Waste nothing.
# [[Diligence|Industry]]: Lose no Time. Be always employed in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions.
# [[Sincerity]]: Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly.
# [[Justice (virtue)|Justice]]: Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting the Benefits that are your Duty.
# [[Moderation]]: Avoid Extremes. Forbear resenting Injuries so much as you think they deserve.
# [[Cleanliness]]: Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Clothes or Habitation.
# [[Tranquillity|Tranquility]]: Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable.
# [[Chastity]]: Rarely use [[wikt:venery#Etymology 2|Venery]] but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dullness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation.
# [[Humility]]: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.
</blockquote>

==Contemporary views==

===Virtues as emotions===
{{See also|Moral emotions}}

Marc Jackson in his book ''Emotion and Psyche'' identifies the virtues as what he calls the good emotions: "The first group consisting of [[love]], [[kindness]], [[joy]], faith, [[awe]] and [[pity]] is good".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jackson | first=Marc | title=Emotion and Psyche | publisher=John Hunt Publishing | date=16 September 2010 | isbn=978-1-84694-378-2|page=12}}</ref> These virtues differ from older accounts of the virtues because they are not character traits expressed by action, but emotions that are to be felt and developed by feeling not acting.

Immanuel Kant, in his ''Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime'', predicts and replies to Marc Johnson's view of emotions as virtues. To be goodhearted, benevolent, and sympathetic is not true virtue, for one acts merely episodically, motivated by appeasing those naturally limited feelings, such as in the presence, for example, of a needy person in the street: in such a case, we do not act for a universal motive but simply as a response to end a particular, individual, personal distress arisen in us by our own sentiments.

===In modern psychology===
[[Christopher Peterson (psychologist)|Christopher Peterson]] and [[Martin Seligman]], two leading researchers in [[positive psychology]], recognizing the deficiency inherent in [[psychology]]'s tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable [[personality]], set out to develop a list of "[[Character Strengths and Virtues (book)|Character Strengths and Virtues]]".<ref name=CSV>{{cite book | last1=Peterson | first1=Christopher | last2=Seligman | first2=Martin E.P. | title=Character Strengths and Virtues | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=2004 | isbn=0-19-516701-5|url=https://archive.org/details/characterstrengt0000pete|url-access=registration}}</ref> After three years of study, 24 traits (classified into six broad areas of virtue) were identified, having "a surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicat[ing] a historical and cross-cultural convergence."{{r|CSV|page=36}} These six categories of virtue are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom.{{r|CSV|pages=36–39}} Some psychologists suggest that these virtues are adequately grouped into fewer categories; for example, the same 24 traits have been grouped into simply: Cognitive Strengths, Temperance Strengths, and Social Strengths.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Shryack | first1=Jessica | last2=Steger | first2=Michael F. | last3=Krueger | first3=Robert F. | last4=Kallie | first4=Christopher S. | title=The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=48 | issue=6 | year=2010 | issn=0191-8869 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.007 | pages=714–719| hdl=10818/33195 | hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Vice as opposite==
{{Main|Vice}}
The opposite of a virtue is a [[vice]]. Vice is a habitual, repeated practice of wrongdoing. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues.

As [[Aristotle]] noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates {{lang|la|in medio stat virtus}}—in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution; the opposites of pride (a virtue) are undue humility and excessive vanity. A more "modern" virtue, [[Toleration|tolerance]], can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and over-acceptance on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues – but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.

Within the Chinese {{transliteration|zh|[[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|wuxing]]}} philosophy and [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Traditional Chinese Medicine]] vice and virtue are expressed as excess or deficiency.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Ahimsa]]
* [[Bushido]]
* [[Civic virtue]]
* [[Common good]]
* [[Consequentialism]]
* [[Defence mechanism#Level 4: mature]]
* [[Epistemic virtue]]
* [[Evolution of morality]]
* [[Foresight (psychology)]]
* [[Humanity (virtue)]]
* [[Ideal (ethics)]]
* [[Intellectual virtues]]
* [[List of virtues]]
* [[Moral character]]
* [[Nine Noble Virtues]] (Asatru and Odinism)
* [[Nonviolence]]
* [[Omoluwabi]]
* [[Prussian virtues]]
* [[Śīla]] 
* [[Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers]]
* [[Value (ethics)]]
* [[Value theory]]
* [[Virtue ethics]]
* [[Virtue name]]
* [[Virtue signalling]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|32em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|chapter=[[s:The Art of Dying Well/Chapter 6|The Sixth Precept, in Which Three Moral Virtues Are Explained.]]|title=The Art of Dying Well|year=1847|publisher=Richardson and Son|first=Robert|last=Bellarmine|author-link=Robert Bellarmine|translator=John Dalton}}
*{{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion/Chap. V. Virtue and Christian Perfection|Chap. V. Virtue and Christian Perfection]]|title=A Complete Catechism of the Catholic Religion|year=1912|publisher=Schwartz, Kirwin & Fauss|first= Joseph|last=Deharbe|translator=Rev. John Fander}}
* {{cite book | last=Newton | first=John | title=Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century | publisher=Nicer Century World Publishing | date=2000 | isbn=0-9673705-7-4}}
* {{cite book|first=James|last=Hankins|year=2019|title=Virtue Politics: Soulcraft and Statecraft in Renaissance Italy|publisher=Harvard University Press}}
* {{cite web|last=Hein|first=David|title=Christianity and Honor|website=The Living Church|date=August 18, 2013|url=https://livingchurch.org/2013/08/08/christianity-and-honor/}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Den Uyl |first=Douglas |author-link= Douglas Den Uyl |editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |title=  Virtue |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC  |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|SAGE]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n318 |isbn= 978-1412965804 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=521–22 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Virtue |volume=15 |first=Martin Augustine  |last=Waldron}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q157811|wikt=virtue|n=no|b=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|species=no|c=Category:Virtue}}
* {{cite web | title=List of the Virtues | website=The VirtueScience Philosophy. TSQ (Truth Seeking Quotient) | url=https://www.virtuescience.com/virtuelist.html | ref={{sfnref | The VirtueScience Philosophy. TSQ (Truth Seeking Quotient)}} }}
* {{cite web | last1=Turri | first1=John | last2=Alfano | first2=Mark | last3=Greco | first3=John | title=Virtue Epistemology | website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=9 July 1999 | url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue }}
* {{cite web | title=Virtue: sila | website=Access to Insight | date=30 November 2013 | url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/index.html | ref={{sfnref | Access to Insight | 2013}} }}
* {{cite web | last=Adams | first=John P. | title=Greek Virtue | website=California State University, Northridge | date=25 May 2009 | url=https://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/GkVirtue.html }} (quotations)
* {{cite web | title=List of personal strengths (psychology research) | website=Meaning and Happiness.com | url=http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/psychology-research/list-of-personal-strengths.html }} — Peterson & Seligman findings
* {{cite web | title=Roman virtues | website=NovaRoma | date=18 October 2020 | url=http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Roman_virtues | ref={{sfnref | NovaRoma | 2020}} }}
* {{cite web | website=Respublica Romana | title=Roman Virtues | url=https://romanrepublic.org/roma/bibliotheca/roman-virtues/ | ref={{sfnref | Roman Virtues – Roman Republic}} |date=15 September 2019 }}
* {{cite web | title=In Our Time: Virtue | website=BBC | date=28 February 2002 | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005489r | ref={{sfnref | BBC | 2002}} }} — BBC Radio 4 discussion with Galen Strawson, Miranda Fricker, and Roger Crisp
* {{cite web | title=What are Virtues? | website=Virtues For Life | date=8 February 2019 | url=https://www.virtuesforlife.com/what-are-virtues/ | ref={{sfnref | Virtues For Life | 2019}} }}
* {{cite web | last=Gross|first=David M.|title=Notes on Virtues | website=LessWrong |date=4 March 2021 | url=https://www.lesswrong.com/s/xqgwpmwDYsn8osoje | ref={{sfnref | LessWrong | 2023}} }}

{{Philosophy topics}}
{{Ethics}}
{{Virtues}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Virtue| ]]
[[Category:Aristotelianism]]
[[Category:Concepts in ethics]]
[[Category:Personality traits]]
[[Category:Spiritual concepts]]
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