Vlad the Impaler

Template:Short description Template:For

Template:Infobox royalty Vlad III, commonly known as Vlad the Impaler (Template:Langx Template:IPAc-ro) or Vlad Dracula (Template:IPAc-en; Template:Langx Template:IPAc-ro; 1428/31 – 1476/77), was Voivode of Wallachia three times between 1448 and his death in 1476/77. He is often considered one of the most important rulers in Wallachian history and a national hero of Romania.

He was the second son of Vlad Dracul, who became the ruler of Wallachia in 1436. Vlad and his younger brother, Radu, were held as hostages in the Ottoman Empire in 1442 to secure their father's loyalty. Vlad's eldest brother Mircea and their father were murdered after John Hunyadi, regent-governor of Hungary, invaded Wallachia in 1447. Hunyadi installed Vlad's second cousin, [[Vladislav II of Wallachia|VladislavTemplate:NbspII]], as the new voivode. Hunyadi launched a military campaign against the Ottomans in the autumn of 1448, and Vladislav accompanied him. Vlad broke into Wallachia with Ottoman support in October, but Vladislav returned, and Vlad sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire before the end of the year. Vlad went to Moldavia in 1449 or 1450 and later to Hungary.

Relations between Hungary and Vladislav later deteriorated, and in 1456 Vlad invaded Wallachia with Hungarian support. After killing Vladislav, Vlad began a purge among the Wallachian boyars to strengthen his position. He came into conflict with the Transylvanian Saxons, who supported his opponents, Dan and Basarab Laiotă (who were Vladislav's brothers), and Vlad's illegitimate half-brother, Vlad Călugărul. Vlad plundered the Saxon villages, taking the captured people to Wallachia, where he had them impaled (which inspired his epithet). Peace was restored in 1460.

The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, ordered Vlad to pay homage to him personally, but Vlad had the Sultan's two envoys captured and impaled. In February 1462, he attacked Ottoman territory, massacring tens of thousands of Turks and Muslim Bulgarians. Mehmed launched a campaign against Wallachia to replace Vlad with Vlad's younger brother, Radu. Vlad attempted to capture the sultan at Târgoviște during the night of 16Template:Ndash17Template:NbspJune 1462. The Sultan and the main Ottoman army left Wallachia, but many Wallachians deserted Vlad’s forces and joined Radu. Vlad went to Transylvania to seek assistance from Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, in late 1462, but Corvinus had him imprisoned.

Vlad was held in captivity in Visegrád from 1463 to 1475. During this period, anecdotes about his cruelty started to spread in Germany and Italy. He was released at the request of Stephen III of Moldavia in the summer of 1475. Vlad was reputedly forced to convert to Roman Catholicism as part of the agreement for his release. He fought in Corvinus's army against the Ottomans in Bosnia in early 1476. Hungarian and Moldavian troops helped him to force Basarab Laiotă (who had dethroned Vlad's brother, Radu) to flee from Wallachia in November. Basarab returned with Ottoman support before the end of the year. Vlad was killed in battle near Snagov before 10Template:NbspJanuary 1477.

Books describing Vlad's cruel acts were among the first bestsellers in the German-speaking territories. In Russia, popular stories suggested that Vlad was able to strengthen his central government only by applying brutal punishments, and many 19th-century Romanian historians adopted a similar view. Vlad's patronymic inspired the name of Bram Stoker's literary vampire, Count Dracula.

Name

Vlad's father, Vlad Dracul

The name Dracula, which is now primarily known as the name of a vampire, was for centuries known as the sobriquet of VladTemplate:NbspIII.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Diplomatic reports and popular stories referred to him as Dracula, Dracuglia, or Drakula already in the 15thTemplate:Nbspcentury.Template:Sfn He himself signed his two letters as "Dragulya" or "Drakulya" in the late 1470s.Template:Sfn His name had its origin in the sobriquet of his father, Vlad Dracul ("Vlad the Dragon" in medieval Romanian), who received it after he became a member of the Order of the Dragon.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Dracula is the Slavonic genitive form of Dracul, meaning "[the son] of Dracul (or the Dragon)".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In modern Romanian, dracul means "the devil", which contributed to Vlad's reputation.Template:Sfn

Vlad III is known as Vlad Țepeș (or Vlad the Impaler) in Romanian historiography.Template:Sfn This sobriquet is connected to the impalement that was his favorite method of execution.Template:Sfn The Ottoman writer Tursun Beg referred to him as Template:Lang (Impaler Lord) around 1500.Template:Sfn Mircea the Shepherd, Voivode of Wallachia, used this sobriquet when referring to Vlad III in a letter of grant on 1Template:NbspApril 1551.Template:Sfn

Early life

Vlad was the second legitimate son of Vlad II Dracul, who was himself an illegitimate son of Mircea I of Wallachia. VladTemplate:NbspII had won the moniker "Dracul" for his membership in the Order of the Dragon, a militant fraternity founded by Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of Hungary. The Order of the Dragon was dedicated to halting the Ottoman advance into Europe.Template:Sfn Since he was old enough to be a candidate for the throne of Wallachia in 1448, Vlad was probably born between 1428 and 1431.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad was most probably born after his father settled in Transylvania in 1429.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Historian Radu Florescu writes that Vlad was born in the Transylvanian Saxon town of Sighișoara (then in the Kingdom of Hungary), where his father lived in a three-story stone house from 1431 to 1435.Template:Sfn Modern historians identify Vlad's mother either as a daughter or kinswoman of Alexander I of MoldaviaTemplate:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn or as his father's unknown first wife.Template:Sfn

The house in the main square of Sighișoara where Vlad's father lived from 1431 to 1435

Vlad II Dracul seized Wallachia after the death of his half-brother Alexander I Aldea in 1436.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn One of his charters (which was issued on 20Template:NbspJanuary 1437) preserves the first reference to Vlad III and his elder brother, Mircea, mentioning them as their father's "firstborn sons".Template:Sfn They were mentioned in four further documents between 1437 and 1439.Template:Sfn The last of the four charters also refers to their younger brother, Radu.Template:Sfn

After a meeting with John Hunyadi, Voivode of Transylvania, Vlad II Dracul did not support an Ottoman invasion of Transylvania in March 1442.Template:Sfn The Ottoman Sultan, Murad II, ordered him to come to Gallipoli to demonstrate his loyalty.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad and Radu accompanied their father to the Ottoman Empire, where they were all imprisoned.Template:Sfn Vlad Dracul was released before the end of the year, but Vlad and Radu remained hostages to secure his loyalty.Template:Sfn They were held imprisoned in the fortress of Eğrigöz, according to contemporaneous Ottoman chronicles.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Their lives were especially in danger after their father supported Vladislaus, King of Poland and Hungary, against the Ottoman Empire during the Crusade of Varna in 1444.Template:Sfn Vlad II Dracul was convinced that his two sons would be "butchered for the sake of Christian peace", but neither Vlad nor Radu was murdered or mutilated after their father's rebellion.Template:Sfn

Vlad Dracul again acknowledged the sultan's suzerainty and promised to pay an annual tribute to him in 1446 or 1447.Template:Sfn John Hunyadi (who had by then become the regent-governor of Hungary in 1446),Template:Sfn invaded Wallachia in November 1447.Template:Sfn The Byzantine historian Michael Critobulus wrote that Vlad and Radu fled to the Ottoman Empire, which suggests that the sultan had allowed them to return to Wallachia after their father paid homage to him.Template:Sfn Vlad Dracul and his eldest son, Mircea, were murdered.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Hunyadi made Vladislav II (son of Vlad Dracul's cousin, Dan II) the ruler of Wallachia.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Reigns

First rule

Lands ruled around 1390 by Vlad the Impaler's grandfather, Mircea I of Wallachia (the lands on the right side of the Danube had been lost to the Ottomans before Vlad's reign)

Upon the death of his father and elder brother, Vlad became a potential claimant to Wallachia.Template:Sfn VladislavTemplate:NbspII of Wallachia accompanied John Hunyadi, who launched a campaign against the Ottoman Empire in September 1448.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Taking advantage of his opponent's absence, Vlad broke into Wallachia at the head of an Ottoman army in early October.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He had to accept that the Ottomans had captured the fortress of Giurgiu on the Danube and strengthened it.Template:Sfn

The Ottomans defeated Hunyadi's army in the Battle of Kosovo between 17Template:Nbspand 18Template:NbspOctober.Template:Sfn Hunyadi's deputy, Nicholas Vízaknai, urged Vlad to come to meet him in Transylvania, but Vlad refused him.Template:Sfn VladislavTemplate:NbspII returned to Wallachia at the head of the remnants of his army.Template:Sfn Vlad was forced to flee to the Ottoman Empire by 7Template:NbspDecember 1448.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

In exile

Vlad first settled in Edirne in the Ottoman Empire after his fall.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Not long after, he moved to Moldavia, where [[Bogdan II of Moldavia|BogdanTemplate:NbspII]] (his father's brother-in-law and possibly his maternal uncle) had mounted the throne with John Hunyadi's support in the autumn of 1449.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn After Bogdan was murdered by Peter III Aaron in October 1451, Bogdan's son, Stephen, fled to Transylvania with Vlad to seek assistance from Hunyadi.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn However, Hunyadi concluded a three-year truce with the Ottoman Empire on 20Template:NbspNovember 1451,Template:Sfn acknowledging the Wallachian boyars' right to elect the successor of VladislavTemplate:NbspII if he died.Template:Sfn

Vlad allegedly wanted to settle in Brașov (which was a centre of the Wallachian boyars expelled by VladislausTemplate:NbspII), but Hunyadi forbade the burghers to give shelter to him on 6Template:NbspFebruary 1452.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad returned to Moldavia where Alexăndrel had dethroned Peter Aaron.Template:Sfn The events of his life during the years that followed are unknown.Template:Sfn He must have returned to Hungary before 3Template:NbspJuly 1456 because, on that day, Hunyadi informed the townspeople of Brașov that he had tasked Vlad with the defence of the Transylvanian border.Template:Sfn

Second rule

Consolidation

Ruins of the Template:Ill in Târgoviște

The circumstances and the date of Vlad's return to Wallachia are uncertain.Template:Sfn He invaded Wallachia with Hungarian support either in April, July or August 1456.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn VladislavTemplate:NbspII died during the invasion.Template:Sfn Vlad sent his first extant letter as voivode of Wallachia to the burghers of Brașov on 10Template:NbspSeptember.Template:Sfn He promised to protect them in case of an Ottoman invasion of Transylvania, but he also sought their assistance if the Ottomans occupied Wallachia.Template:Sfn In the same letter, he stated that "when a man or a prince is strong and powerful he can make peace as he wants to; but when he is weak, a stronger one will come and do what he wants to him",Template:Sfn showing his authoritarian personality.Template:Sfn

Multiple sources (including Laonikos Chalkokondyles's chronicle) recorded that hundreds or thousands of people were executed at Vlad's order at the beginning of his reign.Template:Sfn He began a purge against the boyars who had participated in the murder of his father and elder brother or whom he suspected of plotting against him.Template:Sfn Chalkokondyles stated that Vlad "quickly effected a great change and utterly revolutionized the affairs of Wallachia" through granting the "money, property, and other goods" of his victims to his retainers.Template:Sfn The lists of the members of the princely council during Vlad's reign also show that only two of them (Voico Dobrița and Iova) were able to retain their positions between 1457 and 1461.Template:Sfn

Conflict with the Saxons

Vlad sent the customary tribute to the sultan.Template:Sfn After John Hunyadi died on 11Template:NbspAugust 1456, his elder son, Ladislaus Hunyadi, became the captain-general of Hungary.Template:Sfn He accused Vlad of having "no intention of remaining faithful" to the king of Hungary in a letter to the burghers of Brașov, also ordering them to support VladislavTemplate:NbspII's brother, [[Dan III of Wallachia|DanTemplate:NbspIII]], against Vlad.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The burghers of Sibiu supported another pretender, a "priest of the Romanians who calls himself a Prince's son".Template:Sfn The latter (identified as Vlad's illegitimate brother, Vlad Călugărul)Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn took possession of Amlaș, which had customarily been held by the rulers of Wallachia in Transylvania.Template:Sfn

Medieval seats (or administrative units) of the Transylvanian Saxons

Ladislaus V of Hungary had Ladislaus Hunyadi executed on 16Template:NbspMarch 1457.Template:Sfn Hunyadi's mother, Elizabeth Szilágyi, and her brother, Michael Szilágyi, stirred up a rebellion against the king.Template:Sfn Taking advantage of the civil war in Hungary, Vlad assisted Stephen, son of BogdanTemplate:NbspII of Moldavia, in his move to seize Moldavia in June 1457.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad also broke into Transylvania and plundered the villages around Brașov and Sibiu.Template:Sfn The earliest German stories about Vlad recounted that he had carried "men, women, children" from a Saxon village to Wallachia and had them impaled.Template:Sfn Since the Transylvanian Saxons remained loyal to the king, Vlad's attack against them strengthened the position of the Szilágyis.Template:Sfn

Vlad's representatives participated in the peace negotiations between Michael Szilágyi and the Saxons.Template:Sfn According to their treaty, the burghers of Brașov agreed that they would expel Dan from their town.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad promised that the merchants of Sibiu could freely "buy and sell" goods in Wallachia in exchange for the "same treatment" of the Wallachian merchants in Transylvania.Template:Sfn Vlad referred to Michael Szilágyi as "his Lord and elder brother" in a letter on 1Template:NbspDecember 1457.Template:Sfn

Ladislaus Hunyadi's younger brother, Matthias Corvinus, was elected king of Hungary on 24Template:NbspJanuary 1458.Template:Sfn He ordered the burghers of Sibiu to keep the peace with Vlad on 3Template:NbspMarch.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad styled himself "Lord and ruler over all of Wallachia, and the duchies of Amlaș and Făgăraș" on 20Template:NbspSeptember 1459, showing that he had taken possession of both of these traditional Transylvanian fiefs of the rulers of Wallachia.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Michael Szilágyi allowed the boyar Michael (an official of VladislavTemplate:NbspII of Wallachia)Template:Sfn and other Wallachian boyars to settle in Transylvania in late March 1458.Template:Sfn Before long, Vlad had the boyar Michael killed.Template:Sfn

In May, Vlad asked the burghers of Brașov to send craftsmen to Wallachia; however, his relationship with the Saxons deteriorated before the end of the year.Template:Sfn According to a scholarly theory, the conflict emerged after Vlad forbade the Saxons to enter Wallachia, forcing them to sell their goods to Wallachian merchants at compulsory border fairs.Template:Sfn Vlad's protectionist tendencies or border fairs are not documented.Template:Sfn Instead, in 1476, Vlad emphasized that he had always promoted free trade during his reign.Template:Sfn

The Saxons confiscated the steel that a Wallachian merchant had bought in Brașov without repaying the price to him.Template:Sfn In response, Vlad "ransacked and tortured" some Saxon merchants, according to a letter that Basarab Laiotă (a son of DanTemplate:NbspII of Wallachia)Template:Sfn wrote on 21Template:NbspJanuary 1459.Template:Sfn Basarab had settled in Sighișoara and laid claim to Wallachia.Template:Sfn However, Matthias Corvinus supported DanTemplate:NbspIII (who was again in Brașov) against Vlad.Template:Sfn DanTemplate:NbspIII stated that Vlad had Saxon merchants and their children impaled or burnt alive in Wallachia.Template:Sfn

Dan III broke into Wallachia, but Vlad defeated and executed him before 22Template:NbspApril 1460.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad invaded southern Transylvania and destroyed the suburbs of Brașov, ordering the impalement of all men and women who had been captured.Template:Sfn During the ensuing negotiations, Vlad demanded the expulsion or punishment of all Wallachian refugees from Brașov.Template:Sfn Peace had been restored before 26Template:NbspJuly 1460, when Vlad addressed the burghers of Brașov as his "brothers and friends".Template:Sfn Vlad invaded the region around Amlaș and Făgăraș on 24Template:NbspAugust to punish the local inhabitants who had supported DanTemplate:NbspIII.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Ottoman war

The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, who invaded Wallachia during Vlad's reign

Konstantin Mihailović (who served as a janissary in the sultan's army) recorded that Vlad refused to pay homage to the sultan in an unspecified year.Template:Sfn The Renaissance historian Giovanni Maria degli Angiolelli likewise wrote that Vlad had failed to pay tribute to the sultan for three years.Template:Sfn Both records suggest that Vlad ignored the suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, already in 1459, but both works were written decades after the events.Template:Sfn Tursun Beg (a secretary in the sultan's court) stated that Vlad only turned against the Ottoman Empire when the sultan "was away on the long expedition in Trebizon" in 1461.Template:Sfn According to Tursun Beg, Vlad started new negotiations with Matthias Corvinus, but the sultan was soon informed by his spies.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Mehmed sent his envoy, the Greek Thomas Katabolinos (also known as Yunus bey), to Wallachia, ordering Vlad to come to Constantinople.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He also sent secret instructions to Hamza, bey of Nicopolis, to capture Vlad after he crossed the Danube.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad found out the sultan's "deceit and trickery", captured Hamza and Katabolinos, and had them executed.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

After the execution of the Ottoman officials, Vlad gave orders in fluent Turkish to the commander of the fortress of Giurgiu to open the gates, enabling the Wallachian soldiers to break into the fortress and capture it.Template:Sfn He invaded the Ottoman Empire, devastating the villages along the Danube.Template:Sfn He informed Matthias Corvinus about the military action in a letter on 11Template:NbspFebruary 1462.Template:Sfn He stated that more than "23,884 Turks and Bulgarians" had been killed at his order during the campaign.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He sought military assistance from Corvinus, declaring that he had broken the peace with the sultan "for the honor" of the king and the Holy Crown of Hungary and "for the preservation of Christianity and the strengthening of the Catholic faith".Template:Sfn The relationship between Moldavia and Wallachia had become tense by 1462, according to a letter of the Genoese governor of Kaffa.Template:Sfn

Having learnt of Vlad's invasion, Mehmed II raised an army of more than 150,000 men that was said to be "second in size only to the one" that occupied Constantinople in 1453, according to Chalkokondyles.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The size of the army suggests that the sultan wanted to occupy Wallachia, according to a number of historians (including Franz Babinger, Radu Florescu, and Nicolae Stoicescu).Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn On the other hand, Mehmed had granted Wallachia to Vlad's brother, Radu, before the invasion of Wallachia, showing that the sultan's principal purpose was only the change of the ruler of Wallachia.Template:Sfn

The Battle with Torches, a painting by Theodor Aman about Vlad's Night attack at Târgoviște

The Ottoman fleet landed at Brăila (which was the only Wallachian port on the Danube) in May.Template:Sfn The main Ottoman army crossed the Danube under the command of the sultan at Nikopol, Bulgaria on 4Template:NbspJune 1462.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Outnumbered by the enemy, Vlad adopted a scorched earth policy and retreated towards Târgoviște.Template:Sfn During the night of 16Template:Ndash17 June, Vlad broke into the Ottoman camp in an attempt to capture or kill the sultan.Template:Sfn The imprisonment or death of the sultan would have caused panic among the Ottomans, which could have enabled Vlad to defeat the Ottoman army.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn However, the Wallachians "missed the court of the sultan himself" and attacked the tents of the viziers Mahmud Pasha and Isaac.Template:Sfn Having failed to attack the sultan's camp, Vlad and his retainers left the Ottoman camp at dawn.Template:Sfn Mehmed entered Târgoviște at the end of June.Template:Sfn The town had been deserted, but the Ottomans were horrified to discover a "forest of the impaled" (thousands of stakes with the carcasses of executed people), according to Chalkokondyles.Template:Sfn

Tursun Beg recorded that the Ottomans suffered from the summer heat and thirst during the campaign.Template:Sfn The sultan decided to retreat from Wallachia and marched towards Brăila.Template:Sfn StephenTemplate:NbspIII of Moldavia hurried to Chilia (now Kiliya in Ukraine) to seize the important fortress where a Hungarian garrison had been stationed.Template:SfnTemplate:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad also departed for Chilia, leaving behind a force of 6,000 men to hinder the march of the sultan's army, but the Ottomans defeated the Wallachians.Template:Sfn Stephen of Moldavia was wounded during the siege of Chilia and returned to Moldavia before Vlad arrived at the fortress.Template:Sfn

The main Ottoman army left Wallachia, but Vlad's brother Radu and his Ottoman troops stayed behind in the Bărăgan Plain.Template:Sfn Radu sent messengers to the Wallachians, reminding them that the sultan could again invade their country.Template:Sfn Although Vlad defeated Radu and his Ottoman allies in two battles during the following months, more and more Wallachians deserted to Radu.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Vlad withdrew to the Carpathian Mountains, hoping that Matthias Corvinus would help him regain his throne.Template:Sfn However, Albert of Istenmező, the deputy of the Count of the Székelys, had recommended in mid-August that the Saxons recognize Radu.Template:Sfn Radu also made an offer to the burghers of Brașov to confirm their commercial privileges and pay them a compensation of 15,000 ducats.Template:Sfn

Imprisonment in Hungary

Renaissance palaces of Matthias Corvinus's summer residence at Visegrád (engraving from the 1480s)

Matthias Corvinus came to Transylvania in November 1462.Template:Sfn The negotiations between Corvinus and Vlad lasted for weeks,Template:Sfn but Corvinus did not want to wage war against the Ottoman Empire.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn At the king's order, his Czech mercenary commander, John Jiskra of Brandýs, captured Vlad near Rucăr in Wallachia.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

To provide an explanation for Vlad's imprisonment to Pope Pius II and the Venetians (who had sent money to finance a campaign against the Ottoman Empire), Corvinus presented three letters, allegedly written by Vlad on 7Template:NbspNovember 1462, to MehmedTemplate:NbspII, Mahmud Pasha, and Stephen of Moldavia.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn According to the letters, Vlad offered to join his forces with the sultan's army against Hungary if the sultan restored him to his throne.Template:Sfn Most historians agree that the documents were forged to give grounds for Vlad's imprisonment.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Corvinus's court historian, Antonio Bonfini, admitted that the reason for Vlad's imprisonment was never clarified.Template:Sfn Florescu writes, "[T]he style of writing, the rhetoric of meek submission (hardly compatible with what we know of Dracula's character), clumsy wording, and poor Latin" are all evidence that the letters could not be written on Vlad's order. He associates the author of the forgery with a Saxon priest of Brașov.Template:Sfn

Vlad was first imprisoned "in the city of Belgrade" (now Alba Iulia in Romania), according to Chalkokondyles. Before long, he was taken to Visegrád, where he was held for fourteen years.Template:Sfn No documents referring to Vlad between 1462 and 1475 have been preserved.Template:Sfn In the summer of 1475, StephenTemplate:NbspIII of Moldavia sent his envoys to Matthias Corvinus, asking him to send Vlad to Wallachia against Basarab Laiotă, who had submitted himself to the Ottomans.Template:Sfn Stephen wanted to secure Wallachia for a ruler who had been an enemy of the Ottoman Empire, because "the Wallachians [were] like the Turks" to the Moldavians, according to his letter.Template:Sfn According to the Slavic stories about Vlad, he was only released after he converted to Catholicism.Template:Sfn

Third rule and death

Matthias Corvinus recognized Vlad as the lawful prince of Wallachia, but he did not provide him with military assistance to regain his principality.Template:Sfn Vlad settled in a house in Pest.Template:Sfn When a group of soldiers broke into the house while pursuing a thief who had tried to hide there, Vlad had their commander executed because they had not asked his permission before entering his home, according to the Slavic stories about his life. Vlad moved to Transylvania in June 1475. He wanted to settle in Sibiu and sent his envoy to the town in early June to arrange a house for him. MehmedTemplate:NbspII acknowledged Basarab Laiotă as the lawful ruler of Wallachia. Corvinus ordered the burghers of Sibiu to give 200 golden florins to Vlad from the royal revenues on 21Template:NbspSeptember, but Vlad left Transylvania for Buda in October.Template:Sfn

Vlad bought a house in Pécs that became known as Drakula háza ("Dracula's house" in Hungarian). In January 1476 John Pongrác of Dengeleg, Voivode of Transylvania urged the people of Brașov to send to Vlad all those of his supporters who had settled in the town, because Corvinus and Basarab Laiotă had concluded a treaty.Template:Sfn The relationship between the Transylvanian Saxons and Basarab remained tense, and the Saxons gave shelter to Basarab's opponents during the following months.Template:Sfn Corvinus dispatched Vlad and the Serbian Vuk Grgurević to fight against the Ottomans in Bosnia in early 1476.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn They captured Srebrenica and other fortresses in February and March 1476.Template:Sfn In the Bosnian campaign, Vlad once again resorted to his terror tactics, mass impaling captured Turkish soldiers and massacring civilians in conquered settlements. His troops mostly destroyed Srebrenica, Kušlat, and Zvornik.Template:Sfn

Basarab Laiotă, who tried to defend his throne against Vlad with Ottoman support

Mehmed II invaded Moldavia and defeated StephenTemplate:NbspIII in the Battle of Valea Albă on 26Template:NbspJuly 1476.Template:Sfn Stephen Báthory and Vlad entered Moldavia, forcing the sultan to lift the siege of the fortress at Târgu Neamț in late August, according to a letter of Matthias Corvinus.Template:Sfn The contemporaneous Jakob Unrest added that Vuk Grgurević and a member of the noble Jakšić family also participated in the struggle against the Ottomans in Moldavia.Template:Sfn

Matthias Corvinus ordered the Transylvanian Saxons to support Báthory's planned invasion of Wallachia on 6Template:NbspSeptember 1476, also informing them that Stephen of Moldavia would also invade Wallachia.Template:Sfn Vlad stayed in Brașov and confirmed the commercial privileges of the local burghers in Wallachia on 7Template:NbspOctober 1476.Template:Sfn Báthory's forces captured Târgoviște on 8Template:NbspNovember.Template:Sfn Stephen of Moldavia and Vlad ceremoniously confirmed their alliance, and they occupied Bucharest, forcing Basarab Laiotă to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire on 16Template:NbspNovember.Template:Sfn Vlad informed the merchants of Brașov about his victory, urging them to come to Wallachia.Template:Sfn He was crowned before 26Template:NbspNovember.Template:Sfn

Basarab Laiotă returned to Wallachia with Ottoman support, and Vlad died fighting against them in late December 1476 or early January 1477.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In a letter written on 10Template:NbspJanuary 1477, StephenTemplate:NbspIII of Moldavia related that Vlad's Moldavian retinue had also been massacred.Template:Sfn According to the "most reliable sources", Vlad's army of about 2,000 was cornered and destroyed by a Turkish-Basarab force of 4,000 near Snagov.Template:Sfn The exact circumstances of his death are unclear. The Austrian chronicler Jacob Unrest stated that a disguised Turkish assassin murdered Vlad in his camp. In contrast, Russian statesman Fyodor Kuritsyn –who interviewed Vlad's family after his demise– reported that the voivode was mistaken for a Turk by his own troops during battle, causing them to attack and kill him. Florescu and Raymond T. McNally commented this account by noting that Vlad had often disguised himself as a Turkish soldier as part of military ruses.Template:Sfn According to Leonardo Botta, the Milanese ambassador to Buda, the Ottomans cut Vlad's corpse into pieces.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Bonfini wrote that Vlad's head was sent to MehmedTemplate:NbspII;Template:Sfn it was eventually placed on a high stake in Constantinople.Template:Sfn His severed head allegedly was displayed and buried in Voivode Street (today Bankalar Caddesi) in Karaköy. It is rumoured that Voyvoda Han, located on Bankalar Caddesi No. 19, was the last stop of Vlad Tepeş's skull. Local peasant traditions maintain that what was left of Vlad's corpse was later discovered in the marshes of Snagov by monks from the nearby monastery.Template:Sfn

The place of his burial is unknown.Template:Sfn According to popular tradition (which was first recorded in the late 19th century),Template:Sfn Vlad was buried in the Monastery of Snagov.Template:Sfn However, the excavations carried out by Dinu V. Rosetti in 1933 found no tomb below the supposed "unmarked tombstone" of Vlad in the monastery church. Rosetti reported: "Under the tombstone attributed to Vlad, there was no tomb. Only many bones and jaws of horses."Template:Sfn Historian Constantin Rezachevici said Vlad was most probably buried in the first church of the Comana Monastery, which had been established by Vlad and was near the battlefield where he was killed.Template:Sfn

Family

Vlad had two wives, according to modern specialists.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn His first wife may have been an illegitimate daughter of John Hunyadi, according to historian Alexandru Simon.Template:Sfn Vlad's second wife was Justina Szilágyi, who was a cousin of Matthias Corvinus.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn She was the widow of Vencel Pongrác of Szentmiklós when "Ladislaus Dragwlya" married her, most probably in 1475.Template:Sfn She survived Vlad Dracul, and married thirdly Pál Suki, then János Erdélyi.Template:Sfn

Vlad's eldest son,Template:Sfn Mihnea, was born in 1462.Template:Sfn Vlad's unnamed second son was killed before 1486.Template:Sfn Vlad's third son, Vlad Drakwlya, unsuccessfully laid claim to Wallachia around 1495.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn He was the forefather of the noble Drakwla family.Template:Sfn

Legacy

Reputation for cruelty

First records

Stories about Vlad's brutal acts began circulating during his lifetime.Template:Sfn After his arrest, courtiers of Matthias Corvinus promoted their spread.Template:Sfn The papal legate, Niccolo Modrussiense, had already written about such stories to [[Pope Pius II|Pope PiusTemplate:NbspII]] in 1462.Template:Sfn Two years later, the Pope included them in his Commentaries.Template:Sfn

It was even rumored that Vlad once dipped his bread into the blood of his impaled victims. So far, this remains legendary, as the story has not been confirmed.

Meistersinger Michael Beheim wrote a lengthy poem about Vlad's deeds, allegedly based on his conversation with a Catholic monk who had managed to escape from Vlad's prison.Template:Sfn The poem, called Template:Lang ("Story of a Despot Called Dracula, Voievod of Wallachia"), was performed at the court of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, in Wiener Neustadt during the winter of 1463.Template:Sfn According to one of Beheim's stories, Vlad had two monks impaled to assist them to go to heaven, also ordering the impalement of their donkey because it began braying after its masters' death.Template:Sfn Beheim also accused Vlad of duplicity, stating that Vlad had promised support to both Matthias Corvinus and MehmedTemplate:NbspII but did not keep the promise.Template:Sfn

In 1475, Gabriele Rangoni, Bishop of Eger (and a former papal legate),Template:Sfn understood that Vlad had been imprisoned because of his cruelty.Template:Sfn Rangoni also recorded the rumour that while in prison Vlad caught rats to cut them up into pieces or stuck them on small pieces of wood, because he was unable to "forget his wickedness".Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Antonio Bonfini also recorded anecdotes about Vlad in his Historia Pannonica around 1495.Template:Sfn Bonfini wanted to justify both the removal and the restoration of Vlad by Matthias.Template:Sfn He described Vlad as "a man of unheard cruelty and justice".Template:Sfn Bonfini's stories about Vlad were repeated in Sebastian Münster's Cosmography.Template:Sfn Münster also recorded Vlad's "reputation for tyrannical justice".Template:Sfn

German stories

1499 German woodcut showing Dracule waide dining among the impaled corpses of his victims

Works containing the stories about Vlad's cruelty were published in Low German in the Holy Roman Empire before 1480.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn The stories were allegedly written in the early 1460s, because they describe Vlad's campaign across the Danube in early 1462; however, they do not refer to MehmedTemplate:NbspII's invasion of Wallachia in June of the same year.Template:Sfn They provide a detailed narration of the conflicts between Vlad and the Transylvanian Saxons, showing that they originated "in the literary minds of the Saxons".Template:Sfn

The stories about Vlad's plundering raids in Transylvania were clearly based on an eyewitness account, because they contain accurate details (including the lists of the churches destroyed by Vlad and the dates of the raids).Template:Sfn They describe Vlad as a "demented psychopath, a sadist, a gruesome murderer, a masochist", worse than Caligula and Nero.Template:Sfn However, the stories emphasizing Vlad's cruelty are to be treated with caution because his brutal acts were very probably exaggerated (or even invented) by the Saxons.Template:Sfn

The invention of movable type printing contributed to the popularity of the stories about Vlad, making them one of the first "bestsellers" in Europe.Template:Sfn To enhance sales, they were published in books with woodcuts on their title pages that depicted horrific scenes.Template:Sfn For instance, the editions published in Nuremberg in 1499 and in Strasbourg in 1500 depict Vlad dining at a table surrounded by dead or dying people on poles.Template:Sfn

Slavic stories

There are more than 20 manuscripts (written between the 15th and 18th centuries)Template:Sfn which preserved the text of the Skazanie o Drakule voievode ("The Tale about Voivode Dracula").Template:Sfn The manuscripts were written in Russian, but they copied a text that had originally been recorded in a South Slavic language, because they contain expressions alien to the Russian language but used in South Slavic idioms (such as diavol for "evil").Template:Sfn The original text was written in Buda between 1482 and 1486.Template:Sfn

The nineteen anecdotes in the Skazanie are longer than the German stories about Vlad.Template:Sfn They are a mixture of fact and fiction, according to historian Raymond T. McNally.Template:Sfn Almost half of the anecdotes emphasize, like the German stories, Vlad's brutality, but they also underline that his cruelty enabled him to strengthen the central government in Wallachia.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn For instance, the Skazanie writes of a golden cup that nobody dared to steal at a fountainTemplate:Sfn because Vlad "hated stealing so violently ... that anybody who caused any evil or robbery ... did not live long", thereby promoting public order, and the German story about Vlad's campaign against Ottoman territory underlined his cruel acts while the Skazanie emphasized his successful diplomacyTemplate:Sfn calling him "zlomudry" or "evil-wise". On the other hand, the Skazanie sharply criticized Vlad for his conversion to Catholicism, attributing his death to this apostasy.Template:Sfn Some elements of the anecdotes were later added to Russian stories about Ivan the Terrible of Russia.

Assertion by modern standards

The mass murders that Vlad carried out indiscriminately and brutally would most likely amount to acts of genocide and war crimes by current standards. Romanian defense minister Ioan Mircea Pașcu asserted that Vlad would have been condemned for crimes against humanity had he been put on trial at Nuremberg.

Possible hemolacria

According to research published in 2023 based on the analysis of samples collected from letters written by Vlad, he may have had a rare condition known as haemolacria, which causes a person's tears to be partially composed of blood.

National hero

Ruins of Poenari Castle, the scene of a popular tale about Vlad

Vlad the Impaler and the Turkish envoys, painting by Theodor Aman

The Cantacuzino Chronicle was the first Romanian historical work to record a tale about Vlad the Impaler, narrating the impalement of the old boyars of Târgoviște for the murder of his brother, Dan.Template:Sfn The chronicle added that Vlad forced the young boyars and their wives and children to build the Poenari Castle.Template:Sfn The legend of the Poenari Castle was mentioned in 1747 by NeofitTemplate:NbspI, Metropolitan of Ungro–Wallachia, who complemented it with the story of Meșterul Manole, who allegedly walled in his bride to prevent the crumbling of the walls of the castle during the building project.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn In the early 20th century, Constantin Rădulescu-Codin, a teacher in Muscel County where the castle was situated,Template:Sfn published a local legend about Vlad's letter of grant "written on rabbit skin" for the villagers who had helped him to escape from Poenari Castle to Transylvania during the Ottoman invasion of Wallachia.Template:Sfn In other villages of the region, the donation is attributed to the legendary Radu Negru.Template:Sfn

Rădulescu-Codin recorded further local legends,Template:Sfn some of which are also known from the German and Slavic stories about Vlad, suggesting that the latter stories preserved oral tradition.Template:Sfn For instance, the tales about the burning of the lazy, the poor, and the lame at Vlad's order and the execution of the woman who had made her husband too short a shirt can also be found among the German and Slavic anecdotes.Template:Sfn The peasants telling the tales knew that Vlad's sobriquet was connected to the frequent impalements during his reign, but they said only such cruel acts could secure public order in Wallachia.Template:Sfn

Most Romanian artists have regarded Vlad as a just ruler and a realistic tyrant who punished criminals and executed unpatriotic boyars to strengthen the central government.Template:Sfn Ion Budai-Deleanu wrote the first Romanian epic poem focusing on him.Template:Sfn Deleanu's Țiganiada (Gypsy Epic) (which was published only in 1875, almost a century after its composition) presented Vlad as a hero fighting against the boyars, Ottomans, strigoi (or vampires), and other evil spirits at the head of an army of gypsies and angels.Template:Sfn The poet Dimitrie Bolintineanu emphasized Vlad's triumphs in his Battles of the Romanians in the middle of the 19thTemplate:Nbspcentury.Template:Sfn He regarded Vlad as a reformer whose acts of violence were necessary to prevent the despotism of the boyars.Template:Sfn One of the greatest Romanian poets, Mihai Eminescu, dedicated a historic ballad, The Third Letter, to the valiant princes of Wallachia, including Vlad.Template:Sfn He urges Vlad to return from the grave and to annihilate the enemies of the Romanian nation:Template:Sfn

In the early 1860s, the painter Theodor Aman depicted the meeting of Vlad and the Ottoman envoys, showing the envoys' fear of the Wallachian ruler.Template:Sfn

Since the middle of the 19th century, Romanian historians have treated Vlad as one of the greatest Romanian rulers, emphasizing his fight for the independence of the Romanian lands.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn Even Vlad's acts of cruelty were often represented as rational acts serving national interest.Template:Sfn Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol was one of the first historians to emphasize that Vlad could only stop the internal fights of the boyar parties through his acts of terror.Template:Sfn Constantin C. Giurescu remarked, "The tortures and executions which [Vlad] ordered were not out of caprice, but always had a reason, and very often a reason of state".Template:Sfn Ioan Bogdan was one of the few Romanian historians who did not accept this heroic image.Template:Sfn In his work published in 1896, Vlad Țepeș and the German and Russian Narratives, he concluded that the Romanians should be ashamed of Vlad, instead of presenting him as "a model of courage and patriotism".Template:Sfn According to an opinion poll conducted in 1999, 4.1% of the participants chose Vlad the Impaler as one of "the most important historical personalities who have influenced the destiny of the Romanians for the better".Template:Sfn

Vampire mythology

The stories about Vlad made him the best-known medieval ruler of the Romanian lands in Europe.Template:Sfn However, Bram Stoker's Dracula, which was published in 1897, was the first book to make a connection between Dracula and vampirism.Template:Sfn Stoker had his attention drawn to the blood-sucking vampires of Romanian folklore by Emily Gerard's article about Transylvanian superstitions (published in 1885).Template:Sfn His limited knowledge about the medieval history of Wallachia came from William Wilkinson's book entitled Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia with Political Observations Relative to Them, published in 1820.Template:SfnTemplate:Sfn

Stoker "apparently did not know much about" Vlad the Impaler, "certainly not enough for us to say that Vlad was the inspiration for" Count Dracula, according to Elizabeth Miller.Template:Sfn For instance, Stoker wrote that Dracula had been of Székely origin only because he knew about both Attila the Hun's destructive campaigns and the alleged Hunnic origin of the Székelys.Template:Sfn Stoker's main source, Wilkinson, who accepted the reliability of the German stories, described Vlad as a wicked man.Template:Sfn Actually, Stoker's working papers for his book contain no references to the historical figure,Template:Sfn the name of the character being named in all drafts but the later ones 'Count Wampyr'. Consequently, Stoker borrowed the name and "scraps of miscellaneous information" about the history of Wallachia when writing his book about Count Dracula.Template:Sfn

Appearance and representations

Pope Pius II's legate, Niccolò Modrussa, painted the only extant description of Vlad, whom he had met in Buda.Template:Sfn A copy of Vlad's portrait has been featured in the "monster portrait gallery" in the Ambras Castle at Innsbruck.Template:Sfn The picture depicts "a strong, cruel, and somehow tortured man" with "large, deep-set, dark green, and penetrating eyes", according to Florescu.Template:Sfn The colour of Vlad's hair cannot be determined because Modrussa mentions that Vlad was black-haired, while the portrait seems to show that he had fair hair.Template:Sfn The picture depicts Vlad with a large lower lip.Template:Sfn

Vlad's bad reputation in the German-speaking territories can be detected in a number of Renaissance paintings.Template:Sfn He was portrayed among the witnesses of Saint Andrew's martyrdom in a 15th-century painting, displayed in the Belvedere in Vienna.Template:Sfn A figure similar to Vlad is one of the witnesses of Christ in the Calvary in a chapel of the St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna.Template:Sfn

• 
  A woodcut depicting Vlad on the title page of a German pamphlet about him, published in Nuremberg in 1488
• 
  A 1491 engraving from Bamberg, Germany, depicting Dracole wayda
• 
  Likeness of Vlad found in Calvary of Christ painting, 1460, Maria am Gestade, Vienna
• 
  Pilate Judging Jesus Christ, 1463, National Gallery, Ljubljana
• 
  Full-size portrait of Vlad Țepeș in the "Gallery of Ancestors" of the House of Esterházy, 17thTemplate:Nbspcentury, Forchtenstein Castle
• 
  The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew, 1470–1480, Belvedere Galleries

See also

• Curtea Veche
• Dracula (Castlevania)

General and cited sources

Primary sources

• Thomas M. Bohn, Adrian Gheorghe, Albert Weber (Hrsg.): Corpus Draculianum. Dokumente und Chroniken zum walachischen Fürsten Vlad dem Pfähler 1448–1650. Band 3: Die Überlieferung aus dem Osmanischen Reich. Postbyzantinische und osmanische Autoren. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2013, {{#invoke:CS1 identifiers|main|_template=isbn}}.
• Laonikos Chalkokondyles: The Histories, Volume II, Books 6–10 (Translated by Anthony Kaldellis) (2014). Harvard University Press. {{#invoke:CS1 identifiers|main|_template=isbn}}.

Secondary sources

• Template:Cite journal
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External links

• Count Dracula's War on Islam, a geopolitical context to the military campaigns of Vlad the Impaler
• The Tale of DraculaTemplate:SndRussian manuscript Template:Circa, with English translation
• Original coins issued by Vlad III the Impaler
• Template:Cite web
• Template:Cite web
• Template:Cite web
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