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{{short description|Second division of the Christian biblical canon}}
{{About|the Christian Greek Scriptures of the biblical canon|the theological concept|New Covenant||A New Testament (disambiguation)|and|The New Testament (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date = January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
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{{Infobox religious text|religion=[[Christianity]]|name=New Testament<br>{{small|{{Small|Part of the [[Bible]]}}}}|language=[[Koine Greek]]|books=27|chapters=260|verses=7,957|nextletter=}}
{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Bible-related}}
{{Christianity|expanded=foundations}}

The '''New Testament'''{{Efn|{{langx|grc|Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη}}, [[Transliteration|transl.]] {{lang|grc-Latn|Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē}}; {{langx|la|Novum Testamentum}}; {{langx|he|הברית החדשה}}.}} ('''NT''') is the second division of the [[Christian biblical canon]]. It discusses the teachings and person of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]], as well as events relating to [[Christianity in the 1st century|first-century Christianity]]. The New Testament's background, the first division of the Christian Bible, is called the [[Old Testament]], which is based primarily upon the [[Hebrew Bible]]; together they are regarded as [[Sacred Scripture]] by [[Christians]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC – Religions – Christianity: The Bible|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/texts/bible.shtml|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.bbc.co.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref>

The New Testament is a collection of 27 [[Christianity|Christian]] texts written in [[Koine Greek]] by various authors, forming the second major division of the [[Christian Bible]]. It includes four [[Gospel|gospels]], the [[Acts of the Apostles]], epistles attributed to [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] and other authors, and the [[Book of Revelation]]. The [[Development of the New Testament canon|New Testament canon]] developed gradually over the first few centuries of Christianity through a complex process of debate, rejection of [[Heresy|heretical]] texts, and recognition of writings deemed [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostolic]], culminating in the formalization of the 27-book canon by the late 4th century.  It has been widely accepted across Christian traditions since [[Late Antiquity]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gil |first1=Jesús |title=Bible Portico |last2=Domínguez |first2=Joseángel |publisher=Saxum International Foundation |year=2022 |isbn=979-12-80113-17-7 |pages=15 |translator-last=Scott |translator-first=Helena}}</ref>

Literary analysis suggests many of its texts were written in the mid-to-late first century. There is no [[scholarly consensus]] on the date of composition of the latest New Testament text. The earliest New Testament manuscripts date from the late second to early third centuries AD, with the possible exception of [[Papyrus 52]].

The New Testament was transmitted through thousands of manuscripts in various languages and church quotations and contains variants. [[Textual criticism]] uses surviving manuscripts to reconstruct the oldest version feasible and to chart the history of the written tradition.{{sfn|Metzger|Ehrman|2005}} It has varied reception among Christians today. It is viewed as a holy scripture alongside [[Sacred Tradition]] among Catholics<ref>[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p1s1c2a2.htm "The Transmission of Divine Revelation"]. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''. 2nd ed. 1997.</ref> and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]], while [[Evangelicalism|evangelicals]] and some other [[Protestantism|Protestants]] view it as the inspired word of God without tradition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reformed.org/documents/index.html?mainframe=http://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html |title=The Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy |publisher=Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics |access-date=19 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301054307/http://www.reformed.org/documents/index.html?mainframe=http://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html|archive-date=2017-03-01|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Etymology==
=== The word ''testament'' ===
The word ''[[wikt:testament|testament]]'' in the expression "New Testament" refers to a Christian [[Covenant_(biblical)#Christianity|new covenant]] that Christians believe completes or fulfils the [[Mosaic covenant]] (the Jewish covenant) that [[Yahweh]] (the [[God]] of Israel) made with the [[Israelites|people of Israel]] on [[Mount Sinai (bible)|Mount Sinai]] through [[Moses]], described in the books of the [[Old Testament]] of the Christian Bible.<ref name=":0">{{cite encyclopedia |title=New Testament |url=https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/new-testament |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |via=Catholic.com |access-date=16 February 2021 |date=1912}}</ref> While Christianity traditionally even claims this ''Christian new covenant'' as being prophesied in the [[Jewish Bible]]'s [[Book of Jeremiah]],<ref>{{bibleverse|Jeremiah|31:30–34|HE|Jeremiah 31–34}}</ref> [[Judaism]] traditionally disagrees:{{sfn|Biddle|2007|p=1074}}{{sfn|Davidson|1993|p=347}}
{{blockquote|Behold, the days come, saith the LORD, that I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah;	not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; forasmuch as they broke My covenant, although I was a lord over them, saith the LORD. But this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, saith the LORD, I will put My law in their inward parts, and in their heart will I write it; and I will be their God, and they shall be My people; and they shall teach no more every man his neighbour, and every man his brother, saying: 'Know the LORD'; for they shall all know Me, from the least of them unto the greatest of them, saith the LORD; for I will forgive their iniquity, and their sin will I remember no more.}}

The word ''covenant'' means 'agreement' (from Latin {{lang|la|con-venio}} "to agree", literally 'to come together'): the use of the word ''testament'', which describes the different idea of written instructions for inheritance after death, to refer to the covenant with Israel in the Old Testament, is foreign to the original Hebrew word {{tlit|he|brit}} ({{lang|he|בְּרִית}}) describing it, which only means 'alliance, covenant, pact' and never 'inheritance instructions after death'.<ref>Definition of ברית in Brown-Driver-Briggs's lexicon: https://biblehub.com/hebrew/1285.htm

Hebrew uses an unrelated word for testament: ''tsavaa'' (צַוָּאָה).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Inheritance – Holman Bible Dictionary – Bible Dictionary|url=https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/hbd/i/inheritance.html|access-date=2020-08-12|website=StudyLight.org|language=en-US}}</ref> This use comes from the transcription of Latin ''testamentum'' 'will (left after death)',<ref>{{Cite web|title=testamentum: Latin Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=testamentum&la=la|access-date=2020-08-12|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> a literal translation of Greek ''diatheke'' (διαθήκη) 'will (left after death)',<ref>{{Cite web|title=διαθήκη: Greek Word Study Tool|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BA%CE%B7&la=greek#lexicon|access-date=2020-08-12|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> which is the word used to translate Hebrew ''brit'' in the [[Septuagint]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=G1242 – diathēkē – Strong's Greek Lexicon (KJV)|url=https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001|access-date=2020-08-12|website=Blue Letter Bible|language=en}}</ref>

The choice of this word ''diatheke'', by the Jewish translators of the Septuagint in [[Alexandria]] in the 3rd and 2nd century BCE, has been understood in Christian theology to imply a reinterpreted view of the Old Testament covenant with Israel as [[Hebrews 9#The New Covenant (9:15-22)|possessing characteristics]] of a 'will left after death' (the death of [[Jesus]]) and has generated considerable attention from biblical scholars and theologians:<ref name="bible-researcher.com">{{Cite web|title=The meaning of "Covenant" (διαθηκη) in the Bible|url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/covenant.html|access-date=2020-08-12|website=www.bible-researcher.com}}</ref> in contrast to the Jewish usage where ''brit'' was the usual Hebrew word used to refer to pacts, alliances and covenants in general, like a common pact between two individuals,{{Efn|For example, the pact between Jacob with Laban in Genesis ([https://biblehub.com/interlinear/genesis/31-44.htm Genesis 31:44]).}} and to the one between God and Israel in particular,{{Efn|For example, the covenant at Mount Sinai ([https://biblehub.com/interlinear/exodus/19-5.htm Exodus 19:5]) or the "new covenant" verse from Jeremiah 31:31 above ([https://biblehub.com/interlinear/jeremiah/31-31.htm Jeremiah 31:31]).}} in the Greek world ''diatheke'' was virtually never used to refer to an alliance or covenant (one exception is noted in a passage from [[Aristophanes]])<ref name=":0" /> and referred instead to a will left after the death of a person. There is scholarly debate<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Bernard S. |title=Why the Name New Testament? |author-link=Bernard Jackson (professor) |year=2013 |url=http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/784513/23609902/1380577434807/3.pdf?token=8ZveuYFof7uMu8UwoCMRepxQitY%3D |journal=Melilah: Manchester Journal of Jewish Studies |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=50–100 |doi=10.31826/mjj-2013-090104 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="bible-researcher.com"/> as to the reason why the translators of the Septuagint chose the term ''diatheke'' to translate Hebrew ''brit'', instead of another Greek word generally used to refer to an alliance or covenant.

=== The phrase ''New Testament'' as the collection of scriptures ===
The use of the phrase ''New Testament'' ([[Koine Greek]]: {{lang|grc|Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē}}) to describe a collection of first- and second-century Christian Greek scriptures can be traced back to [[Tertullian]] in his work ''Against Praxeas''.<ref name="trobisch-2000">{{cite book|last=Trobisch |first=David |title=The First Edition of the New Testament |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York | pages=43–44 |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-19-511240-5 }}</ref><ref name="trobisch-2012">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The New Testament in Light of Book Publishing in Antiquity |author-last=Trobisch |author-first=David |author-link=David Trobisch |encyclopedia=Editing the Bible: Assessing the Task Past and Present |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |location=Atlanta, GA |editor1-last=Kloppenberg |editor1-first=John S. |editor2-last=Newman |editor2-first=Judith H. |series=Resources for Biblical Study |volume=69 |pages=161–170 |year=2012 |url=http://trobisch.com/david/wb/media/articles/2012%20NT%20BookPublishing.pdf |isbn=978-1-58983-648-8 }}</ref><ref name="praxeas">"If I fail in resolving this article (of our faith) by passages which may admit of dispute out of the Old Testament, I will take out of the New Testament a confirmation of our view, that you may not straightway attribute to the Father every possible (relation and condition) which I ascribe to the Son." – [[Tertullian]], ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0317.htm Against Praxeas]'' 15</ref> Irenaeus uses the phrase ''New Testament'' several times, but does not use it in reference to any written text.<ref name="trobisch-2012" /> In ''Against Marcion'', written c.&nbsp;208&nbsp;AD, Tertullian writes of:<ref>Tertullian. "Chapter XIV". [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian123.html ''Against Marcion, Book III''].</ref>
{{blockquote|1=the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the [[Torah|law]] and the [[gospel]].}}

And Tertullian continues later in the book, writing:<ref>Tertullian. "Chapter VI". [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html ''Against Marcion, Book IV''].</ref>{{Efn|See also Tertullian, [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html ''Against Marcion, Book IV''], chapters I, II, XIV. His meaning in chapter XX is less clear, and in chapters IX and XL he uses the term to mean 'new covenant'.}}
{{blockquote|1=it is certain that the whole aim at which he {{bracket|[[Marcion]]}} has strenuously laboured, even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own [[Christ]] may be separate from the [[Creator God|Creator]], as belonging to this rival God, and as alien from the law and the [[Neviim|prophets]].}}

By the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th century]], the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. [[Lactantius]], a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin ''Institutiones Divinae'' (''Divine Institutes''):<ref>Lactantius. "Chapter XX". [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.iii.ii.iv.xx.html "The Divine Institutes, Book IV"].</ref>
{{blockquote|1=But all scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the [[Torah|law]] and the [[Neviim|prophets]]—is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord."<ref>{{Bibleref2|Jer|31:31–32}}</ref>  ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.}}

[[Eusebius]] describes the collection of Christian writings as "covenanted" (ἐνδιαθήκη) books in ''Hist. Eccl.'' 3.3.1–7; 3.25.3; 5.8.1; 6.25.1.

==Books==
{{See also|Christian biblical canons|Development of the New Testament canon|New Testament apocrypha|Template:Books of the New Testament}}

===The Gospels===
{{Main|Canonical gospels}}
{{further|List of Gospels}}
Each of the four [[gospels]] in the New Testament narrates the life, death, and resurrection of [[Jesus of Nazareth]] (the gospel of Mark in the original text ends with the empty tomb and has no account of the post-resurrection appearances, but the emptiness of the tomb implies a resurrection). The word "gospel" derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''gōd-spell''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gospel |title=Gospel |publisher=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |access-date=10 May 2016}}</ref> (rarely ''godspel''), meaning "good news" or "glad tidings". Its Hebrew equivalent being "besorah" (בְּשׂוֹרָה). The gospel was considered the "good news" of the coming [[Messiah#Christianity|Kingdom of Messiah]], and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, the central Christian message.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Gospel"}} 

Starting in the late second century, the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as "The Gospel of ..." or "The Gospel according to ..." followed by the name of the supposed author. The first author to explicitly name the canonical gospels is [[Irenaeus of Lyon]],<ref name="trobisch-2012"/><ref>[[Irenaeus]], ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103311.htm Against Heresies]'' III.11</ref> who promoted the four canonical gospels in his book ''[[Against Heresies (Irenaeus)|Against Heresies]]'', written around 180.<ref>Due to its reference to [[Eleutherus]] as the current [[bishop of Rome]], the work is usually dated {{circa|lk=no|180}}. [[Philip Schaff|Schaff, Philip]] (2001) [{{circa|lk=no|1885}}] "[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.i.html Introductory Note to Irenæus Against Heresies]", ''[[Ante-Nicene Fathers (book)|Ante-Nicene Fathers]]'', Volume I, ''Against Heresies'', [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]].</ref>
* The [[Gospel of Matthew]], ascribed to the [[Matthew the Evangelist|Apostle Matthew]]. This gospel begins with a [[genealogy of Jesus]] and a story of his birth that includes a visit from [[Biblical Magi|magi]] and a [[flight into Egypt]], and it ends with the [[Great Commission|commissioning of the disciples]] by the resurrected Jesus.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gil |first1=Jesús |title=Bible Portico |last2=Domínguez |first2=Joseángel |publisher=Saxum International Foundation |year=2022 |isbn=979-12-80113-17-7 |pages=103 |translator-last=Scott |translator-first=Helena}}</ref>
* The [[Gospel of Mark]], ascribed to [[Mark the Evangelist]]. This gospel begins with the preaching of [[John the Baptist]] and the [[baptism of Jesus]] and ends with the [[Ascension of Jesus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gil |first1=Jesús |title=Bible Portico |last2=Domínguez |first2=Joseángel |publisher=Saxum International Foundation |year=2022 |isbn=979-12-80113-17-7 |pages=104 |translator-last=Scott |translator-first=Helena}}</ref> 
* The [[Gospel of Luke]], ascribed to [[Luke the Evangelist]], who was not one of [[Twelve Disciples#The Twelve Apostles|the Twelve Apostles]], but was mentioned as a companion of the [[Paul of Tarsus|Apostle Paul]] and as a physician.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fitzmyer |first=Joseph A. |author-link=Joseph Fitzmyer |date=1981 |title=The Gospel according to Luke (I–IX) |edition=2nd|series=Anchor Bible |volume=28 |url=https://archive.org/details/gospelaccordingt0028unse_x9n6 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |pages=35–53 |isbn=0-385-00515-6}}</ref> 
* The [[Gospel of John]], ascribed to [[John the Evangelist]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Gil |first1=Jesús |title=Bible Portico |last2=Domínguez |first2=Joseángel |publisher=Saxum International Foundation |year=2022 |isbn=979-12-80113-17-7 |pages=106 |translator-last=Scott |translator-first=Helena}}</ref> This gospel begins with a philosophical prologue and ends with appearances of the resurrected Jesus.<ref name=":1" />

These four gospels that were eventually included in the New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels. The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Luke|1:1–4}}</ref> Many [[new Testament apocrypha|non-canonical gospels]] were also written, all later than the four canonical gospels, and like them advocating the particular theological views of their various authors.{{sfn|Petersen|2010|p=51}}{{sfn|Culpepper|1999|p=66}} In modern scholarship, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources for reconstructing Christ's ministry.{{Sfn|Sanders|2010}}{{refn|group=note|name="Sanders_primary_sources"|{{harvtxt|Sanders|2010}}: "John, however, is so different that it cannot be reconciled with the Synoptics except in very general ways [...] Scholars have unanimously chosen the Synoptic Gospels’ version of Jesus’ teaching [...] The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus. They are not, however, the equivalent of an academic biography of a recent historical figure. Instead, the Synoptic Gospels are theological documents that provide information the authors regarded as necessary for the religious development of the Christian communities in which they worked."}}

===Acts of the Apostles===
{{Main|Acts of the Apostles}}

The Acts of the Apostles is a narrative of the apostles' ministry and activity after [[Christ's death]] and resurrection, from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the [[Gospel of Luke]]. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author, referred to as [[Luke–Acts]]. Luke–Acts does not name its author.{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=196}} Church tradition identified him as [[Luke the Evangelist]], the companion of Paul, but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many differences between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters, though most scholars still believe the author, whether named Luke or not, met [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ehrman|2003|p=235}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Keener |first= Craig |author-link=Craig Keener |year=2015 |title=Acts: An Exegetical Commentary (Volume 1) |publisher= Baker Academic |page=402 |isbn=978-0801039898}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Dunn |first= James |author-link= James Dunn (theologian) |year= 2016 |title= The Acts of the Apostles |publisher=  Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. |page= x |isbn= 978-0802874023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Fitzmyer |first= Joseph |author-link= Joseph Fitzmyer |year= 1998 |title= The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries) |publisher= Yale University Press |page= 50 |isbn= 978-0300139822}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Peterson |first= David |year= 2009 |title= The Acts of the Apostles |publisher= Eerdmans |page= 1-4, 17 |isbn= 978-0802837318}}</ref> The most probable date of composition is around 80–90 AD, although some scholars date it significantly later,<ref name="pervo">{{cite journal| last1 = Pervo| first1 = Richard| author-link1 = Richard Pervo| title = Acts in Ephesus (and Environs) c. 115| journal = Forum | volume = 3 | issue = Fall 2015 | pages = 125–151 | year = 2015 | url = http://www.westarinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Forum-42-Challenging-Common-Conceptions-of-Early-Christianity.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302165929/http://www.westarinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Forum-42-Challenging-Common-Conceptions-of-Early-Christianity.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="trobisch-2007">{{cite journal |last=Trobisch |first=David |author-link=David Trobisch |title=Who Published the New Testament? |journal=Free Inquiry |volume=28 |issue=Dec. 2007/Jan. 2008 |pages=30–33 |url=http://trobisch.com/david/wb/media/articles/20071226%20FreeInquiry%20Who%20Published%20Christian%20Bible%20BW.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421231238/http://trobisch.com/david/wb/media/articles/20071226%20FreeInquiry%20Who%20Published%20Christian%20Bible%20BW.pdf|archive-date=21 April 2021 |quote=...Acts provides information that makes it possible to identify Luke, the author of the Gospel, as the doctor who travels with Paul and to identify Mark as someone close to Peter ''and'' Paul. This 'canon consciousness' suggests that the book of Acts was composed at a later date than is typically thought; this theory is supported by the first attestation of the book around 180 CE.}}</ref> and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.{{sfn|Perkins|2009|pp=250–53}}

====Pauline letters to churches====
{{Main|Pauline epistles}}
The Pauline letters are the thirteen New Testament books that present [[Paul the Apostle]] as their author.{{Efn|[[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]] in his ''Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians'' writes: "At this point<ref>{{Bibleref2|Gal|6:11}}</ref> the apostle takes the pen from his [[amanuensis]], and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name<ref>{{bibleref2|2 Thess|2:2||2 Thess. 3:17}}; {{bibleref2|2 Thess|3:17||2 Thess. 3:17}}</ref> it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries.... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. ''pelikois grammasin''), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lightfoot |first=Joseph Barber |year=1866 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8ECAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA217 |title=St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians |edition=2nd |publisher=MacMillan & Co |page=217}}</ref>}} Paul's authorship of six of the letters is disputed. Four are thought by most modern scholars to be [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphic]], i.e., not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves. Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters (2 Thessalonians and Colossians).<ref>[[Jouette Bassler|Bassler, Jouette M.]] (2010). "Paul and his Letters". In Aune, David E. ''The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament''. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 388. {{ISBN|978-1-4443-1894-4}}.</ref> These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions, often to address issues faced by that particular community. Prominent themes include the relationship both to broader "[[Gentile|pagan]]" society, to Judaism, and to other Christians.<ref>Roetzel, Calvin J. (2009). ''[[iarchive:lettersofpaulcon00roet 0|The Letters of Paul: Conversations in Context]]'' (5th ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox. p. ix–x {{ISBN|978-0-664-23392-1}}</ref>
*[[Epistle to the Romans]]
*[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Epistle to the Galatians]]
*[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]<sup>*</sup>
*[[Epistle to the Philippians]]
*[[Epistle to the Colossians]]<sup>*</sup>
*[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]<sup>*</sup>
[Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).]

====Pauline letters to persons====
The last four Pauline letters in the New Testament are addressed to individual persons. They include the following:
* [[First Epistle to Timothy]]<sup>*</sup>
* [[Second Epistle to Timothy]]<sup>*</sup>
* [[Epistle to Titus]]<sup>*</sup>
* [[Epistle to Philemon]]
[Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).]

All of the above except for Philemon are known as the [[pastoral epistles]]. They are addressed to individuals charged with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership. They often address different concerns to those of the preceding epistles. These letters are believed by many to be pseudepigraphic. Some scholars (e.g., Bill Mounce, Ben Witherington, R.C. Sproul) will argue that the letters are genuinely Pauline, or at least written under Paul's supervision.

====Hebrews====
The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the [[Messiah in Judaism|Anointed One]] (Hebrew: מָשִׁיחַ—transliterated in English as "Moshiach", or "Messiah"; Greek: Χριστός—transliterated in English as "Christos", for "[[Christ]]") who was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Scriptures. The author discusses the superiority of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus, to the [[Mosaic covenant|Mosaic Law Covenant]]<ref>{{Bibleref2|Heb.|1:1–10:18}}</ref> and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle.<ref>{{bibleverse|Heb.|10:19–13:25}}</ref>

The book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative, despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was. Regarding authorship, although the Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the [[Paul of Tarsus|Apostle Paul]], some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred. In antiquity, some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree.<ref>[[Harold W. Attridge|Attridge, Harold W.]] (1989). ''Hebrews''. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress. pp. 1–6.</ref>

In the 4th century, [[Jerome]] and [[Augustine of Hippo]] supported [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|Paul's authorship]]. The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity.<ref>[[William L. Lane|Lane, William L.]] (1991). ''Hebrews 1–8''. Word Biblical Commentary series, Vol. 47A. Dallas, Texas: Word Books. p. cliv.</ref> As early as the 3rd century, [[Origen]] wrote of the letter, "Men of old have handed it down as Paul's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows."<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm |author=Eusebius |title=Church History, Book VI |chapter=Chapter 25}}</ref>

Contemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for the epistle to the Hebrews,{{sfn|Ehrman|2004a|p=323|ps=: "Scholars in the ancient world went about detecting forgeries in much the same way that modern scholars do. They looked to see whether the ideas and writing style of a piece conformed with those used by the author in other writings, and they examined the text for any blatant anachronisms, that is, statements about things that could not have existed at the time the alleged author was writing (like the letter reputedly from an early seventeenth-century American colonist that mentions "the United States")- Arguments of this kind were used by some Christian scholars of the third century to show that Hebrews was not written by Paul or the Book of Revelation by John the son of Zebedee. Modern scholars, as we will see, concur with these judgments. To be sure, neither of these books can be considered a forgery. Hebrews does not claim to be written by Paul (it is anonymous), and the John who wrote Revelation does not claim to be the son of Zebedee (it is therefore homonymous). Are there other books in the New Testament, though, that can be considered forgeries?"}} based on its distinctive style and theology, which are considered to set it apart from Paul's writings.{{sfn|Powell|2009|pp=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe/page/431 431–32]}}

====Catholic epistles====
* [[Second Epistle of Peter]], ascribed to the Apostle Peter, though widely considered not to have been written by him.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fornberg |first=Tord |translator-last=Gray |translator-first=Jean |year=1977 |title=An Early Church in a Pluralistic Society: A Study of 2 Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/earlychurchinplu0000forn |url-access=registration |type=Thesis |series=Coniectanea Biblica, New Testament Series 9 |location=Lund |publisher=Gleerup |page=14 |isbn=9789140044372 |oclc=1244729487}}</ref>

===Book of Revelation===
{{Further|Authorship of the Johannine works}}
The final book of the New Testament is the [[Book of Revelation]], also known as the Apocalypse of John. In the New Testament canon, it is considered [[Bible prophecy|prophetical]] or [[apocalyptic literature]]. Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle (in which case it is often thought that John the Apostle is [[John the Evangelist]], i.e. author of the [[Gospel of John]]) or to another John designated "[[John of Patmos]]" after the island where the text says the revelation was received (1:9). Some ascribe the writership date as {{circa|lk=no|81–96}} AD, and others at around 68 AD.<ref name="Mounce">[[Robert Mounce|Mounce, Robert]] (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=06VR1JzzLNsC&pg=PA15 ''The Book of Revelation''] (revised ed.). The New International Commentary on the New Testament Series. Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans. pp. 15–16. {{ISBN|0-8028-2537-0}}.</ref> The work opens with letters to [[Seven churches of Asia|seven local congregations of Asia Minor]] and thereafter takes the form of an [[apocalypse]], a "revealing" of divine prophecy and mysteries, a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity.<ref>For a detailed study of the Apocalypse of John, see Aune, David E. (1998). ''Revelation'', 3 volumes. Word Biblical Commentary series. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson.</ref>

===New Testament canons===

{{See also|Canon of the New Testament}}
{{sticky header}}{{sort under}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header sort-under"
|-
! style="width:124px;"| Books
!  style="width:123px; text-align:center;"| Protestant & [[Restorationism|Restoration]] tradition
! style="width:123px;"| Roman Catholic tradition
! style="width:123px;"| Eastern Orthodox tradition
! style="width:123px;"| Armenian Apostolic tradition<br>{{refn|group=N|name=Armenian|The growth and development of the Armenian biblical canon is complex; extra-canonical New Testament books appear in historical canon lists and recensions that are either distinct to this tradition, or where they do exist elsewhere, never achieved the same status.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Some of the books are not listed in this table; these include the Prayer of [[Euthalius]], the Repose of [[St. John the Evangelist]], the [[Doctrine of Addai]], a reading from the [[Gospel of James]], [[Apostolic Canons|the Second Apostolic Canons]], the Words of [[Joseph Barsabbas|Justus]], [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite|Dionysius Areopagite]], the [[Preaching of Peter]], and a Poem by [[Ghazar Parpetsi|Ghazar]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} (Various sources{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} also mention undefined Armenian canonical additions to the Gospels of Mark and John. These may refer to the general additions—Mark 16:9–20 and John 7:53–8:11—discussed elsewhere in these notes.) A possible exception here to canonical exclusivity is the Second Apostolic Canons, which share a common source—the [[Apostolic Constitutions]]—with certain parts of the Orthodox Tewahedo New Testament broader canon.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} The ''Acts of Thaddeus'' was included in the biblical canon of [[Gregory of Tatev]].{{sfn|Nersessian|2001|p=29}} There is some uncertainty about whether Armenian canon lists include the Doctrine of Addai or the related [[Acts of Thaddeus]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Moreover, the correspondence between King [[Abgar V]] and Jesus Christ, which is found in various forms—including within both the Doctrine of Addai and the Acts of Thaddeus—sometimes appears separately (see [http://www.looys.net/BIBCANON.DOC list]{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}}). The Prayer of Euthalius and the Repose of St. John the Evangelist appear in the appendix of the 1805 Armenian Zohrab Bible.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Some of the aforementioned books, though they are found within canon lists, have nonetheless never been discovered to be part of any Armenian biblical manuscript.{{sfn|Nersessian|2001|p=29}}}}
! style="width:123px;"| Coptic Orthodox tradition
! style="width:123px;"| [[Orthodox Tewahedo]] traditions
! style="width:123px;"| [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christian]] traditions
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Canonical Gospels]]''<ref group="N" name="infancy">Though widely regarded as non-canonical,{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} the Gospel of James obtained early liturgical acceptance among some Eastern churches and remains a major source for many of Christendom's traditions related to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian>The [[Diatessaron]], [[Tatian]]'s [[gospel harmony]], became a standard text in some Syriac-speaking churches down to the 5th century, when it gave way to the four separate gospels found in the Peshitta.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]<ref group="N" name="Addition">Parts of these four books are not found in the most reliable ancient sources; in some cases, are thought to be later additions, and have therefore not appeared historically in every biblical tradition.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} They are as follows: [[Mark 16|Mark 16:9–20]], [[Jesus and the woman taken in adultery|John 7:53–8:11]], the [[Comma Johanneum]], and portions of the [[Acts of the Apostles#Manuscripts|Western version of Acts]]. To varying degrees, arguments for the authenticity of these passages—especially for the one from the Gospel of John—have occasionally been made.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>|| {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian/>
|-
| [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian/>
|-
| [[Gospel of John|John]]<ref group=N name=Addition/><ref group="N" name="Goth">[[Skeireins]], a commentary on the Gospel of John in the [[Gothic language]], was included in the [[Wulfila Bible]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} It exists today only in fragments.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>|| {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian/>
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Apostolic Age|Apostolic History]]''
|-
| [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]<ref group=N name=Addition/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Acts of Paul and Thecla]]<br><ref group="N" name="AoP">The Acts of Paul and Thecla and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians are all portions of the greater [[Acts of Paul]] narrative, which is part of a stichometric catalogue of New Testament canon found in the [[Codex Claromontanus]], but has survived only in fragments.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Some of the content within these individual sections may have developed separately.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burris |first1=Catherine |last2=Van Rompay |first2=Lucas |year=2002 |title=Thecla in Syriac Christianity: Premliminary Observations |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |publisher=Beth Mardutho: The Syriac Institute |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=225–236 |doi=10.31826/hug-2010-050112|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Carter |first=Nancy A. |year=2000 |title=The Acts of Thecla: A Pauline Tradition Linked to Women |publisher=Conflict and Community in the Corinthian Church |url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/corinthians/theclabackground.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128114841/http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/corinthians/theclabackground.stm |archive-date=28 November 2014}}</ref>|| {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No<br>(early tradition) || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No<br>(early tradition)
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|''[[Catholic Epistles]]''
|-
| [[Epistle of James|James]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Luther/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group="N" name="Syriac">The Peshitta excludes 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation, but certain Bibles of the modern Syriac traditions include later translations of those books.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Still today, the official [[lectionary]] followed by the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East presents lessons from only the twenty-two books of Peshitta, the version to which appeal is made for the settlement of doctrinal questions.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[First Epistle of John|1 John]]<ref group=N name=Addition/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle of John|2 John]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| [[Third Epistle of John|3 John]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Luther/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|''[[Pauline Epistles]]''
|-
| [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians|2 Corinthians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians|3 Corinthians]]<br><ref group=N name=AoP/>|| {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#fc9; text-align:center;"| No − inc. in some mss. || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No<br>(early tradition)
|-
| [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Laodiceans|Laodiceans]] || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No − inc. in some eds.<br><ref group="N" name="Laodiceans">The Epistle to the Laodiceans is present in some western non-Roman Catholic translations and traditions.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Especially of note is [[John Wycliffe]]'s inclusion of the epistle in his English translation,{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} and the [[Quakers]]' use of it to the point where they produced a translation and made pleas for its canonicity, see Poole's ''Annotations'', on Col. 4:16. The epistle is nonetheless widely rejected by the vast majority of Protestants.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Poole |first=Matthew |year=1852 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uN0XAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA729 |title=Annotations Upon the Holy Bible, Vol. III |publisher=Robert Carter and Brothers |page=729}}</ref>|| style="background:#fc9; text-align:center;" | No − inc. in some mss. || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians|1 Thessalonians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group="N" name="Luther">These four works were questioned or "[[Antilegomena|spoken against]]" by [[Martin Luther]], and he changed the order of [[Luther Bible|his New Testament]] to reflect this, but he did not leave them out, nor has any [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] body since.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Traditional German Luther Bibles are still printed with the New Testament in this changed "Lutheran" order.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} The vast majority of Protestants embrace these four works as fully canonical.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>|| {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle to Timothy|2 Timothy]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Apocalypse]]''<ref group="N" name="ApocPeter">The [[Apocalypse of Peter]], though not listed in this table, is mentioned in the [[Muratorian fragment]] and is part of a stichometric catalogue of New Testament canon found in the Codex Claromontanus.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} It was also held in high regard by [[Clement of Alexandria]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Luther/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Apostolic Fathers]]<ref group="N" name="Fathers">Other known writings of the Apostolic Fathers not listed in this table are as follows: the seven [[Epistles of Ignatius]], the [[Epistle of Polycarp]], the [[Martyrdom of Polycarp]], the [[Epistle to Diognetus]], the fragment of [[Quadratus of Athens]], the fragments of [[Papias of Hierapolis]], the Reliques of the Elders Preserved in [[Irenaeus]], and the [[Apostles' Creed]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> and [[Ancient Church Orders|Church Orders]]''<ref group="N" name="Apostloic">Though they are not listed in this table, the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] were considered canonical by some including [[Alexius Aristenus]], [[John of Salisbury]], and to a lesser extent, [[Grigor Tatevatsi|Grigor Tat`evatsi]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} They are even classified as part of the New Testament canon within the body of the Constitutions itself; moreover, they are the source for a great deal of the content in the Orthodox Tewahedo broader canon.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[1 Clement]]<ref group="N" name="ApFa">These five writings attributed to the Apostolic Fathers are not currently considered canonical in any biblical tradition, though they are more highly regarded by some more than others.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Nonetheless, their early authorship and inclusion in ancient biblical codices, as well as their acceptance to varying degrees by various early authorities, requires them to be treated as foundational literature for Christianity as a whole.{{according to whom|date=February 2016}}{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>|| colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;" | No<br>(Codices [[Codex Alexandrinus|Alexandrinus]] and [[Codex Hierosolymitanus|Hierosolymitanus]])
|-
| [[2 Clement]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No<br>(Codices Alexandrinus and Hierosolymitanus)
|-
| [[Shepherd of Hermas]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No<br>([[Codex Sinaiticus]])
|-
| [[Epistle of Barnabas]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No<br>(Codices Hierosolymitanus and Sinaiticus)
|-
| [[Didache]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No<br>(Codex Hierosolymitanus)
|-
| Ser`atä Seyon<br>([[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon|Sinodos]]) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| Te'ezaz<br>(Sinodos) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| Gessew<br />(Sinodos) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| Abtelis<br />(Sinodos) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon|Book of the<br>Covenant 1]]<br>(Mäshafä Kidan) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| Book of the<br>Covenant 2<br>(Mäshafä Kidan) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon|Ethiopic Clement]]<br>(Qälëmentos)<ref group="N" name="Ethiopic">Ethiopic Clement and the Ethiopic Didascalia are distinct from and should not be confused with other ecclesiastical documents known in the west by similar names.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>|| {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon#Ethiopic Didascalia|Ethiopic Didescalia]]<br>(Didesqelya)<ref group=N name=Ethiopic/> || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes<br>(broader canon) || {{No}}
|}

;Table notes

<references group="N" />

==Book order==
The order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions. In the Latin West, prior to the [[Vulgate]] (an early 5th-century Latin version of the Bible), the four Gospels were arranged in the following order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark.{{Efn|The Gospels are in this order in many Old Latin manuscripts, as well as in the Greek manuscripts [[Codex Bezae]] and [[Codex Washingtonianus]].}} The Syriac [[Peshitta]] places the major Catholic epistles (James, 1 Peter, and 1 John) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles.

The order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters: longest to shortest, though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together. The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the ''Corpus Paulinum'' in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon. Hebrews was variously incorporated into the ''Corpus Paulinum'' either after 2 Thessalonians, after Philemon (i.e. at the very end), or after Romans.

[[Luther's canon]], found in the 16th-century [[Luther Bible]], continues to place Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apocalypse (Revelation) last. This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther on the canonicity of these books.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/links10.html|title=Web Directory: German Bible Versions|publisher=Bible Research|access-date=17 February 2016}}</ref>{{Efn|See also the article on the [[Antilegomena]].}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Luther's Antilegomena|url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html|access-date=2020-07-15|website=www.bible-researcher.com}}</ref>

==Authors==
{{Main|Authorship of the Bible#New Testament}}
It is considered the books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by [[Jewish Christians]]—that is, Jewish disciples of Christ, who lived in the [[Roman Empire]], and under [[Judea (Roman province)|Roman occupation]].{{sfn|Powell|2009|p=16}} The author of the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether he was a [[Gentile]] or a [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenistic Jew]].<ref name="Strelan2013">Strelan, Rick (2013). ''Luke the Priest: The Authority of the Author of the Third Gospel''. Farnham, ENG: Routledege-[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]]. pp. 102–05.</ref> A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably a Gentile, and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew, though most assert Jewish-Christian authorship.<ref>For discussion of Mark, see Schröter, Jens (2010). "Gospel of Mark". In Aune, David. ''The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament''. New York: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 281ff.</ref><ref>For discussion of Mark, see Hare, Douglas R. A. (1996). ''Mark''. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 3–5.</ref><ref>For discussion of Matthew, see Repschinski, Boris (1998). "Forschungbericht: Matthew and Judaism". ''The Controversy Stories in the Gospel of Matthew''. Göttingen, GER: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 13–61.</ref>{{verify source|date=February 2016}}

However, more recently the above understanding has been challenged by the publication of evidence showing only educated elites after the [[Jewish-Roman Wars|Jewish War]] would have been capable of producing the prose found in the Gospels.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walsh |first=Robin Faith |title=The Origins of Early Christian Literature – Contextualizing the New Testament within Greco-Roman Literary Culture |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781108883573 }}</ref>{{verify source|date=December 2023}}

===Gospels===
{{Main|Synoptic Gospels}}
[[File:The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel.jpg|thumb|''Evangelist Mathäus und der Engel'', by [[Rembrandt]], 1661]]
Authorship of the Gospels remains divided among both evangelical and critical scholars. The names of each Gospel stems from church tradition, and yet the authors of the Gospels do not identify themselves in their respective texts. All four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles are [[anonymous work]]s.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=501}} The Gospel of John claims to be based on eyewitness testimony from the [[Disciple whom Jesus loved]], but never names this character. The author of [[Luke-Acts]] claimed to access an eyewitness to [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]; this claim remains accepted by most scholars.<ref>"A glance at recent extended treatments of the "we" passages and commentaries demonstrates that, within biblical scholarship, solutions in the historical eyewitness traditions continue to be the most influential explanations for the first-person plural style in Acts. Of the two latest full-length studies on the "we" passages, for example, one argues that the first-person accounts came from Silas, a companion of Paul but not the author, and the other proposes that first-person narration was Luke's (Paul's companion and the author of Acts) method of communicating his participation in the events narrated.17

17. Jurgen Wehnert, Die Wir-Passegen der Apostelgeschitchte: Ein lukanisches Stilmittel aus judischer Tradition (GTA 40; Göttingen: Vanderhoeck & Ruprecht, 1989); Claus-Jurgen Thornton, Der Zeuge des Zeugen: Lukas als Historiker der Paulus reisen (WUNT 56; Tugingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1991). See also, Barrett, Acts of the Apostles, and Fitzmyer, Acts of the Apostles.", Campbell, "The "we" passages in the Acts of the Apostles: the narrator as narrative", p. 8 (2007). Society of Biblical Literature.</ref> Objections to this viewpoint mainly take the form of the following two interpretations, but also include the claim that Luke-Acts contains differences in theology and historical narrative which are irreconcilable with the authentic letters of [[Paul the Apostle]].<ref>"The principle essay in this regard is P. Vielhauer, 'On the "Paulinism" of Acts', in L.E. Keck and J. L. Martyn (eds.), Studies in Luke-Acts (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1975), 33-50, who suggests that Luke's presentation of Paul was, on several fronts, a contradiction of Paul's own letters (e.g. attitudes on natural theology, Jewish law, christology, eschatology). This has become the standard position in German scholarship, e.g., Conzelmann, Acts; J. Roloff, Die Apostelgeschichte (NTD; Berlin: Evangelische, 1981) 2-5; Schille, Apostelgeschichte des Lukas, 48-52. This position has been challenged most recently by Porter, "The Paul of Acts and the Paul of the Letters: Some Common Misconceptions', in his Paul of Acts, 187-206. See also I.H. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles (TNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Leister: InterVarsity Press, 1980) 42-44; E.E. Ellis, The Gospel of Luke (NCB; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, 2nd edn, 1974) 45-47.", Pearson, "Corresponding sense: Paul, dialectic, and Gadamer", Biblical Interpretation Series, p. 101 (2001). Brill.</ref> According to [[Bart D. Ehrman]] of the [[University of North Carolina]], none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses of Jesus's life.{{sfn|Ehrman|2003|p=235|ps=: "The four Gospels that eventually made it into the New Testament, for example, are all anonymous, written in the third person ''about'' Jesus and his companions. None of them contains a first-person narrative ('One day, when Jesus and I went into Capernaum...'), or claims to be written by an eyewitness or companion of an eyewitness. ... Some scholars abandon these traditional identifications, and recognize that the books were written by otherwise unknown but relatively well-educated Greek-speaking (and writing) Christians during the second half of the first century."}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2004b|p=[https://archive.org/details/truthfictionin00ehrm/page/110 110]|ps=: "In fact, contrary to what you might think, these Gospels don't even claim to be written by eyewitnesses."}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2006|p=[https://archive.org/details/lostgospelofjuda00ehrm/page/143 143]|ps=: "The Gospels of the New Testament are therefore our earliest accounts. These do not claim to be written by eyewitnesses to the life of Jesus, and historians have long recognized that they were produced by second- or third-generation Christians living in different countries than Jesus (and Judas) did, speaking a different language (Greek instead of Aramaic), experiencing different situations, and addressing different audiences."}} Ehrman has argued for a scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached to them.{{sfn|Ehrman|2006|p=143}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|pp=102–04}} Scholarly opinion is that names were fixed to the gospels by the mid second century AD.<ref name="Nickle2001">{{cite book|author=Nickle, Keith Fullerton |title=The Synoptic Gospels: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5SSytjasmAgC&pg=PA43|date=2001|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22349-6|page=43 }}</ref> Many scholars believe that none of the gospels were written in the region of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref>Theissen, Gerd (2004). ''The Gospels in Context''. London, ENG: Bloomsbury-Continuum. p. 290.</ref>

[[Christian tradition]] identifies [[John the Apostle]] with [[John the Evangelist]], the supposed author of the [[Gospel of John]]. Traditionalists tend to support the idea that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of [[John 21]]:24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barnes |first=Albert |title=Barnes' Notes on the New Testament |year=1962 |orig-year=1832 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvXCoSQ1y0EC&pg=PA360 |publisher=Kregel Publications |page=360|isbn=978-0825493713 }}</ref><ref name="Henry">{{Cite book|last=Henry |first=Matthew |title=Matthew Henry Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible |year=1706 |url=http://www.studylight.org/commentaries/mhm/john-21.html |publisher=StudyLight.org}}</ref> This idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars, with most viewing the passage as a later addition, though a growing minority view it as part of the earliest text.{{sfn | Brown | 1988 | p=9}}{{sfn | Schubert | 2016 | p=16}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Keith |first=Chris |title=The Gospel as Manuscript: An Early History of the Jesus Tradition as Material Artifact |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0199384372 |pages=142–143}}</ref>

Most{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}} scholars hold to the [[two-source hypothesis]], which posits that the [[Marcan priority|Gospel of Mark was the first gospel to be written]]. On this view, the authors of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]] used as sources the [[Gospel of Mark]] and a hypothetical [[Q document]] to write their individual gospel accounts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html |title=Gospel of Mark |publisher=Early Christian Writings |access-date=15 January 2008 |last=Kirby |first=Peter}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Achtemeier |first=Paul J. |encyclopedia=The Anchor Bible Dictionary |title=The Gospel of Mark |year=1992 |publisher=Doubleday |volume=4 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-385-19362-7 |page=545}}</ref><ref>Easton, M. G. (1996) [ca. 1897] "Luke, Gospel According To". ''Easton's Bible Dictionary''. Oak Harbor, Washington: Logos Research.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Meier |first=John P. |author-link= John P. Meier |title=A Marginal Jew |publisher=Doubleday |year=1991 |location=New York |volume=2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mentormessagemir00john/page/955 955–56] |isbn=978-0-385-46993-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/mentormessagemir00john |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Helms |first=Randel |title=Who Wrote the Gospels? |publisher=Millennium Press |year=1997 |location=Altadena, California |page=[https://archive.org/details/whowrotegospels00helm/page/8 8] |isbn=978-0-9655047-2-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/whowrotegospels00helm |url-access=registration}}</ref> These three gospels are called the [[Synoptic Gospels]], because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes in exactly the same wording. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, by using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke also wrote the [[Acts of the Apostles]]. Scholars hold that these books constituted two-halves of a single work, [[Luke–Acts]].{{Citation needed|reason=Scholars not named.|date=July 2019}}

===Acts===
{{Main|Authorship of Luke–Acts}}
The same author appears to have written the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, and most refer to them as the Lucan texts.<ref>Horrell, D. G. (2006). ''An Introduction to the Study of Paul''. 2nd ed. London, Bloomsbury-T&T Clark. p. 7.</ref><ref>See {{harvnb|Knox|1948|pp=2–15}} for detailed arguments.</ref> The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book; both were addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], and the preface to the Acts of the Apostles references "my former book" about the ministry of Jesus.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://biblehub.com/acts/1-1.htm| title = Acts 1:1}}</ref> Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.<ref>Sean A. Adams, "The Relationships of Paul and Luke: Luke, Paul's Letters, and the 'We' Passages of Acts." In ''Paul and His Social Relations'', edited by Stanley E. Porter and Christopher D. Land (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 132–34. {{ISBN|978-9004242111}}
Scholarly agreement of the single-author/editor theory of the Lucan texts is not without question, e.g. Patricia Walters, ''The Assumed Authorial Unity of Luke and Acts: A Reassessment of the Evidence'' (Cambridge University Press, 2009). {{ISBN|978-0521509749}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kenny |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Kenny |date=1986 |title=A Stylometric Study of the New Testament |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-826178-0}}</ref>{{sfn|Schnelle|1998|p=259}}{{sfn|Bruce|1952|p=2}}
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===Pauline epistles===
{{Main|Authorship of the Pauline epistles}}
[[File:PaulT.jpg|thumb|''Saint Paul Writing His Epistles'' by [[Valentin de Boulogne]] (c. 1618–1620). Most scholars think [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] actually dictated his letters to a secretary.]]
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to [[Paul of Tarsus]]. Seven letters are generally classified as "undisputed", expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are the work of Paul: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus.{{Efn|name="Lock, Meinertz p.622"|[[Donald Guthrie (theologian)|Donald Guthrie]] lists the following scholars as supporting authenticity: Wohlenberg, Lock, Meinertz, Thörnell, Schlatter, Spicq, [[Joachim Jeremias|Jeremias]], Simpson, Kelly, and Fee{{sfn|Guthrie|1990|p=621–622}}}}

The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is, despite unlikely Pauline authorship, often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form a corpus of fourteen "Pauline" epistles.{{Efn|Although Hebrews was almost certainly not written by Paul, it has been a part of the Pauline corpus "from the beginning of extant MS production".<ref name=hebot01>{{cite web |last=Wallace |first=Daniel B. |url=https://bible.org/seriespage/19-hebrews-introduction-argument-and-outline |title=Hebrews: Introduction, Argument, and Outline |publisher=Bible.org |date=28 June 2004}}</ref>}}

While many scholars uphold the traditional view, some question whether the first three, called the "Deutero-Pauline Epistles", are authentic letters of Paul. As for the latter three, the "Pastoral epistles", some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul;{{Efn|name="Lock, Meinertz p.622"}} most regard them as [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigrapha]].{{sfn|Ehrman|2004a|p=385}}

One might refer to the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] and the [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]] as examples of works identified as pseudonymous. Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship.<ref>{{harvnb|Ehrman|2004a|p=323}}</ref>

The epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the [[Mosaic Law]], Jesus, faith, and various other issues. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles.

===Other epistles===
The author of the [[Epistle of James]] identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ". From the middle of the 3rd century, [[patristic]] authors cited the ''Epistle'' as written by [[James the Just]].<ref>[http://www.catholicity.com/encyclopedia/j/james,epistle_of_st.html "Epistle of St. James"]. ''1914 Catholic Encyclopedia''.</ref> Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship. Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earlychristianwritings.com/james.html |title=Epistle of James |publisher=Early Christian Writings |access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref>

The author of the [[First Epistle of Peter]] identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an [[apostle]] of Jesus Christ", and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of [[Church Fathers]]: [[Irenaeus]] (140–203), [[Tertullian]] (150–222), [[Clement of Alexandria]] (155–215) and [[Origen of Alexandria]] (185–253). Unlike [[The Second Epistle of Peter]], the authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter's authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century. Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle, many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author.<ref>{{cite book |title=What Are They Saying About the Catholic Epistles? |first=Philip B. |last=Harner |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xenz0ZMWDNsC&pg=PA49 |publisher=Paulist Press |year=2004|isbn=978-0-8091-4188-3 }}</ref> For an early date and (usually) for a defense of the Apostle Peter's authorship see Kruger,<ref>Kruger, M.J. (1999). [https://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/42/42-4/42-4-pp645-671_JETS.pdf "The Authenticity of 2 Peter"]. ''[[Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society]]''. '''42''' (4): 645–71.</ref> Zahn,<ref>{{cite book |last=Zahn |first=S. T. |author-link=Theodor Zahn |translator-last1=Trout |translator-first1=John Moore |translator-last2=Mather |translator-first2=William Arnot |translator-last3=Hodous |translator-first3=Louis |translator-last4=Worcester |translator-first4=Edward Strong |translator-last5=Worrell |translator-first5=William Hoyt |translator-last6=Dodge |translator-first6=Rowland Backus |year=1909 |title=Introduction to the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/introductionton00thaygoog |url-access=registration |volume=II |edition=English translation of 3rd German |location=New York |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |page=250}}</ref> Spitta,<ref>{{cite book |last=Spitta |first=Friedrich |author-link=Friedrich Spitta |date=1885 |title=Der zweite Brief des Petrus und der Brief des Judas: Eine geschichtliche Untersuchung |trans-title=The Second Epistle of Peter and the Epistle of Jude: A Historical Investigation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUROAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP5 |language=German |location=Halle an der Saale |publisher=Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses}}.</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=May 2021}} Bigg,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bigg |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Bigg |year=1902 |orig-year=1901 |title=A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Peter and St. Jude |url=https://archive.org/details/acriticalandexe02bigggoog |series=The International Critical Commentary |edition=2nd |location=Edinburgh |publisher=T&T Clark|isbn=9780567050366 }}</ref> and Green.<ref>e.g. {{cite speech |last=Green |first=E. M. B. |author-link=Michael Green (theologian) |title=2 Peter Reconsidered |event=Meeting of the Tyndale Fellowship for Biblical Research |date=8 July 1960 |location=Cambridge |url=https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/tp/2peter_green.pdf |format=PDF |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200813223354/https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/tp/2peter_green.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2020}}</ref>

The Epistle of Jude title is written as follows: "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and brother of James".<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jude%201%3A1&version=NRSV Jude 1:1] ([[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]])</ref> The debate has continued over the author's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither.<ref>Bauckham, R. J. (1986). ''Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 50''. Word (UK) Ltd. pp. 14ff.</ref>

===Johannine works===
{{Main|Authorship of the Johannine works}}
The Gospel of John, the three [[Johannine epistles]], and the [[Book of Revelation]], exhibit marked similarities, although more so between the gospel and the epistles (especially the gospel and 1 John) than between those and Revelation.{{sfn|Van der Watt|2008|p=1}} Most scholars therefore treat the five as a single corpus of [[Johannine literature]], albeit not from the same author.{{sfn|Harris|2006|p=479}}

Burkett argues the gospel went through two or three "editions" before reaching its current form around AD 90–110, though more recent scholars tend to be less interested in theories about hypothetical editions or sources of the gospel.{{sfn|Edwards|2015|p=ix}}{{sfn|Lincoln|2005|p=18}}<ref name=":2" /> It speaks of an unnamed "disciple whom Jesus loved" as the source of its traditions, but does not say specifically that he is its author except in John 21, which is widely viewed as a later addition;{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=214}}<ref name=":2" />  Christian tradition identifies this disciple as the [[apostle John]], but while this idea still has supporters, for a variety of reasons the majority of modern scholars have abandoned it or hold it only tenuously.{{sfn|Lindars|Edwards|Court|2000|p=41}} It is significantly different from the synoptic gospels, with major variations in material, theological emphasis, chronology, and literary style, sometimes amounting to contradictions.{{sfn|Burge|2014|pp=236–37}}

The author of the [[Book of Revelation]] identifies himself several times as "John".<ref>{{bibleverse|Rev. 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8|multi=yes}}</ref> and states that he was on [[Patmos]] when he received his first vision.<ref>{{Bibleref2|Rev.|1:9; 4:1–2||Rev.&nbsp;1:9;&nbsp;4:1–2}}</ref> As a result, the author is sometimes referred to as [[John of Patmos]]. The author has traditionally been identified with [[John the Apostle]] to whom the [[Gospel of John|Gospel]] and the [[epistles of John]] were attributed. It was believed that he was exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of the [[Roman emperor]] [[Domitian]], and there wrote Revelation. [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 100–165 AD) who was acquainted with [[Polycarp]], who had been mentored by John, makes a possible allusion to this book, and credits John as the source.<ref>Justin Martyr. ''[[Dialogue with Trypho]]''. Chapter LXXXI.</ref> [[Irenaeus]] (c. 115–202) assumes it as a conceded point. According to the ''Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible'', modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses put forth in the last hundred years or so.<ref>Tenney, Merrill C., gen. ed. (2009). "Revelation, Book of the". ''Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, Vol. 5 (Q–Z)''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan.</ref> [[Ben Witherington]] points out that linguistic evidence makes it unlikely that the books were written by the same person.<ref>Witherington, Ben (2003). ''Revelation''. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.</ref>

==Dating the New Testament==
{{main|Dating the Bible#Table IV: New Testament}}

There is no [[scholarly consensus]] on the date of composition of the latest New Testament texts. [[John Robinson (bishop of Woolwich)#Redating the New Testament (1976)|John A. T. Robinson]], [[Daniel B. Wallace|Dan Wallace]], [[William F. Albright]], [[Maurice Casey]], and James Crossley all dated many or all of the books of the New Testament before 70 AD.<ref>{{cite book |first = John Arthur Thomas |last= Robinson |title= Redating the New Testament | year = 2000 | orig-year=1976 |location= Eugene, Oregon |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-57910-527-3 |page=352 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Casey |first= Maurice |author-link= Maurice Casey |title= Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of his Life and Teaching |year= 2010 |publisher= T&T Clark |page= 60-80 |isbn= 978-0567645173}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Crossley |first= James |title= The Date of Mark's Gospel: Insight from the Law in Earliest Christianity |year= 2004 |publisher= T&T Clark |page= 3 |isbn= 978-0567081957}}</ref> Jonathan Bernier's recent argument for early dates has enjoyed a positive reception, with endorsements from Chris Keith and Anders Runesson, among others.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Gabrielson |first= Timothy |title= Jonathan Bernier. Rethinking the Dates of the New Testament: The Evidence for Early Composition (Book Review) |journal= Bulletin for Biblical Research |year= 2024 |volume= 34 |issue= 1 |page= 118-121 |doi= 10.5325/bullbiblrese.34.1.0118}}</ref> Many other scholars, such as [[Bart D. Ehrman]] and [[Stephen L. Harris]], date some New Testament texts much later than this;{{sfn|Ehrman|1997|p=8|ps=: "The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples."}}{{sfn|Harris|2010|p=20|ps=: Dates Jude and 2 Peter to 130–150 AD.}}{{sfn|Harris|1980|p=295|ps=: Virtually no authorities defend the Petrine authorship of 2 Peter, which is believed to have been written by an anonymous churchman in Rome about 150 C.E.}} [[Richard Pervo]] dated [[Luke–Acts]] to {{Circa|115 AD}},<ref name="pervo">{{cite journal| last1 = Pervo| first1 = Richard| author-link1 = Richard Pervo| title = Acts in Ephesus (and Environs) c. 115| journal = Forum | volume = 3 | issue = Fall 2015 | pages = 125–151 | year = 2015 | url = http://www.westarinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Forum-42-Challenging-Common-Conceptions-of-Early-Christianity.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302165929/http://www.westarinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Forum-42-Challenging-Common-Conceptions-of-Early-Christianity.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2021}}</ref> and [[David Trobisch]] places Acts in the mid-to-late second century, contemporaneous with the publication of the first New Testament canon.<ref name="trobisch-2007">{{cite journal |last=Trobisch |first=David |author-link=David Trobisch |title=Who Published the New Testament? |journal=Free Inquiry |volume=28 |issue=Dec. 2007/Jan. 2008 |pages=30–33 |url=http://trobisch.com/david/wb/media/articles/20071226%20FreeInquiry%20Who%20Published%20Christian%20Bible%20BW.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421231238/http://trobisch.com/david/wb/media/articles/20071226%20FreeInquiry%20Who%20Published%20Christian%20Bible%20BW.pdf|archive-date=21 April 2021 |quote=...Acts provides information that makes it possible to identify Luke, the author of the Gospel, as the doctor who travels with Paul and to identify Mark as someone close to Peter ''and'' Paul. This 'canon consciousness' suggests that the book of Acts was composed at a later date than is typically thought; this theory is supported by the first attestation of the book around 180 CE.}}</ref> Whether the Gospels were composed before or after 70 AD, according to Bas van Os, the lifetime of various eyewitnesses that includes Jesus's own family through the end of the [[First Century]] is very likely statistically.<ref>{{cite book |last= van Os |first= Bas |year= 2011 |title= Psychological Analyses and the Historical Jesus: New Ways to Explore Christian Origins |publisher= T&T Clark |page= 57, 83 |isbn= 978-0567269515}}</ref> [[Markus Bockmuehl]] finds this structure of lifetime memory in various early Christian traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last= Bockmuehl |first= Markus |author-link= Markus Bockmuehl |year= 2006 |title= Seeing the Word: Refocusing New Testament Study |publisher= Baker Academic |page= 178-184 |isbn= 978-0801027611}}</ref>

===External evidence===
The earliest [[Biblical manuscript|manuscripts]] of New Testament books date from the late second to early third centuries (although see [[Rylands Library Papyrus P52|Papyrus 52]] for a possible exception).{{sfn|Ehrman|2004a|pp=479–480}} 

===Internal evidence===
Literary analysis of the New Testament texts themselves can be used to date many of the books of the New Testament to the mid-to-late first century. The earliest works of the New Testament are the letters of the [[Paul the Apostle|Apostle Paul]]. It can be determined that [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians|1 Thessalonians]] is likely the earliest of these letters, written around 52 AD.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=456–466}}

==Language==
{{main|Language of the New Testament}}
The major languages spoken by both Jews and Greeks in the [[Holy Land]] at the [[Cultural and historical background of Jesus|time of Jesus]] were [[Aramaic of Jesus|Aramaic]] and [[Koine Greek]], and also a colloquial dialect of [[Mishnaic Hebrew]]. It is generally agreed by most scholars that the [[historical Jesus]] primarily spoke Aramaic,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary|title=Aramaic|quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the 1st century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).|page=72|isbn=978-0-8028-2402-8|editor=Myers, Allen C. |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher=William B. Eerdmans|year=1987}}</ref> perhaps also some [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and Koine Greek. The majority view is that all of the books that would eventually form the New Testament were written in the Koine Greek language.{{sfn|Metzger|Ehrman|2005}}<ref>Aland, K.; Aland, B. (1995). ''The Text of the New Testament''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-4098-1}}.</ref>

[[Early centers of Christianity|As Christianity spread]], these books were later translated into other languages, most notably, [[Latin]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], and [[Coptic language|Egyptian Coptic]]. Some of the [[Church Fathers]]<ref>Koester, Helmut (1982). ''Introduction to the New Testament, Volume 2''. Philadelphia. p. 172.</ref> imply or claim that Matthew was originally written in [[Hebrew Gospel of Matthew|Hebrew]] or [[Aramaic Matthew|Aramaic]], and then soon after was written in Koine Greek. Nevertheless, some scholars believe the Gospel of Matthew known today was composed in Greek and is neither directly dependent upon nor a translation of a text in a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]].<ref>Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C. (1988). ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Gospel according to Saint Matthew, Vol. 1''. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 33–58.</ref>

=== Style ===
The style of [[Koine Greek]] in which the New Testament is written differs from the general Koine Greek used by Greek writers of the same era, a difference that some scholars have explained by the fact that the authors of the New Testament, nearly all Jews and deeply familiar with the [[Septuagint]], wrote in a Jewish-Greek dialect strongly influenced by Aramaic and Hebrew{{sfn|Machen|1998|p=5}} (see [[Jewish Koine Greek]], related to the [[Septuagint#Language|Greek of the Septuagint]]). But other scholars say that this view is arrived at by comparing the linguistic style of the New Testament to the preserved writings of the literary men of the era, who imitated the style of the great Attic texts and as a result did not reflect the everyday spoken language, so that this difference in style could be explained by the New Testament being written, unlike other preserved literary material of the era, in the Koine Greek spoken in everyday life, in order to appeal to the common people, a style which has also been found in contemporary non-Jewish texts such as private letters, receipts and petitions discovered in Egypt (where the dry air has preserved these documents which, as everyday material not deemed of literary importance, had not been copied by subsequent generations).{{sfn|Machen|1998|p=4}}

==Development of the New Testament canon==
{{Main|Development of the New Testament canon}}
The process of canonization of the New Testament was complex and lengthy. In the initial centuries of [[early Christianity]], there were many books widely considered by the church to be inspired, but there was no single formally recognized New Testament canon.<ref>Eusebius. "Chapter 25". [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm ''Church History, Book III''].</ref> The process was characterized by a compilation of books that [[Sacred tradition|apostolic tradition]] considered authoritative in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gamble |first=Harry Y. |author-link=Harry Y. Gamble |date=1985 |title=The New Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning |url=https://archive.org/details/newtestamentcano0000gamb |url-access=registration |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Fortress |isbn=9780800604707 |oclc=1194914119}}</ref> Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among the [[Early centers of Christianity|earliest Christian communities]] and the Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century AD]].<ref>Three forms are postulated, from ''The Canon Debate'', chapter 18, p. 300, note 21, attributed to Harry Y. Gamble: "(1) Marcion's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon; (2) Papyrus 46, dated about 200, that follows the order that became established except for reversing Ephesians and Galatians; and (3) the letters to seven churches, treating those to the same church as one letter and basing the order on length, so that Corinthians is first and Colossians (perhaps including Philemon) is last."</ref>

One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by [[Marcion]], {{circa|lk=no|140}} AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (the [[Gospel of Marcion]]) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His canon was largely rejected by other groups of Christians, notably the [[Proto-orthodox Christianity|proto-orthodox Christians]], as was his theology, [[Marcionism]]. [[Adolf von Harnack]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Harnack |first=Adolf |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.vi.html |title=Origin of the New Testament |chapter=Appendix VI |publisher=Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}</ref> John Knox,<ref name="knox">{{cite book | last = Knox | first = John | title = Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon | publisher = Chicago University Press | location = Chicago | date = 1942 | pages = 158ff | isbn = 978-0404161835}}</ref> and [[David Trobisch]],<ref name="trobisch-2007"/> among other scholars, have argued that the church formulated its New Testament canon partially in response to the challenge posed by Marcion.

[[Polycarp]],<ref>[[Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians]], [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0136.htm Chapter 12]</ref> [[Irenaeus]]<ref>''[[Against Heresies (Irenaeus)|Against Heresies]]'', inter alia, 3.12.12</ref> and [[Tertullian]]<ref>''Adversus Marcionem'', inter alia, V.14</ref> held the [[Pauline epistles|epistles of Paul]] to be divinely inspired "scripture". Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of [[New Testament apocrypha]]. Justin Martyr, in the mid [[Christianity in the 2nd century|2nd century]], mentions "memoirs of the apostles" as being read on Sunday alongside the [[Nevi'im|"writings of the prophets"]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Justin Martyr. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm ''First Apology'']. Chapter 67.</ref>

The [[Muratorian fragment]], dated at between 170 and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the ''[[Anchor Bible Dictionary]]''), may be the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.

The oldest clear endorsement of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written {{circa|lk=no|180}} AD. A four gospel canon (the ''Tetramorph'') was asserted by Irenaeus, who refers to it directly{{sfn|Ferguson|2002|p=301ff}}<ref name="AHIII8">Irenaeus. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xii.html "Chapter XI"]. ''Against Heresies, Book III''. Section 8.</ref> in his [[polemic]] ''[[Against Heresies (Irenaeus)|Against Heresies]]'':
{{blockquote|{{em|It is not possible that the gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are.}} For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church is scattered throughout all the world, and the "pillar and ground" of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh.<ref name=AHIII8/>|[[Irenaeus|Irenaeus of Lyon]] (emphasis added)}}
The books considered to be authoritative by Irenaeus included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul, although, based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus's time.{{sfn|McDonald|Sanders|2002|p=277}}

===Origen (3rd century)===
By the early 200s, [[Origen]] may have been using the same twenty-seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews, Epistle of James, II Peter, II John and III John and the Book of Revelation,<ref>Noll, Mark A. (1997). ''Turning Points''. Baker Academic. pp. 36–37.</ref> known as the [[Antilegomena]]. Likewise, the [[Muratorian fragment]] is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty-seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them.<ref>de Jonge, H. J. (2003). "The New Testament Canon". In de Jonge, H. J.; Auwers, J. M (eds.). ''The Biblical Canons''. Leuven University Press. p. 315.</ref> Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the [[Early Church]] over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]].{{sfn|Ackroyd|Evans|1970|p=308}}

Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts that became the New Testament. The information used to create the late-4th-century [[Easter Letter]], which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the ''Ecclesiastical History'' (HE) of [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen's list at HE 6:25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were then accepted and what were then [[Antilegomena|disputed]], by the [[Early centers of Christianity|third-century churches throughout the known world]], a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Bateman |first=C. G. |title=Origen's Role in the Formation of the New Testament Canon |date=3 August 2010 |publisher=Regent College|ssrn=1653073}}</ref>

In fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of "inspired writings" other texts kept out by the likes of Eusebius—including the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], [[Shepherd of Hermas]], and [[1 Clement]]. Notwithstanding these facts, "Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary-interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion."<ref>McGuckin, John A. (2003). "Origen as Literary Critic in the Alexandrian Tradition". In Perrone, L. (ed.). ''Origeniana Octava: Origen and the Alexandrian Tradition, Vol. 1''. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 164. Leuven: Leuven University Press. pp. 121–37.</ref>

===Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History===
[[Eusebius]], {{circa|lk=no|300}}, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P1497_696002 Book 3], Chapter XXV:
: "1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles... the epistles of Paul... the epistle of John... the epistle of Peter... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Book of Revelation, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings."

: "3 Among the disputed writings, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the [[Acts of Paul]], and the so-called [[Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd]], and the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], and in addition to these the extant [[epistle of Barnabas]], and the so-called [[Didache|Teachings of the Apostles]]; and besides, as I said, the [[Book of Revelation|Apocalypse of John]], if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the [[Gospel of the Hebrews|Gospel according to the Hebrews]]... And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books."

: "6... such books as the [[Gospel of Peter|Gospels of Peter]], of [[Gospel of Thomas|Thomas]], of [[Gospel of Matthias|Matthias]], or of any others besides them, and the [[Acts of Andrew]] and [[Acts of John|John]] and the other apostles... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious."

The Book of Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the church fathers, it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the [[Diatessaron]]: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle Paul, in order to improve their style."

===4th century and later===
In his Easter letter of 367, [[Athanasius]], Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of the books that would become the twenty-seven-book NT canon,<ref name="LindbergCarter">{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistorychri00lind |url-access=limited |first=Carter |last=Lindberg |page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistorychri00lind/page/n26 15]|year=2006|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=978-1-4051-1078-5}}</ref> and he used the word "canonized" (''kanonizomena'') in regards to them.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brakke |first=David |date=October 1994 |title=Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth-Century Egypt: Athanasius of Alexandria's Thirty-Ninth ''Festal Letter'' |journal=Harvard Theological Review |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=395–419 |doi=10.1017/S0017816000030200 |jstor=1509966|s2cid=161779697 }}</ref> The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the [[Synod of Hippo|Synod of Hippo Regius]] in North Africa (393 AD). The acts of this council are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the [[Council of Carthage (397)]] and the [[Council of Carthage (419)]].{{sfn|McDonald|Sanders|2002|loc=Appendix D-2, note 19|ps=: "Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage."}} These councils were under the authority of [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]], who regarded the canon as already closed.{{sfn|Ferguson|2002|p=320}}{{sfn|Bruce|1988|p=280}}<ref>Augustine. ''De Civitate Dei''. 22.8.</ref>

[[Pope Damasus I]]'s [[Council of Rome]] in 382, if the ''[[Decretum Gelasianum]]'' is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above,<ref name="LindbergCarter" /> or, if not, the list is at least a 6th-century compilation.{{sfn|Bruce|1988|p=234}} Likewise, Damasus' commissioning of the Latin [[Vulgate]] edition of the Bible, {{circa|383}}, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West.{{sfn|Bruce|1988|p=225}} In {{circa|405}}, [[Pope Innocent I]] sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, [[Exuperius|Exsuperius of Toulouse]]. Christian scholars assert that, when these [[bishops]] and councils spoke on the matter, they were not defining something new but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church."{{sfn|Ferguson|2002|p=320}}{{sfn|Metzger|1987|pp=237–238}}{{sfn|Bruce|1988|p=97}}

The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria]], in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm Festal Letter 39]. Also cited is the [[Council of Rome]], but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the [[Third Council of Carthage]] in 397 and 419. The [[Book of Revelation]] was not added till the [[Council of Carthage (419)]].<ref>{{harvnb|McDonald|Sanders|2002|loc=Appendix D-2, note 19}}</ref>

Thus, some claim that, from the [[Christianity in the 4th century#Defining scripture|4th century]], there existed unanimity in the [[Western Church|West]] concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today),{{sfn|Bruce|1988|p=215}} and that, by the [[Christianity in the 5th century|5th century]], the [[Eastern Church]], with a few exceptions, had come to accept the [[Book of Revelation]] and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon.{{sfn|Ackroyd|Evans|1970|p=305}} Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the [[Canon of Trent]] of 1546 for [[Roman Catholicism]], the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of 1563 for the [[Church of England]], the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]] of 1647 for [[Calvinism]], and the [[Synod of Jerusalem (1672)|Synod of Jerusalem]] of 1672 for the [[Greek Orthodox]].

On the question of NT Canon formation generally, New Testament scholar Lee Martin McDonald has written that:<ref>McDonald, Lee M. (1995). ''The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon''. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson. p. 116.</ref>
{{blockquote|
Although a number of Christians have thought that [[church council]]s determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities.}}

According to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the [[Council of Trent|Tridentine Council]]."<ref>{{cite book |last=Reid |first=George |year=1908 |chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm |chapter=Canon of the New Testament |title=The Catholic Encyclopedia |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company}}</ref>

In 331, [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine I]] commissioned Eusebius to deliver [[Fifty Bibles of Constantine|fifty Bibles]] for the [[Church of Constantinople]]. [[Athanasius]] (''Apol. Const. 4'') recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for [[Constans]]. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that [[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209|Codex Vaticanus]] and [[Codex Sinaiticus]] may be examples of these Bibles. Together with the [[Peshitta]] and [[Codex Alexandrinus]], these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.{{sfn|McDonald|Sanders|2002|pp=414–415}} 

==Early manuscripts==
[[File:Papyrus Bodmer VIII.jpg|thumb|Papyrus Bodmer VIII, at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, showing 1 and 2 Peter.]]
[[File:Codex Regius (019).JPG|thumb|The [[Codex Regius (New Testament)|Codex Regius (L or '''019''')]], an 8th-century Greek manuscript of the New Testament with strong affinities to [[Codex Vaticanus]].]]
{{Main|New Testament manuscripts}}

Like other literature from [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], the text of the New Testament was (prior to the advent of the [[printing press]]) preserved and transmitted in [[manuscripts]]. Manuscripts containing at least a part of the New Testament number in the thousands. The earliest of these (like manuscripts containing other literature) are often very fragmentarily preserved. Some of these fragments have even been thought to date as early as the 2nd century (i.e., [[Papyrus 90]], [[Papyrus 98]], [[Papyrus 104]], and famously [[Rylands Library Papyrus P52]], though the early date of the latter has recently been called into question).<ref>For the initial dating of P52, see {{harvnb|Roberts|1935}} and {{harvnb|Bell|Skeat|1935}}. Though see now {{harvnb|Nongbri|2005}} and {{harvnb|Martinez|2009}}.</ref>

==Textual variation==
{{Main|Textual variants in the New Testament|Textual criticism of the New Testament}}
[[Textual criticism]] deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the [[Writing|texts]] of [[manuscripts]]. Ancient [[scribes]] made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|additions]]).{{sfn|Ehrman|2005|p=46}} The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts, 10,000 [[Latin]] manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Ethiopic]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. Even if the original Greek versions were lost, the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998">Strobel, Lee (1998). ''The Case for Christ''. Chapter Three, when quoting biblical scholar [[Bruce Metzger]].</ref>

In addition, there are so many quotes from the New Testament in early church documents and commentaries that the entire New Testament could also be assembled from these alone.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998"/> Not all biblical manuscripts come from orthodox Christian writers. For example, the [[Gnostic]] writings of [[Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentinus]] come from the 2nd century AD, and these Christians were regarded as heretics by the mainstream church.{{sfn|Bruce|1981|p=14}} The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, but it also gives scholars a better idea of how close modern Bibles are to the original versions.{{sfn|Bruce|1981|p=14}}

On noting the large number of surviving ancient manuscripts, [[Bruce Metzger]] sums up the view on the issue by saying "The more often you have copies that agree with each other, especially if they emerge from different geographical areas, the more you can cross-check them to figure out what the original document was like. The only way they'd agree would be where they went back genealogically in a family tree that represents the descent of the manuscripts.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998"/>

===Interpolations===
In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material, centuries after the gospel was written. These are called [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolations]]. In modern translations of the Bible, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. According to [[Bart D. Ehrman]], "These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament, but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries."{{sfn|Ehrman|2005|p=[https://archive.org/details/misquotingjesuss00ehrm/page/265 265]}}

Most modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents. Bible commentaries also discuss these, sometimes in great detail. While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts, almost all have no importance, as they are variations in spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Also, many of these variants are so particular to the Greek language that they would not appear in translations into other languages. For example, order of words (i.e. "man bites dog" versus "dog bites man") often does not matter in Greek, so textual variants that flip the order of words often have no consequences.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998"/>

Outside of these unimportant variants, there are a couple variants of some importance. The two most commonly cited examples are the [[Mark 16|last verses of the Gospel of Mark]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Nave |first=Guy D. |year=2002 |title=The Role and Function of Repentance in Luke-Acts |page=194}}</ref><ref>Spong, John Shelby (26 September 1979). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604055133/http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1256 "The Continuing Christian Need for Judaism"]. ''Christian Century''. p. 918. Archived from [http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1256 the original] on 4 June 2011.</ref><ref>Levine, Amy-Jill; Blickenstaff, Marianne (2001). ''A Feminist Companion to John, Vol. II''. Feminist Companion to the New Testament and Early Christian Writings, Vol. 5. A&C Black. p. 175.</ref> and the story of [[Jesus and the woman taken in adultery]] in the Gospel of John.<ref>{{cite web | title = NETBible: John 7 | publisher = Bible.org | url = https://net.bible.org/#!bible/John+7 | access-date =17 October 2009}} See note 139 on that page.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Keith | first = Chris | title = Recent and Previous Research on the ''Pericope Adulterae'' (John 7.53–8.11) | journal = [[Currents in Biblical Research]] | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 377–404 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1177/1476993X07084793 | s2cid = 145385075 }}</ref>{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc="Pericope adulterae"}} Many scholars and critics also believe that the [[Johannine Comma]] reference supporting the [[Trinity#Theology|Trinity doctrine]] in the [[First Epistle of John]] to have been a later addition.{{sfn|Ehrman|2005|p=80-83|ps=: "on one condition: that his opponents produce a Greeks manuscript in which the verse could be found (finding it in Latin manuscripts was not enough). And so a Greek manuscript was produced. In fact, it was produced for the occasion. It appears that someone copied out the Greek text of the Epistles, and when he came to the passage in question, he translated the Latin text into Greek, giving the Johannine Comma in its familiar, theologically useful form. The manuscript provided to Erasmus, in other words, was a sixteenthcentury production, made to order."}}{{sfn|Metzger|1994}} According to [[Norman Geisler]] and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book—a form that is 99.5% pure".{{sfn|Metzger|1994|p=367}}

[[File:RossanoGospelsChristBeforePilate.jpg|thumb|The [[Rossano Gospels]], sixth century, a representative of [[Byzantine]] text]]

The often referred to ''Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible'', a book written to prove the validity of the New Testament, says: "A study of 150 Greek [manuscripts] of the Gospel of Luke has revealed more than 30,000 different readings... It is safe to say that there is not one sentence in the New Testament in which the [manuscript] is wholly uniform."<ref>{{cite book |last=Parvis |first=M. M. |date=1962 |chapter=Text, [New Testament] |editor1-last=Buttrick |editor1-first=George A. |editor2-last=Kepler |editor2-first=Thomas S. |editor3-last=Knox |editor3-first=John |editor4-last=May |editor4-first=Herbert Gordon |editor5-last=Terrien |editor5-first=Samuel |editor6-last=Bucke |editor6-first=Emory Stevens |title=The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible: An Illustrated Encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/interpretersdict04geor |url-access=registration |volume=4 (R–Z) |location=Nashville |publisher=Abingdon Press |page=595 |isbn=978-0-687-19273-1}}</ref> 

===Biblical criticism===
{{Main|Biblical criticism}}
[[Biblical criticism]] is the scholarly "study and investigation of [[Biblical manuscript|biblical writings]] that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Achtemeier|first=Paul|url=https://archive.org/details/harpersbibledict00tion/page/129/mode/2up|title=Harper's Bible dictionary|publisher=Harper & Row|year=1985|isbn=0060698632|location=San Francisco|pages=129}}</ref> 

===Establishing a critical text===
{{Main|New Testament manuscripts}}
The [[#Textual variation|textual variation]] among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity (e.g., by the 3rd-century Christian author [[Origen]]). The efforts began in earnest again during the [[Renaissance]], which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts. During this period, modern [[textual criticism]] was born. In this context, [[Christian humanism|Christian humanists]] such as [[Lorenzo Valla]] and [[Erasmus]] promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament. This was the beginning of modern [[New Testament textual criticism]], which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts, in more languages (i.e., versions of the New Testament), as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in [[lectionary|lectionaries]] in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it.{{sfn|Metzger|Ehrman|2005}}

==Relationship to earlier and contemporaneous literature==
{{Further|Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible}}
Books that later formed the New Testament, like other Christian literature of the period, originated in a literary context that reveals relationships not only to other Christian writings, but also to [[Classics|Graeco-Roman]] and [[Judaism#Antiquity|Jewish]] works. Of singular importance is the extensive use of and interaction with the [[Tanakh|Jewish Bible]] and what would become the Christian Old Testament. Both implicit and explicit citations, as well as countless allusions, appear throughout the books of the New Testament, from the Gospels and Acts, to the Epistles, to the Apocalypse.<ref>See {{harvnb|Stendahl|1954}}; {{harvnb|Marcus|1993}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1972}}; {{harvnb|Juel|1988}}; and {{harvnb|Barr|1966}}.</ref>

==Early versions==
The first translations (usually called "versions") of the New Testament were made beginning already at the end of 2nd century. The earliest versions of the New Testament are the translations into the [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Latin]], and [[Coptic language|Coptic]] languages.{{sfn|Võõbus|1954|pp=1–128, 211–240}}

===Syriac===
{{Main|Syriac versions of the Bible}}
[[File:RabulaGospelsFolio04vCanonTable.jpg|thumb|The [[Rabbula Gospels]], [[Eusebian Canons]].]]

The [[Philoxenian]] probably was produced in 508 for [[Philoxenus of Mabbug|Bishop Philoxenus of Mabbug]].{{sfn|Metzger|1977|pp=3–98}}

===Coptic===
{{Main|Bible translations into Coptic}}
There are several dialects of the Coptic language: [[Bohairic]] (the [[Nile Delta]]), [[Fayyumic]] (in the [[Faiyum]] in [[Middle Egypt]]), [[Sahidic]] (in [[Upper Egypt]]), [[Akhmimic]] (what is now [[Sohag Governorate]] in Upper Egypt), and others. The first translation was made by at least the third century into the Sahidic dialect (cop<sup>sa</sup>). This translation represents a mixed text, mostly [[Alexandrian text-type|Alexandrian]], though also with [[Western text-type|Western]] readings.{{sfn|Võõbus|1954|pp=216–229}}

A Bohairic translation was made later, but existed already in the 4th century. Though the translation makes less use of Greek words than the Sahidic, it does employ some Greek grammar (e.g., in word-order and the use of particles such as the syntactic construction μεν—δε). For this reason, the Bohairic translation can be helpful in the reconstruction of the early Greek text of the New Testament.{{sfnm |Võõbus|1954|1pp=229–237 |Metzger|1977|2pp=99–152}}

===Other ancient translations===
{{Main|Early translations of the New Testament}}
[[File:Matthew's Gospel - British Library Add. MS 59874 Ethiopian Bible.jpg|thumb|BL Add. MS 59874 with [[Ethiopic]] [[Gospel of Matthew]].]]
The continued spread of Christianity, and the foundation of national churches, led to the translation of the Bible—often beginning with books from the New Testament—into a variety of other languages at a relatively early date: [[Bible translations into Armenian|Armenian]], [[Bible translations into Georgian|Georgian]], [[Ethiopic]], [[Bible translations into Persian|Persian]], [[Bible translations into Sogdian|Sogdian]], and eventually [[Gothic Bible|Gothic]], [[Bible translations into Church Slavonic|Old Church Slavonic]], [[Bible translations into Arabic|Arabic]], and [[Bible translations into Nubian|Nubian]].<ref>On the Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Gothic, see {{harvnb|Võõbus|1954|pp=133–210, 243–309}}</ref>

==Modern translations==
{{Main|Bible translations}}

[[File:Albert Gebhard - Gustav Vasa and Mikael Agricola.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mikael Agricola]] hands over the Finnish-language translation, ''[[Se Wsi Testamenti]]'', to King [[Gustav I of Sweden|Gustav Wasa of Sweden]] in 1548.]]
The 16th century saw the rise of [[Protestantism]] and an explosion of translations of the New (and Old) Testament into the [[vernacular]]. Notable are those of [[Luther Bible|Martin Luther]] (1522), [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples]] (1523), the [[Zürich Bible|Froschau Bible]] (1525–1529, revised in 1574), [[Tyndale Bible|William Tyndale]] (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536), the [[Brest Bible]] (1563), and the [[Authorized King James Version|Authorized Version]] (also called the "King James Version") (1611).

Translations of the New Testament made since the appearance of critical editions of the Greek text (notably those of [[Constantin von Tischendorf|Tischendorf]], [[The New Testament in the Original Greek|Westcott and Hort]], and [[Von Soden catalogue|von Soden]]) have largely used them as their [[Source text|base text]]. Unlike the [[Textus Receptus]], they have a pronounced Alexandrian character. Standard critical editions are those of [[Novum Testamentum Graece|Nestle-Åland]] (the text, though not the full critical apparatus of which is reproduced in the [[United Bible Societies]]' "Greek New Testament"), [[Alexander Souter|Souter]], Vogels, Bover and Merk.

Notable translations of the New Testament based on these most recent critical editions include the [[Revised Standard Version]] (1946, revised in 1971), [[:fr:La Bible de Jérusalem|La Bible de Jérusalem]] (1961, revised in 1973 and 2000), the [[Einheitsübersetzung]] (1970, final edition 1979), the [[New American Bible]] (1970, revised in 1986 and 2011), the [[New International Version]] (1973, revised in 1984 and 2011), the [[Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible]] (1988, revised in 2004), the [[New Revised Standard Version]] (1989) and the [[English Standard Version]] (2001, revised in 2007, 2011 and 2016).

==Theological interpretation in Christian churches==
{{Main|New Testament theology}}
According to Gary T. Meadors:
{{Blockquote|The self-witness of the Bible to its inspiration demands a commitment to its unity. The ultimate basis for unity is contained in the claim of divine inspiration in 2 Timothy 3:16<ref>{{Bibleref2|2tim|3:16||2&nbsp;Timothy 3:16}}</ref> that "all Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness" (KJV). The term "inspiration" renders the Greek word ''theopneustos''. This term only occurs here in the New Testament and literally means "God-breathed" (the chosen translation of the NIV).<ref name=Elwell>Meadors, Gary T. (1997). [http://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/bakers-evangelical-dictionary/scripture-unity-and-diversity-of.html "Scripture, Unity and Diversity of"]. In Elwell, Walter A. (ed.). ''Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.'' Grand Rapids: Baker Books.</ref>  }}

===Unity in diversity===
The notion of [[unity in diversity]] of Scripture claims that the Bible presents a noncontradictory and consistent message concerning God and redemptive history. The fact of diversity is observed in comparing the diversity of time, culture, authors' perspectives, literary genre, and the theological themes.<ref name=Elwell/>

Studies from many theologians considering the "unity in diversity" to be found in the New Testament (and the Bible as a whole) have been collected and summarized by New Testament theologian [[Frank Stagg (theologian)|Frank Stagg]]. He describes them as some basic presuppositions, tenets, and concerns common among the New Testament writers, giving to the New Testament its "unity in diversity":
#The reality of God is never argued but is always assumed and affirmed
#Jesus Christ is absolutely central: he is Lord and Savior, the foretold Prophet, the Messianic King, the Chosen, the way, the truth, and the light, the One through whom God the Father not only acted but through whom He came
#The Holy Spirit came anew with Jesus Christ.
#The Christian faith and life are a calling, rooted in divine election.
#The plight of everyone as sinner means that each person is completely dependent upon the mercy and grace of God
#Salvation is both God's gift and his demand through Jesus Christ, to be received by faith
#The death and resurrection of Jesus are at the heart of the total event of which he was the center
#God creates a people of his own, designated and described by varied terminology and analogies
#History must be understood eschatologically, being brought along toward its ultimate goal when the kingdom of God, already present in Christ, is brought to its complete triumph
#In Christ, all of God's work of creation, revelation, and redemption is brought to fulfillment<ref name="Stagg">Stagg, Frank (1962). ''New Testament Theology''. Broadman. {{ISBN|0-8054-1613-7}}.</ref>

===Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Classical Anglicanism===
For the [[Roman Catholic Church]], there are two modes of Revelation: Scripture and [[Sacred tradition|Tradition]]. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] (1997):
<blockquote>
§ 82: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.
<br />
§ 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
</blockquote>In Catholic terminology the teaching office is called the [[Magisterium]]. The Catholic view should not be confused with the two-source theory. As the Catechism states in §§ 80 and 81, Revelation has "one common source ... two distinct modes of transmission."<ref>[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p1s1c2a2.htm "The Transmission of Divine Revelation"]. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''. 2nd ed. 1997.</ref>

While many [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition, Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith, Holy Tradition, within which Scripture exists.<ref>Ware, Kallistos (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2Z8bVDVMLEC&pg=PT243 "Holy Tradition: The Source of the Orthodox Faith"].''The Orthodox Church''. Penguin UK.</ref>

Traditional [[Anglican Communion|Anglicans]] believe that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation", (Article VI), but also that the Catholic Creeds "ought thoroughly to be received and believed" (Article VIII), and that the Church "hath authority in Controversies of Faith" and is "a witness and keeper of Holy Writ" (Article XX).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anglicansonline.org/basics/thirty-nine_articles.html |title=Articles of Religion |publisher=Anglicans Online |access-date=19 November 2010}}</ref> 

In the famous words of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells: "As for my religion, I dye in the holy catholic and apostolic faith professed by the whole Church before the disunion of East and West, more particularly in the communion of the Church of England, as it stands distinguished from all Papal and Puritan innovations, and as it adheres to the doctrine of the Cross."{{quote without source|date=September 2021}}

===Protestantism===
Following the doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]'', Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reevaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in [[Liberal Protestant]] traditions even to the reevaluation of the [[doctrine of Scripture]] upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. The adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of scripture vary widely.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

====American evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism====
{{Undue weight section|date=May 2025}}
{{Notability|date=May 2025}}
Within the US, the [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] (1978) articulates evangelical views on this issue.{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}{{according to whom|date=May 2025}} Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reformed.org/documents/index.html?mainframe=http://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html |title=The Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy |publisher=Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics |access-date=19 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301054307/http://www.reformed.org/documents/index.html?mainframe=http://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html|archive-date=2017-03-01|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====American mainline and liberal Protestantism====
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2021}}
{{Undue weight section|date=May 2025}}
Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail."<ref>{{cite news |last=Chismar |first=Janet |date=20 June 2001 |title=Homosexual Ordination Vote Widens Gap Between Presbyterian Factions |url=https://www.christianheadlines.com/articles/homosexual-ordination-vote-widens-gap-between-presbyterian-factions-526076.html |work=Religion Today |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524162339/https://www.christianheadlines.com/articles/homosexual-ordination-vote-widens-gap-between-presbyterian-factions-526076.html |archive-date=24 May 2021 |via=www.christianheadlines.com}}</ref>

===Messianic Judaism===
[[Messianic Judaism]] generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants.<ref name="Beit Simcha">{{cite web
 | url         = http://www.beitsimcha.org/our-beliefs/
 | title       = Our Beliefs
 | publisher   = Beit Simcha
 | access-date  = 7 June 2012
 | quote       = To study the whole and authoritative Word of God, including the Tenach (Hebrew Scriptures) and the B'rit Chadasha (New Covenant) under the leading of the Holy Spirit.
}}
</ref> According to the view of some Messianic Jewish congregations, Jesus did not annul the Torah, but that its interpretation is revised and ultimately explained through the Apostolic Scriptures.<ref name="KehilatTNuvahSOF1">{{cite web
 |url         = http://www.graftedin.com/essential-statement-of-faith/
 |title       = Essential Statement of Faith
 |access-date  = 7 June 2012
 |publisher   = The Harvest: A Messianic Charismatic Congregation
 |quote       = We believe that the Torah (five books of Moses) is a comprehensive summary of God's foundational laws and ways, as found in both the Tanakh and Apostolic Scriptures. Additionally, the Bible teaches that without holiness no man can see God. We believe in the Doctrine of Sanctification as a definite, yet progressive work of grace, commencing at the time of regeneration and continuing until the consummation of salvation. Therefore we encourage all believers, both Jews and Gentiles, to affirm, embrace, and practice these foundational laws and ways as clarified through the teachings of Messiah Yeshua.
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20151127195443/http://www.graftedin.com/essential-statement-of-faith/
 |archive-date = 27 November 2015
 |df          = dmy-all
}}</ref>

===Jehovah's Witnesses===
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] accept the New Testament as divinely inspired Scripture, and as infallible in every detail, with equal authority as the Hebrew Scriptures. They view it as the written revelation and good news of the [[Messiah]], the [[Atonement in Christianity|ransom sacrifice of Jesus]], and the [[Kingdom of God]], explaining and expounding the Hebrew Bible, not replacing but vitally supplementing it. They also view the New Testament as the primary instruction guide for Christian living, and [[church discipline]]. They generally call the New Testament the "Christian Greek Scriptures", and see only the "covenants" as "old" or "new", but not any part of the actual Scriptures themselves.<ref>{{cite book |date=1946 |title=Equipped for Every Good Work |url=https://archive.org/download/WatchtowerLibrary/1946_eqd_E.pdf |location=Brooklyn, New York |publisher=Watchtower Bible and Tract Society & International Bible Students Association |pages=12–13}}</ref>

===United Pentecostals===
[[Oneness Pentecostalism]] subscribes to the common Protestant doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]''. They view the Bible as the inspired Word of God, and as absolutely [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation).<ref>See, for example, {{cite web |last=Raddatz |first=Tom |date=26 October 2000 |url=http://www.1lord1faith.org/wm/Oneness/1TrinDebate.htm |title=A Response to the Oneness-Trinity Debate |publisher=1Lord1Faith.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050320000616/http://www.1lord1faith.org/wm/Oneness/1TrinDebate.htm |archive-date=20 March 2005}}</ref><ref>Dulle, Jason. [http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/howgetbible.htm "How We Get Our Bible"]. Institute for Biblical Studies. Retrieved 15 April 2013.</ref> They regard the New Testament as perfect and inerrant in every way, revealing the Lord Jesus Christ in the Flesh, and his Atonement, and which also explains and illuminates the Old Testament perfectly, and is part of the Bible canon, not because church councils or decrees claimed it so, but by witness of the Holy Spirit.<ref>Dulle, Jason. [http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/inerrancycanon.htm "Defending the Inerrancy and Canon of Scripture"]. Institute for Biblical Studies. Retrieved 15 April 2013.</ref><ref>Dulle, Jason. [http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/inspiration.htm "The Nature of Inspiration"]. Institute for Biblical Studies. Retrieved 15 April 2013.</ref>

===Seventh-day Adventists===
The [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] holds the New Testament as the inspired Word of God, with God influencing the "thoughts" of the Apostles in the writing, not necessarily every word though. The first fundamental belief of the Seventh-Day Adventist church stated that "The Holy Scriptures are the [[Biblical infallibility|infallible]] revelation of [God's] will." [[Seventh-day Adventist theology|Adventist theologians]] generally reject the "verbal inspiration" position on Scripture held by many conservative [[evangelical Christians]]. They believe instead that God inspired the thoughts of the biblical authors and apostles, and that the writers then expressed these thoughts in their own words.<ref>{{cite book|title=Seventh-day Adventists Believe|author=Ministerial Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists |year=2005 |publisher=Pacific Press Publishing Association |edition=2nd |pages=14–16}}</ref> This view is popularly known as "thought inspiration", and most Adventist members hold to that view. According to Ed Christian, former ''[[Journal of the Adventist Theological Society|JATS]]'' editor, "few if any [[Adventist Theological Society|ATS]] members believe in verbal inerrancy".<ref>{{cite web |last=McLarty |first=John |url=http://www.atoday.com/magazine/2001/11/adventist-theological-society-0 |title=The Adventist Theological Society |website=Adventist Today |date=15 November 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225063148/http://www.atoday.com/magazine/2001/11/adventist-theological-society-0 |archive-date=25 December 2007 }}</ref>

How the [[Mosaic Law]] should be applied came up at Adventist conferences in the past, and Adventist theologians such as [[A. T. Jones]] and [[E. J. Waggoner]] looked at the problem addressed by Paul in [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] as not the ceremonial law, but rather the wrong use of the law ([[legalism (theology)|legalism]]). They were opposed by [[Uriah Smith]] and [[George Ide Butler|George Butler]] at the 1888 Conference. Smith in particular thought the Galatians issue had been settled by Ellen White already, yet in 1890 she claimed that justification by faith is "the [[Three Angels' Messages|third angel's message]] in verity."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=E. G. |title=Repentance the Gift of God |journal=Advent Review and Sabbath Herald |date=1 April 1890 |volume=67 |issue=13 |pages=193–94 |url=https://documents.adventistarchives.org/Periodicals/RH/RH18900401-V67-13.pdf |access-date=30 December 2020|quote=Several have written to me, inquiring if the message of justification by faith is the third angel's message, and I have answered, "it is the third angel's message in verity." ... Brightness, glory, and power are to be connected with the third angel's message, and conviction will follow wherever it is preached in demonstration of the Spirit.}}</ref> White interpreted Colossians 2:14<ref>{{bibleverse||Colossians|2:14|NIV}}</ref> as saying that the ceremonial law was nailed to the cross.<ref>White, Ellen (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=yKqXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT409 ''Patriarchs and Prophets'']. Start Publishing LLC. p. 365.</ref>

===Latter-day Saints===
Members of [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) believe that the New Testament, as part of the [[Christian biblical canons|Christian biblical canon]], is accurate "as far as it is translated correctly".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mormon.org/articles-of-faith |title=Articles of Faith |publisher=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531162806/http://mormon.org/articles-of-faith |archive-date=31 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> They believe the Bible as originally revealed is the word of God, but that the processes of transcription and translation have introduced errors into the texts as currently available, and therefore they cannot be regarded as completely inerrant.<ref name="Givens2015">{{cite book|first=Terry L.|last=Givens|title=The Oxford Handbook of Mormonism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7c0fCgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977836-2|pages=124–25}}</ref><ref name="LDSInerrancy">{{cite web|url=https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/bible-inerrancy-of?lang=eng|title=Bible, Inerrancy of|date=2016|publisher=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|access-date=23 May 2016}}</ref> In addition to the Old and New Testaments, the [[Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ|Book of Mormon]], the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] and the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] are considered part of their scriptural canon.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Ludlow |editor-first=Daniel H. |editor-link=Daniel H. Ludlow |title=Encyclopedia of Mormonism |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo01ludl |url-access=registration |date=1992 |volume=1 |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-02-879600-4|pages=106–107}}</ref><ref name="PaulsenMusser2007">{{cite book|last1=Paulsen|first1=David Lamont|author-link1=David L. Paulsen|last2=Musser|first2=Donald W.|title=Mormonism in Dialogue with Contemporary Christian Theologies|url=https://archive.org/details/mormonismindialo00paul|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=978-0-88146-083-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/mormonismindialo00paul/page/277 277]}}</ref>

[[File:Codex Harcleianus.PNG|thumb|right|A Byzantine lectionary, ''[[Lectionary 150|Codex Harleianus]]'' (''l''<sup>150</sup>), 995 AD, text of John 1:18.]]

==In the arts==
{{Further|Nativity of Jesus in art|Passion play}}
[[File:GaudenzioFerrari StorieCristo Varallo2.jpg|thumb|[[Gaudenzio Ferrari]]'s ''Stories of the Life and Passion of Christ'', fresco, 1513, Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Varallo Sesia, Italy. Depicting the life of Jesus]]{{Listen|filename=G.F.Händel-Halleluja_hoerprobe.ogg|title="Hallelujah" chorus|right|image=none|description=The text of the famous "Hallelujah" chorus in G. F. Händel's ''Messiah'' is drawn from three passages in the Book of Revelation: 19:6, 11:5, and 19:16 (audio clip from the German translation of the ''Messiah'').|format=[[Ogg]]}} Most of the influence of the New Testament upon [[the arts]] has come from the [[Gospels]] and the [[Book of Revelation]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Literary expansion of the [[Nativity of Jesus]] found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke began already in the 2nd century, and the portrayal of the Nativity has continued in various art forms to this day. The [[Early Christian art|earliest Christian art]] would often depict scenes from the New Testament such as the [[raising of Lazarus]], the [[baptism of Jesus]] or the motif of the [[Good Shepherd]].

[[Biblical paraphrase]]s and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the [[Heliand]]) became popular in the [[Middle Ages]], as did the portrayal of the [[Arrest of Jesus|arrest]], [[Trial of Jesus|trial]] and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|execution]] of Jesus in [[Passion play]]s. Indeed, the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] became a central theme in Christian [[Crucifixion in the arts|art]] and [[Passion (music)|music]]. The [[:Category:Portrayals of Jesus in film|ministry]] and [[Passion (Christianity)#Film|Passion]] of Jesus, as portrayed in one or more of the [[:Category:Films based on the Gospels|New Testament Gospels]], has also been a theme in film, almost since the inception of the medium (e.g., ''La Passion'', France, 1903).

==See also==
* [[Authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews]]
* [[Catalogue of Vices and Virtues]]
* [[Chronology of Jesus]]
* [[Earlier Epistle to the Ephesians]] Non-canonical books referenced in the New Testament
* [[Historical background of the New Testament]]
* [[Life of Jesus in the New Testament]]
* [[List of Gospels]]
* [[Novum Testamentum Graece]]

{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}<references group="note" />
==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Ackroyd | editor1-first = P. R.| editor2-last=Evans | editor2-first = C. F. |title=The Cambridge History of the Bible, Vol. 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1970 }}
* {{cite book |last=Barr |first=James |author-link=James Barr (biblical scholar) |date=1966 |title=Old and New in Interpretation: A Study of the Two Testaments |location=London |publisher=SCM}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=H. Idris |author-link1=Idris Bell |last2=Skeat |first2=T. C. |author-link2=Theodore Cressy Skeat |year=1935 |title=Fragments of an Unknown Gospel and Other Early Christian Papyri |location=London |publisher=Trustees of the British Museum}}
*{{Cite book
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}}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Raymond E. |author-link=Raymond E. Brown |year=1997 |title=An Introduction to the New Testament |series=[[Anchor Bible]] |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=9780385247672 |oclc=1035750767}}
* {{cite book | last=Brown | first=Raymond E. | author-link=Raymond E. Brown | title=The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary | publisher=Liturgical Press | year=1988 | isbn=978-0-8146-1283-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JIM0Q0bjgYkC&pg=PA9}}
* {{cite book |last=Bruce |first=F. F. |author-link=F. F. Bruce |year=1952 |orig-year=1951 |title=The Acts of the Apostles: The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles0000bruc |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |location=London |publisher=Tyndale Press |oclc=1244214359}}
* {{cite book |last=Bruce |first=F. F. |year=1981 |author-link1=F. F. Bruce |title=The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? |publisher=InterVarsity Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Bruce |first=F. F. |year=1988 |author-link=F. F. Bruce |title=The Canon of Scripture |location=Downers Grove, IL |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=9780830812585}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Burge |first1=Gary M. |year=2014 |author1-link=Gary M. Burge |title=The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus  |editor1-last=Evans |editor1-first=Craig A. |editor1-link=Craig A. Evans |publisher=Routledge |chapter=Gospel of John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StasAgAAQBAJ |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=StasAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 |isbn=978-1-317-72224-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burkett|first=Delbert|title=An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC|isbn=978-0-521-00720-7}}
* {{Cite book|first=J.R.C.|last=Cousland|editor-first4=Pheme|editor-last4=Perkins|editor-first1=Michael David|editor-last1=Coogan|editor-first2=Marc Zvi|editor-last2=Brettler|editor-first3=Carol Ann|editor-last3=Newsom|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2010|page=1744|isbn=978-0-19-528955-8}}
* {{cite book|first=J.R.C.|last=Cousland|editor-first1=Michael David|editor-last1=Coogan|editor-first2=Marc Zvi|editor-last2=Brettler|editor-first3=Carol Ann|editor-last3=Newsom|editor-first4=Pheme|editor-last4=Perkins|title=The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T05WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1380|date=1 March 2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-027605-8|page=1380}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |editor1-link=F. L. Cross |editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=E. A. |editor2-link=Elizabeth Livingstone |year=2005 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=3rd rev. |isbn=9780192802903}}
* {{Cite book |last=Culpepper |first=R. Alan |chapter=The Christology of the Johannine Writings |editor1-last=Kingsbury |editor1-first=Jack Dean |editor2-last=Powell |editor2-first=Mark Allan Powell |editor3-last=Bauer |editor3-first=David R. |title=Who Do You Say that I Am?: Essays on Christology |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1999 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rn6wk-ipDVQC |isbn=9780664257521}}
*{{Cite book
 |last          = Davidson
 |first         = Robert
 |chapter       = Jeremiah, Book of
 |editor1-last  = Metzger
 |editor1-first = Bruce M.
 |editor2-last  = Coogan
 |editor2-first = Michael D.
 |title         = The Oxford Companion to the Bible
 |publisher     = Oxford University Press
 |year          = 1993
 |url           = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458
 |url-access    = registration
 |isbn          = 9780199743919
}}
* {{cite book |last=Edwards |first=James R. |year=2015 |author-link=James R. Edwards |title=The Gospel According to Luke |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3735-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=1997|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508481-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=1999|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=2000|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to Early Christian Writings.|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=2003|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA235|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518249-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=2004a|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|orig-year=1997|title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-515462-2|edition=3rd|url=https://archive.org/details/newtestamenthist0000ehrm_g7n1|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=2004b|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code: A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine|url=https://archive.org/details/truthfictionin00ehrm|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|isbn=978-0-19-534616-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D.|year=2005|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-073817-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/misquotingjesuss00ehrm/page/265 |url-access=registration }}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=2006|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=The Lost Gospel of Judas Iscariot: A New Look at Betrayer and Betrayed|url=https://archive.org/details/lostgospelofjuda00ehrm|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-971104-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|year=2009|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why We Don't Know About Them)|location=New York|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-0-06-117393-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Everett |year=2002 |author-link=Everett Ferguson |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxW-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT345 |chapter=Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon |editor-last1=McDonald |editor-first1=L. M. |editor-last2=Sanders |editor-first2=J. A. |title=The Canon Debate |publisher=Hendrickson |isbn=978-1-4412-4163-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/canondebate0000unse |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=Donald |year=1990 |author-link=Donald Guthrie (theologian) |title=New Testament Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/newtestamentintr0000guth_k1x5 |url-access=registration |edition=4th (revised) |location=Downers Grove, Illinois |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=0-85111-761-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |year=1980 |author-link=Stephen L. Harris|title=Understanding the Bible: A Reader's Guide and Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TGJKeHOmGhwC|publisher=Mayfield Pub. Co.|isbn=978-0-87484-472-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |year=1985 |author-link=Stephen L. Harris |title=Understanding the Bible |location=Palo Alto, California |publisher=Mayfield}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |year=2006 |author-link=Stephen L. Harris|title=Understanding the Bible |publisher=McGraw-Hill |edition=7th |isbn=978-0-07-296548-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAsoAAAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Harris|first=Stephen L.|year=2010|author-link=Stephen L. Harris|title=Understanding The Bible|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U-yAQQAACAAJ|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-340744-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Juel |first=Donald |author-link=Donald Juel |year=1988 |title=Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Fortress}}
* {{cite book |last=Knox |first=Wilfred L. |author-link=Wilfred Knox |date=1948 |title=The Acts of the Apostles |url=https://archive.org/details/actsofapostles0000knox |url-access=registration |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew |year=2005 |title=Gospel According to St John: Black's New Testament Commentaries  |author-link=Andrew T. Lincoln |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYmxAwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-4411-8822-9}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Lindars|first1=Barnabas|author-link1 = Barnabas Lindars |last2=Edwards|first2=Ruth B.|last3=Court|first3=John M.|year=2000|title=The Johannine Literature|publisher=Sheffield Academic Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVOD0PhayhsC&pg=PA41|isbn=978-1841270814}}
* {{Cite book |last=Machen|first=John Gresham|date=1998|author-link=J. Gresham Machen|orig-date=1923|url=https://archive.org/details/newtestamentgree00mach/page/4/mode/2up|title=The New Testament Greek for Beginners|isbn=978-1579101800}}
* {{cite book |last=Marcus |first=Joel |year=1993|title=The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark |series=Studies of the New Testament and its World |location=Edinburgh |publisher=T&T Clark |isbn= 978-0567096371}}
* {{cite book |last=Martinez |first=David G. |year=2009 |chapter=The Papyri and Early Christianity |editor-last=Bagnall |editor-first=Roger S. |editor-link=Roger S. Bagnall |title=The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=590–623}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=McDonald |editor-first1=Lee M |editor-last2=Sanders |editor-first2=James A. |year=2002 |editor-link2=James A. Sanders |title=The Canon Debate |location=Peadbody, Massachusetts |publisher=Hendrickson |isbn=1-56563-517-5 |url= https://archive.org/details/canondebate0000unse |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Bruce M.|year=1977 |author-link=Bruce M. Metzger |title=The Early Versions of the New Testament |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Bruce M.|year=1987 |author-link=Bruce M. Metzger |title=The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon |isbn=0-19-826180-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/canonofnewtestam0000metz |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Bruce M.|year=1994 |author-link=Bruce M. Metzger |title=A Textual Commentary on the New Testament |edition=2nd |publisher=German Bible Society }}
* {{cite book |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |author-link1=Bruce M. Metzger |last2=Ehrman |first2=Bart D. |author-link2=Bart D. Ehrman |year=2005 |orig-year=1964 |title=The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration |edition=4th |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=1245822346 |url=https://archive.org/details/textofnewtestame0000metz_k4t1 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nersessian|first=Vrej|year=2001|author-link=Vrej Nersessian|chapter=The Armenian Canon of the New Testament|title=The Bible in the Armenian Tradition|location=Los Angeles, CA|publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum|isbn=978-0-89236-640-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7tSkalMzNvkC&pg=PA29 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Nongbri |first=Brent |year=2005 |title=The Use and Abuse of P52: Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel |journal=Harvard Theological Review |volume=98 |pages=23–52 |doi=10.1017/S0017816005000842|s2cid=163128006 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Perkins|first=Pheme|year=2009|author-link=Pheme Perkins|title=Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMUZhdgmOR8C|publisher=Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-6553-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Petersen |first=William L. |chapter=The Diatessaron and the Fourfold Gospel |editor1-last=Horton |editor1-first=Charles |title=The Earliest Gospels |publisher=Bloomsbury |year=2010 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0eYRBwAAQBAJ |isbn=9780567000972}}
* {{Cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |year=2009 |author-link=Mark Allan Powell |title=Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |publisher=Baker Academic |isbn=978-0-8010-2868-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe/page/431}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Roberts |editor-first=C. H. |editor-link=Colin Henderson Roberts |year=1935 |title=An Unpublished Fragment of the Fourth Gospel in the John Rylands Library |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/unpublishedfragm0000robe/page/n9/mode/2up |url-access=registration |oclc=1245905274}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Sanders |first=E. P. |author-link=E. P. Sanders |year=2010 |title=Jesus Christ |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ |access-date=27 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503100711/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ |archive-date=3 May 2015}}
* {{cite book |last=Schnelle |first=Udo |author-link=Udo Schnelle |year=1998 |title=The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings |location=Minneapolis |publisher=Fortress Press}}
* {{cite book | last=Schubert | first=Judith | title=The Gospel of John: Question by Question | publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-5326-0727-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ov8cDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA16}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=D. Moody |year=1972 |orig-year= |chapter=The Use of the Old Testament in the New |title=The Use of the Old Testament in the New and Other Essays: Studies in Honor of William Franklin |location=Durham, North Carolina |publisher=Duke University Press |pages=3–65}}
* {{cite book |last=Stendahl |first=Krister |author-link=Krister Stendahl |year=1954 |title=The School of St. Matthew and Its Use of the Old Testament |series=Acta Seminarii Neotestamentici Upsaliensis |volume=XX |location=Uppsala |publisher=Almqvist and Wiksells}}
* {{Cite book |last=Van der Watt |first=Jan |year=2008 |author-link=Jan van der Watt |title=An Introduction to the Johannine Gospel and Letters |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-567-52174-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nRJDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Võõbus |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Võõbus |year=1954 |title=Early Versions of the New Testament |location=Stockholm |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyversionsofn0000vbus |url-access=registration |series=Papers of the Estonian Theological Society in Exile |volume=6}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* [[Rudolf Bultmann|Bultmann, Rudolf]] (1951–1955). ''Theology of the New Testament'', English translation, 2 volumes. New York: Scribner.
* von Campenhausen, Hans (1972). ''The Formation of the Christian Bible'', English translation. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
* Clark, Gordon (1990). "Logical Criticisms of Textual Criticism", The Trinity Foundation: Jefferson, Maryland
* [[Hans Conzelmann|Conzelmann, Hans]]; Lindemann, Andreas (1999). ''Interpreting the New Testament: An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of New Testament Exegesis'', English translation. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson.
* Dormeyer, Detlev (1998). ''The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity'', English translation. Sheffield.
* Duling, Dennis C.; [[Norman Perrin|Perrin, Norman]] (1993). ''The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History'', 3rd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace.
* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]] (2011). ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings'', 5th edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
* [[Edgar J. Goodspeed|Goodspeed, Edgar J.]] (1937). ''An Introduction to the New Testament''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* [[Amy-Jill Levine|Levine, Amy-Jill]]; [[Marc Zvi Brettler|Brettler, Marc Z.]] (2011). ''The Jewish Annotated New Testament''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* [[Helmut Koester|Koester, Helmut]] (1995 and 2000). ''Introduction to the New Testament'', 2nd edition, 2 volumes. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
* Kümmel, Werner Georg (1996). ''Introduction to the New Testament'', revised and enlarged English translation. Nashville: Abingdon Press.
* [[Burton L. Mack|Mack, Burton L.]] (1995). ''Who Wrote the New Testament?''. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco.
* {{cite book|last=Myles|first=Robert J.|year=2019|title=Class Struggle in the New Testament|location=Lanham|publisher=Fortress Academic|isbn=978-1-9787-0209-7}}
* [[Stephen Neill|Neill, Stephen]]; Wright, Tom (1988). ''The Interpretation of the New Testament, 1861–1986'', new edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* [https://www.beesondivinity.com/directory/Thielman-Frank Thielman, Frank]. ''Theology of the New Testament: a Canonical and Synthetic Approach'', [[Zondervan]], 2005.
* [[Garry Wills|Wills, Garry]], "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of [[David Bentley Hart]], ''The New Testament: A Translation'', [[Yale University Press]], 577 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp.&nbsp;34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament.
* [[Theodor Zahn|Zahn, Theodor]] (1910). ''Introduction to the New Testament'', English translation, 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

==External links==
{{commons category|New Testament}}
{{Wikisource|Portal:Christianity#Scriptures|"Scriptures" in Christianity portal}}
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Καινή Διαθήκη|New Testament}}
{{wikiquote}}

===General references===
*[http://www.ntgateway.com/ New Testament Gateway] Annotated guide to academic New Testament Web resources including not only other Web sites, but articles and course materials
*[http://JewishStudies.eteacherbiblical.com/ Jewish Studies for Christians] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209024142/http://jewishstudies.eteacherbiblical.com/ |date=9 December 2019 }} An Online Study Group exploring the Jewish setting of the early Jesus movement. (An Israeli blog led by Dr. Eliyahu Lizorkin-Eyzenberg).
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100815203224/http://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/introduction-to-new-testament "Introduction to New Testament History and Literature" course materials] "Open Yale course" taught at Yale University by Dale B. Martin
*[http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/newt New Testament Reading Room]: Extensive on-line New Testament resources (including reference works, commentaries, translations, atlases, language tools, and works on New Testament theology), Tyndale Seminary
*[https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/nt.php Biblicalstudies.org.uk New Testament pages] Bibliographies on the New Testament and its individual books
*[https://www.biblestudytools.com/lexicons/greek/ New Testament Greek Lexicon] Bible Study Tools offers two Bible versions, King James and New American Standard, for studying within the New Testament lexicons.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120114133638/http://www.wlsessays.net/subject/N/New+Testament Pastoral articles on the New Testament for ministerial training] Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary (WELS)
* [http://www.haaretz.com/culture/books/that-most-jewish-of-books-1.427292 Jewish reading of the New Testament] Haaretz essay on reclaiming the New Testament as an integral part of Jewish literature
*[https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.NEWTESTCLUB Guide to the University of Chicago New Testament Club Records 1894–1958] at the [https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/scrc/ University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center]

===Development and authorship===
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_ntb1.htm The Gospels] in the official canon, and some that were not included in the Bible
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100210001441/http://www.errantskeptics.org/DatingNT.htm Dating the New Testament] A compilation of the dates ascribed by various scholars to the composition of the New Testament documents, accompanied by an odd statistical average of the dates

===Greek===
*[http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/new-testament/default.asp New Testament Koine Greek Original] Side by side with the English (King James) and [[Russian Synodal Bible|Russian (Synodal) translation]] Commentary by the Greek Fathers&nbsp;– Icons from [[Mount Athos]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120406173350/http://users.otenet.gr/~gmcr New Testament, Greek Polytonic Text according to Ecumenical Patriarchate] ''(Greek)''
*[http://www.greekbible.com/ Greek New Testament text (searchable only; no downloads) with lexical aids]

=== Art ===

* [https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23668 Collection: "Christian New Testament"] from the [[University of Michigan Museum of Art]]
* [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/keywords/new-testament/ New Testament art] from the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
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[[Category:New Testament| ]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Greek literature (post-classical)]]
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